Maxwell's Equations

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Maxwell's Equations 2 1. Maxwell’s Equations the receiving antennas. Away from the sources, that is, in source-free regions of space, 1 Maxwell’s equations take the simpler form: ∂B ∇∇×E =− Maxwell’s Equations ∂t ∂D ∇∇×H = ∂t (source-free Maxwell’s equations) (1.1.2) ∇∇·D = 0 ∇∇·B = 0 The qualitative mechanism by which Maxwell’s equations give rise to propagating electromagnetic fields is shown in the figure below. 1.1 Maxwell’s Equations Maxwell’s equations describe all (classical) electromagnetic phenomena: ∂B ∇∇×E =− ∂t For example, a time-varying current J on a linear antenna generates a circulating and time-varying magnetic field H, which through Faraday’s law generates a circulating ∂D ∇∇×H = J + electric field E, which through Amp`ere’s law generates a magnetic field, and so on. The ∂t (Maxwell’s equations) (1.1.1) cross-linked electric and magnetic fields propagate away from the current source. A ∇∇·D = ρ more precise discussion of the fields radiated by a localized current distribution is given in Chap. 15. ∇∇·B = 0 The first is Faraday’s law of induction, the second is Amp`ere’s law as amended by Maxwell to include the displacement current ∂D/∂t, the third and fourth are Gauss’ laws 1.2 Lorentz Force for the electric and magnetic fields. The force on a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of an electric and mag- The displacement current term ∂D/∂t in Amp`ere’s law is essential in predicting the netic field E, B is called the Lorentz force and is given by: existence of propagating electromagnetic waves. Its role in establishing charge conser- vation is discussed in Sec. 1.7. F = q(E + v × B) (Lorentz force) (1.2.1) Eqs. (1.1.1) are in SI units. The quantities E and H are the electric and magnetic field intensities and are measured in units of [volt/m] and [ampere/m], respectively. Newton’s equation of motion is (for non-relativistic speeds): The quantities D and B are the electric and magnetic flux densities and are in units of 2 2 dv [coulomb/m ] and [weber/m ], or [tesla]. D is also called the electric displacement, and m = F = q(E + v × B) (1.2.2) B, the magnetic induction. dt The quantities ρ and J are the volume charge density and electric current density where m is the mass of the charge. The force F will increase the kinetic energy of the (charge flux) of any external charges (that is, not including any induced polarization charge at a rate that is equal to the rate of work done by the Lorentz force on the charge, charges and currents.) They are measured in units of [coulomb/m3] and [ampere/m2]. that is, v · F. Indeed, the time-derivative of the kinetic energy is: The right-hand side of the fourth equation is zero because there are no magnetic mono- 1 dWkin dv pole charges. Eqs. (1.3.17)–(1.3.19) display the induced polarization terms explicitly. Wkin = m v · v ⇒ = m v · = v · F = q v · E (1.2.3) The charge and current densities ρ, J may be thought of as the sources of the electro- 2 dt dt magnetic fields. For wave propagation problems, these densities are localized in space; We note that only the electric force contributes to the increase of the kinetic energy— for example, they are restricted to flow on an antenna. The generated electric and mag- the magnetic force remains perpendicular to v, that is, v · (v × B)= 0. netic fields are radiated away from these sources and can propagate to large distances to 1.3. Constitutive Relations 3 4 1. Maxwell’s Equations Volume charge and current distributions ρ, J are also subjected to forces in the The next simplest form of the constitutive relations is for simple homogeneous presence of fields. The Lorentz force per unit volume acting on ρ, J is given by: isotropic dielectric and for magnetic materials: f = ρE + J × B (Lorentz force per unit volume) (1.2.4) D = E (1.3.4) where f is measured in units of [newton/m3]. If J arises from the motion of charges B = μH within the distribution ρ, then J = ρv (as explained in Sec. 1.6.) In this case, These are typically valid at low frequencies. The permittivity and permeability μ f = ρ(E + v × B) (1.2.5) are related to the electric and magnetic susceptibilities of the material as follows: By analogy with Eq. (1.2.3), the quantity v · f = ρ v · E = J · E represents the power = 0(1 + χ) per unit volume of the forces acting on the moving charges, that is, the power expended (1.3.5) by (or lost from) the fields and converted into kinetic energy of the