Ties that Bind Women in Islam and Kristin Lassen

Many Western, Protestant Christians oscillate between pity, imagination needed to end political violence.8 This imaginative fear, compassion, and scorn for burqa-clad women. Like openness is needed to see Middle Eastern women in their many Christian symbols and articles of clothing that honor multifaceted reality, and then to grasp that the contributing Christian faith, the hijab is often perilously misunderstood.1 factors to their religious and cultural situation are not so different In recent decades, two primary views have emerged within from those facing Christian women in patriarchal settings. Protestant Christianity regarding the ontology and roles of The capacity to expand one’s moral imagination also requires women, commonly known as complementarian and feminist the humility to see humanity as a web of relationships that includes or egalitarian, with the latter challenging years of dominant women, men, friends, and even enemies. Such humility makes patriarchal church culture.2 Likewise, Muslim women expound possible both the continued pursuit of in a new paradigm liberating interpretations of their faith, but the cacophony of and the risk involved when stepping into unknown territory. These centuries-long religious conflict often drowns the voices of factors that Lederach summons to rise above political violence are women in general. also necessary in the quest to eliminate gender hierarchy—given Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, a pioneer in the field of Middle the physical, emotional, and spiritual violence that accompanies Eastern women’s studies, joins Middle East and Arabic specialist, gender hierarchy regardless of one’s religion.9 Basima Qattan Bezirgan, in describing the misperception of Different perspectives emerge when we listen to voices that Middle Eastern women by those in their own society. These have been overshadowed by the dominant narratives. Consider, scholars expand the discussion by asking, “How much greater, for example, Muslim conservative apologists who argue that then, the refraction or even distortion when persons from the status of Muslim women is “no worse than that of Western different cultures view each other through the prism of their own women” because Middle Eastern women are “respected, cared for cultural values?”3 and guarded compared to the licentiousness which characterizes Scholars and practitioners of Christianity and Islam make Western relations between the sexes.”10 When women’s voices their cases for women’s equality, though equality may be defined are heard, however, we find that there are “fundamentally differently for each. The tendency in the East is toward greater different Islams” that result from different views of the Qur’an; recognition for women; in the West, a major goal is inclusion of it is “imperative to challenge the authoritarian and patriarchal women in senior leadership positions.4 This article will examine readings of Islam that are profoundly affecting the lives and the similar ways egalitarian convictions aim to challenge and future of Muslim women.”11 change cultural mores vis-à-vis the equality of women, within As a tandem example from Christianity, prominent patriarchal strands of Islam and in patriarchal Christian patriarchal argues that, when men take the culture.5 Though these Abrahamic religions are distinct, this “primary responsibility” for leadership in the home and church, article will argue that Christianity and Islam have more in “there are fields of opportunity that are simply endless.”12 Not common than meets the eye vis-à-vis the treatment of women. It for women! The words “Not for women,” are scrawled in the is my hope that this common ground provides a rich context for margin of the library copy of Piper and ’s book both interfaith dialogue and a deeper understanding of a shared that I have before me. This simple phrase underscores the Spirit- holy book—the . subjugating experiences that this well-intentioned yet myopic Exploring Commonalities between Christian and Muslim ideology delivers.13 Women Christian and Muslim Women have had Liberating Teachings of The Qur’an is not the Bible. Muslims are different from Christians. Their Founders Denied or Ignored. And the communal structure of Middle Eastern society is different Islamic and Christian desire to ground from the hierarchical, individualistic West.6 Analyzing the feminist equality in the Qur’an or Bible, respectively. Egalitarians in both movements in these diverse settings is like comparing apples and religions present solid, equality-affirming interpretations of their persimmons. Nevertheless, many Christian and Muslim women respective Scriptures as the corrective to patriarchal cultural have indeed experienced certain commonalities. norms that were neither intended nor practiced by their founders. Christian and Muslim Women’s Experiences are more Complex The Qur’an was quite liberating for women at the time of than the Dominant Narratives about Them. its writing, and history proves that subsequent Middle Eastern women have often experienced subjugation. Fernea and Bezirgan When examining the history of women in Islam, one must move go on to say that the paradox of Middle Eastern society can be away from the dichotomy that, on the one hand, the Qur’an was better understood linearly—on one end of the line is the “Koran radical for its time in its position-advancing