charges, or heat. It μ = μ0(1 + χm) has units of [watts/m3]. We will denote it by: The susceptibilities χ, χm are measures of the electric and magnetic polarization dPloss properties of the material. For example, we have for the electric flux density: = J · E (ohmic power losses per unit volume) (1.2.6) dV D = E = 0(1 + χ)E = 0E + 0χE = 0E + P (1.3.6) In Sec. 1.8, we discuss its role in the conservation of energy. We will find that elec- tromagnetic energy flowing into a region will partially increase the stored energy in that where the quantity P = 0χE represents the dielectric polarization of the material, that region and partially dissipate into heat according to Eq. (1.2.6). is, the average electric dipole moment per unit volume. In a magnetic material, we have B = μ0(H + M)= μ0(H + χmH)= μ0(1 + χm)H = μH (1.3.7) 1.3 Constitutive Relations where M = χmH is the magnetization, that is, the average magnetic moment per unit The electric and magnetic flux densities D, B are related to the field intensities E, H via volume. The speed of light in the material and the characteristic impedance are: the so-called constitutive relations, whose precise form depends on the material in which 1 μ the fields exist. In vacuum, they take their simplest form: c = √ ,η= (1.3.8) μ D = 0E The relative permittivity, permeability and refractive index of a material are defined by: (1.3.1) B = μ0H μ √ rel = = 1 + χ, μrel = = 1 + χm ,n= relμrel (1.3.9) 0 μ0 where 0,μ0 are the permittivity and permeability of vacuum, with numerical values: 2 so that n = relμrel. Using the definition of Eq. (1.3.8), we may relate the speed of light −12 and impedance of the material to the corresponding vacuum values: 0 = 8.854 × 10 farad/m (1.3.2) −7 1 1 c0 c0 μ0 = 4π × 10 henry/m c = √ = √ = √ = μ μ00relμrel relμrel n (1.3.10) The units for 0 and μ0 are the units of the ratios D/E and B/H, that is, μ μ μ μ μ n η = = 0 rel = η rel = η rel = η 0 0 n 0 coulomb/m2 coulomb farad weber/m2 weber henry 0 rel rel rel = = , = = · · volt/m volt m m ampere/m ampere m m For a non-magnetic material, we have μ = μ0, or, μrel = 1, and the impedance becomes simply η = η0/n, a relationship that we will use extensively in this book. From the two quantities 0,μ0, we can define two other physical constants, namely, More generally, constitutive relations may be inhomogeneous, anisotropic, nonlin- the speed of light and the characteristic impedance of vacuum: ear, frequency dependent (dispersive), or all of the above. In inhomogeneous materials, the permittivity depends on the location within the material: 1 8 μ0 c0 = √ = 3 × 10 m/sec ,η0 = = 377 ohm (1.3.3) μ00 0 D(r,t)= (r)E(r,t) 1.3. Constitutive Relations 5 6 1. Maxwell’s Equations In anisotropic materials, depends on the x, y, z direction and the constitutive rela- In Sections 1.10–1.15, we discuss simple models of (ω) for dielectrics, conductors, tions may be written component-wise in matrix (or tensor) form: and plasmas, and clarify the nature of Ohm’s law: ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ D E J = σE (Ohm’s law) (1.3.15) ⎢ x ⎥ ⎢ xx xy xz ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ ⎣ Dy ⎦ = ⎣ yx yy yz ⎦ ⎣ Ey ⎦ (1.3.11) In Sec. 1.17, we discuss the Kramers-Kronig dispersion relations, which are a direct Dz zx zy zz Ez consequence of the causality of the time-domain dielectric response function (t). Anisotropy is an inherent property of the atomic/molecular structure of the dielec- One major consequence of material dispersion is pulse spreading, that is, the pro- tric. It may also be caused by the application of external fields. For example, conductors gressive widening of a pulse as it propagates through such a material. This effect limits and plasmas in the presence of a constant magnetic field—such as the ionosphere in the the data rate at which pulses can be transmitted. There are other types of dispersion, presence of the Earth’s magnetic field—become anisotropic (see for example, Problem such as intermodal dispersion in which several modes may propagate simultaneously, 1.10 on the Hall effect.) or waveguide dispersion introduced by the confining walls of a waveguide. In nonlinear materials, may depend on the magnitude E of the applied electric field There exist materials that are both nonlinear and dispersive that support certain in the form: types of non-linear waves called solitons, in which the spreading effect of dispersion is = = + + 2 +··· D (E)E , where (E) 2E 3E (1.3.12) exactly canceled by the nonlinearity.
Recommended publications
  • Harvard Physics Circle Lecture 14: Magnetism, Biot-Savart, Ampere’S Law
    Harvard Physics Circle Lecture 14: Magnetism, Biot-Savart, Ampere’s Law Atınç Çağan Şengül January 30th, 2021 1 Theory 1.1 Magnetic Fields We are dealing with the same problem of how charged particles interact with each other. We have a group of source charges and a test charge that moves under the influence of these source charges. Unlike electrostatics, however, the source charges are in motion. One of the simplest experiments one can do to gain insight on how magnetism works is observing two parallel wires that have currents flowing through them. The force causing this attraction and repulsion is not electrostatic since the wires are neutral. Even if they were not neutral, flipping the wires would not flip the direction of the force as we see in the experiment. Magnetic fields are what is responsible for this phenomenon. A stationary charge produces only and electric field E~ around it, while a moving charge creates a magnetic field B~ . We will first study the force acting on a charge under the influence of an ambient magnetic field, before we delve into how moving charges generate such magnetic fields. 1 1.2 The Lorentz Force Law For a particle with charge q moving with velocity ~v in a magnetic field B~ , the force acting on the particle by the magnetic field is given by, F~ = q(~v × B~ ): (1) This is known as the Lorentz force law. Just like F = ma, this law is based on experiments rather than being derived. Notice that unlike the electrostatic version of this law where the force is parallel to the electric field (F~ = qE~ ), here, the force is perpendicular to both the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field.
    [Show full text]
  • On the History of the Radiation Reaction1 Kirk T
    On the History of the Radiation Reaction1 Kirk T. McDonald Joseph Henry Laboratories, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544 (May 6, 2017; updated March 18, 2020) 1 Introduction Apparently, Kepler considered the pointing of comets’ tails away from the Sun as evidence for radiation pressure of light [2].2 Following Newton’s third law (see p. 83 of [3]), one might suppose there to be a reaction of the comet back on the incident light. However, this theme lay largely dormant until Poincar´e (1891) [37, 41] and Planck (1896) [46] discussed the effect of “radiation damping” on an oscillating electric charge that emits electromagnetic radiation. Already in 1892, Lorentz [38] had considered the self force on an extended, accelerated charge e, finding that for low velocity v this force has the approximate form (in Gaussian units, where c is the speed of light in vacuum), independent of the radius of the charge, 3e2 d2v 2e2v¨ F = = . (v c). (1) self 3c3 dt2 3c3 Lorentz made no connection at the time between this force and radiation, which connection rather was first made by Planck [46], who considered that there should be a damping force on an accelerated charge in reaction to its radiation, and by a clever transformation arrived at a “radiation-damping” force identical to eq. (1). Today, Lorentz is often credited with identifying eq. (1) as the “radiation-reaction force”, and the contribution of Planck is seldom acknowledged. This note attempts to review the history of thoughts on the “radiation reaction”, which seems to be in conflict with the brief discussions in many papers and “textbooks”.3 2 What is “Radiation”? The “radiation reaction” would seem to be a reaction to “radiation”, but the concept of “radiation” is remarkably poorly defined in the literature.
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Magnetic Measurement Methods
    Basic magnetic measurement methods Magnetic measurements in nanoelectronics 1. Vibrating sample magnetometry and related methods 2. Magnetooptical methods 3. Other methods Introduction Magnetization is a quantity of interest in many measurements involving spintronic materials ● Biot-Savart law (1820) (Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862), Félix Savart (1791-1841)) Magnetic field (the proper name is magnetic flux density [1]*) of a current carrying piece of conductor is given by: μ 0 I dl̂ ×⃗r − − ⃗ 7 1 - vacuum permeability d B= μ 0=4 π10 Hm 4 π ∣⃗r∣3 ● The unit of the magnetic flux density, Tesla (1 T=1 Wb/m2), as a derive unit of Si must be based on some measurement (force, magnetic resonance) *the alternative name is magnetic induction Introduction Magnetization is a quantity of interest in many measurements involving spintronic materials ● Biot-Savart law (1820) (Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862), Félix Savart (1791-1841)) Magnetic field (the proper name is magnetic flux density [1]*) of a current carrying piece of conductor is given by: μ 0 I dl̂ ×⃗r − − ⃗ 7 1 - vacuum permeability d B= μ 0=4 π10 Hm 4 π ∣⃗r∣3 ● The Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (German national metrology institute) maintains a unit Tesla in form of coils with coil constant k (ratio of the magnetic flux density to the coil current) determined based on NMR measurements graphics from: http://www.ptb.de/cms/fileadmin/internet/fachabteilungen/abteilung_2/2.5_halbleiterphysik_und_magnetismus/2.51/realization.pdf *the alternative name is magnetic induction Introduction It
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 3 Dynamics of the Electromagnetic Fields
    Chapter 3 Dynamics of the Electromagnetic Fields 3.1 Maxwell Displacement Current In the early 1860s (during the American civil war!) electricity including induction was well established experimentally. A big row was going on about theory. The warring camps were divided into the • Action-at-a-distance advocates and the • Field-theory advocates. James Clerk Maxwell was firmly in the field-theory camp. He invented mechanical analogies for the behavior of the fields locally in space and how the electric and magnetic influences were carried through space by invisible circulating cogs. Being a consumate mathematician he also formulated differential equations to describe the fields. In modern notation, they would (in 1860) have read: ρ �.E = Coulomb’s Law �0 ∂B � ∧ E = − Faraday’s Law (3.1) ∂t �.B = 0 � ∧ B = µ0j Ampere’s Law. (Quasi-static) Maxwell’s stroke of genius was to realize that this set of equations is inconsistent with charge conservation. In particular it is the quasi-static form of Ampere’s law that has a problem. Taking its divergence µ0�.j = �. (� ∧ B) = 0 (3.2) (because divergence of a curl is zero). This is fine for a static situation, but can’t work for a time-varying one. Conservation of charge in time-dependent case is ∂ρ �.j = − not zero. (3.3) ∂t 55 The problem can be fixed by adding an extra term to Ampere’s law because � � ∂ρ ∂ ∂E �.j + = �.j + �0�.E = �. j + �0 (3.4) ∂t ∂t ∂t Therefore Ampere’s law is consistent with charge conservation only if it is really to be written with the quantity (j + �0∂E/∂t) replacing j.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 2 Introduction to Electrostatics
    Chapter 2 Introduction to electrostatics 2.1 Coulomb and Gauss’ Laws We will restrict our discussion to the case of static electric and magnetic fields in a homogeneous, isotropic medium. In this case the electric field satisfies the two equations, Eq. 1.59a with a time independent charge density and Eq. 1.77 with a time independent magnetic flux density, D (r)= ρ (r) , (1.59a) ∇ · 0 E (r)=0. (1.77) ∇ × Because we are working with static fields in a homogeneous, isotropic medium the constituent equation is D (r)=εE (r) . (1.78) Note : D is sometimes written : (1.78b) D = ²oE + P .... SI units D = E +4πP in Gaussian units in these cases ε = [1+4πP/E] Gaussian The solution of Eq. 1.59 is 1 ρ0 (r0)(r r0) 3 D (r)= − d r0 + D0 (r) , SI units (1.79) 4π r r 3 ZZZ | − 0| with D0 (r)=0 ∇ · If we are seeking the contribution of the charge density, ρ0 (r) , to the electric displacement vector then D0 (r)=0. The given charge density generates the electric field 1 ρ0 (r0)(r r0) 3 E (r)= − d r0 SI units (1.80) 4πε r r 3 ZZZ | − 0| 18 Section 2.2 The electric or scalar potential 2.2 TheelectricorscalarpotentialFaraday’s law with static fields, Eq. 1.77, is automatically satisfied by any electric field E(r) which is given by E (r)= φ (r) (1.81) −∇ The function φ (r) is the scalar potential for the electric field. It is also possible to obtain the difference in the values of the scalar potential at two points by integrating the tangent component of the electric field along any path connecting the two points E (r) d` = φ (r) d` (1.82) − path · path ∇ · ra rb ra rb Z → Z → ∂φ(r) ∂φ(r) ∂φ(r) = dx + dy + dz path ∂x ∂y ∂z ra rb Z → · ¸ = dφ (r)=φ (rb) φ (ra) path − ra rb Z → The result obtained in Eq.
    [Show full text]
  • The Magnetic Moment of a Bar Magnet and the Horizontal Component of the Earth’S Magnetic Field
    260 16-1 EXPERIMENT 16 THE MAGNETIC MOMENT OF A BAR MAGNET AND THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD I. THEORY The purpose of this experiment is to measure the magnetic moment μ of a bar magnet and the horizontal component BE of the earth's magnetic field. Since there are two unknown quantities, μ and BE, we need two independent equations containing the two unknowns. We will carry out two separate procedures: The first procedure will yield the ratio of the two unknowns; the second will yield the product. We will then solve the two equations simultaneously. The pole strength of a bar magnet may be determined by measuring the force F exerted on one pole of the magnet by an external magnetic field B0. The pole strength is then defined by p = F/B0 Note the similarity between this equation and q = F/E for electric charges. In Experiment 3 we learned that the magnitude of the magnetic field, B, due to a single magnetic pole varies as the inverse square of the distance from the pole. k′ p B = r 2 in which k' is defined to be 10-7 N/A2. Consider a bar magnet with poles a distance 2x apart. Consider also a point P, located a distance r from the center of the magnet, along a straight line which passes from the center of the magnet through the North pole. Assume that r is much larger than x. The resultant magnetic field Bm at P due to the magnet is the vector sum of a field BN directed away from the North pole, and a field BS directed toward the South pole.
    [Show full text]
  • The Lorentz Force
    CLASSICAL CONCEPT REVIEW 14 The Lorentz Force We can find empirically that a particle with mass m and electric charge q in an elec- tric field E experiences a force FE given by FE = q E LF-1 It is apparent from Equation LF-1 that, if q is a positive charge (e.g., a proton), FE is parallel to, that is, in the direction of E and if q is a negative charge (e.g., an electron), FE is antiparallel to, that is, opposite to the direction of E (see Figure LF-1). A posi- tive charge moving parallel to E or a negative charge moving antiparallel to E is, in the absence of other forces of significance, accelerated according to Newton’s second law: q F q E m a a E LF-2 E = = 1 = m Equation LF-2 is, of course, not relativistically correct. The relativistically correct force is given by d g mu u2 -3 2 du u2 -3 2 FE = q E = = m 1 - = m 1 - a LF-3 dt c2 > dt c2 > 1 2 a b a b 3 Classically, for example, suppose a proton initially moving at v0 = 10 m s enters a region of uniform electric field of magnitude E = 500 V m antiparallel to the direction of E (see Figure LF-2a). How far does it travel before coming (instanta> - neously) to rest? From Equation LF-2 the acceleration slowing the proton> is q 1.60 * 10-19 C 500 V m a = - E = - = -4.79 * 1010 m s2 m 1.67 * 10-27 kg 1 2 1 > 2 E > The distance Dx traveled by the proton until it comes to rest with vf 0 is given by FE • –q +q • FE 2 2 3 2 vf - v0 0 - 10 m s Dx = = 2a 2 4.79 1010 m s2 - 1* > 2 1 > 2 Dx 1.04 10-5 m 1.04 10-3 cm Ϸ 0.01 mm = * = * LF-1 A positively charged particle in an electric field experiences a If the same proton is injected into the field perpendicular to E (or at some angle force in the direction of the field.
    [Show full text]
  • Electro Magnetic Fields Lecture Notes B.Tech
    ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELDS LECTURE NOTES B.TECH (II YEAR – I SEM) (2019-20) Prepared by: M.KUMARA SWAMY., Asst.Prof Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India) Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956 (Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified) Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELDS Objectives: • To introduce the concepts of electric field, magnetic field. • Applications of electric and magnetic fields in the development of the theory for power transmission lines and electrical machines. UNIT – I Electrostatics: Electrostatic Fields – Coulomb’s Law – Electric Field Intensity (EFI) – EFI due to a line and a surface charge – Work done in moving a point charge in an electrostatic field – Electric Potential – Properties of potential function – Potential gradient – Gauss’s law – Application of Gauss’s Law – Maxwell’s first law, div ( D )=ρv – Laplace’s and Poison’s equations . Electric dipole – Dipole moment – potential and EFI due to an electric dipole. UNIT – II Dielectrics & Capacitance: Behavior of conductors in an electric field – Conductors and Insulators – Electric field inside a dielectric material – polarization – Dielectric – Conductor and Dielectric – Dielectric boundary conditions – Capacitance – Capacitance of parallel plates – spherical co‐axial capacitors. Current density – conduction and Convection current densities – Ohm’s law in point form – Equation of continuity UNIT – III Magneto Statics: Static magnetic fields – Biot‐Savart’s law – Magnetic field intensity (MFI) – MFI due to a straight current carrying filament – MFI due to circular, square and solenoid current Carrying wire – Relation between magnetic flux and magnetic flux density – Maxwell’s second Equation, div(B)=0, Ampere’s Law & Applications: Ampere’s circuital law and its applications viz.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 5: Displacement Current and Ampère's Law
    Whites, EE 382 Lecture 5 Page 1 of 8 Lecture 5: Displacement Current and Ampère’s Law. One more addition needs to be made to the governing equations of electromagnetics before we are finished. Specifically, we need to clean up a glaring inconsistency. From Ampère’s law in magnetostatics, we learned that H J (1) Taking the divergence of this equation gives 0 H J That is, J 0 (2) However, as is shown in Section 5.8 of the text (“Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time), the continuity equation (conservation of charge) requires that J (3) t We can see that (2) and (3) agree only when there is no time variation or no free charge density. This makes sense since (2) was derived only for magnetostatic fields in Ch. 7. Ampère’s law in (1) is only valid for static fields and, consequently, it violates the conservation of charge principle if we try to directly use it for time varying fields. © 2017 Keith W. Whites Whites, EE 382 Lecture 5 Page 2 of 8 Ampère’s Law for Dynamic Fields Well, what is the correct form of Ampère’s law for dynamic (time varying) fields? Enter James Clerk Maxwell (ca. 1865) – The Father of Classical Electromagnetism. He combined the results of Coulomb’s, Ampère’s, and Faraday’s laws and added a new term to Ampère’s law to form the set of fundamental equations of classical EM called Maxwell’s equations. It is this addition to Ampère’s law that brings it into congruence with the conservation of charge law.
    [Show full text]
  • How to Introduce the Magnetic Dipole Moment
    IOP PUBLISHING EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS Eur. J. Phys. 33 (2012) 1313–1320 doi:10.1088/0143-0807/33/5/1313 How to introduce the magnetic dipole moment M Bezerra, W J M Kort-Kamp, M V Cougo-Pinto and C Farina Instituto de F´ısica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Caixa Postal 68528, CEP 21941-972, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil E-mail: [email protected] Received 17 May 2012, in final form 26 June 2012 Published 19 July 2012 Online at stacks.iop.org/EJP/33/1313 Abstract We show how the concept of the magnetic dipole moment can be introduced in the same way as the concept of the electric dipole moment in introductory courses on electromagnetism. Considering a localized steady current distribution, we make a Taylor expansion directly in the Biot–Savart law to obtain, explicitly, the dominant contribution of the magnetic field at distant points, identifying the magnetic dipole moment of the distribution. We also present a simple but general demonstration of the torque exerted by a uniform magnetic field on a current loop of general form, not necessarily planar. For pedagogical reasons we start by reviewing briefly the concept of the electric dipole moment. 1. Introduction The general concepts of electric and magnetic dipole moments are commonly found in our daily life. For instance, it is not rare to refer to polar molecules as those possessing a permanent electric dipole moment. Concerning magnetic dipole moments, it is difficult to find someone who has never heard about magnetic resonance imaging (or has never had such an examination).
    [Show full text]
  • 6.007 Lecture 5: Electrostatics (Gauss's Law and Boundary
    Electrostatics (Free Space With Charges & Conductors) Reading - Shen and Kong – Ch. 9 Outline Maxwell’s Equations (In Free Space) Gauss’ Law & Faraday’s Law Applications of Gauss’ Law Electrostatic Boundary Conditions Electrostatic Energy Storage 1 Maxwell’s Equations (in Free Space with Electric Charges present) DIFFERENTIAL FORM INTEGRAL FORM E-Gauss: Faraday: H-Gauss: Ampere: Static arise when , and Maxwell’s Equations split into decoupled electrostatic and magnetostatic eqns. Electro-quasistatic and magneto-quasitatic systems arise when one (but not both) time derivative becomes important. Note that the Differential and Integral forms of Maxwell’s Equations are related through ’ ’ Stoke s Theorem and2 Gauss Theorem Charges and Currents Charge conservation and KCL for ideal nodes There can be a nonzero charge density in the absence of a current density . There can be a nonzero current density in the absence of a charge density . 3 Gauss’ Law Flux of through closed surface S = net charge inside V 4 Point Charge Example Apply Gauss’ Law in integral form making use of symmetry to find • Assume that the image charge is uniformly distributed at . Why is this important ? • Symmetry 5 Gauss’ Law Tells Us … … the electric charge can reside only on the surface of the conductor. [If charge was present inside a conductor, we can draw a Gaussian surface around that charge and the electric field in vicinity of that charge would be non-zero ! A non-zero field implies current flow through the conductor, which will transport the charge to the surface.] … there is no charge at all on the inner surface of a hollow conductor.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 22 Magnetism
    Chapter 22 Magnetism 22.1 The Magnetic Field 22.2 The Magnetic Force on Moving Charges 22.3 The Motion of Charged particles in a Magnetic Field 22.4 The Magnetic Force Exerted on a Current- Carrying Wire 22.5 Loops of Current and Magnetic Torque 22.6 Electric Current, Magnetic Fields, and Ampere’s Law Magnetism – Is this a new force? Bar magnets (compass needle) align themselves in a north-south direction. Poles: Unlike poles attract, like poles repel Magnet has NO effect on an electroscope and is not influenced by gravity Magnets attract only some objects (iron, nickel etc) No magnets ever repel non magnets Magnets have no effect on things like copper or brass Cut a bar magnet-you get two smaller magnets (no magnetic monopoles) Earth is like a huge bar magnet Figure 22–1 The force between two bar magnets (a) Opposite poles attract each other. (b) The force between like poles is repulsive. Figure 22–2 Magnets always have two poles When a bar magnet is broken in half two new poles appear. Each half has both a north pole and a south pole, just like any other bar magnet. Figure 22–4 Magnetic field lines for a bar magnet The field lines are closely spaced near the poles, where the magnetic field B is most intense. In addition, the lines form closed loops that leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south pole. Magnetic Field Lines If a compass is placed in a magnetic field the needle lines up with the field.
    [Show full text]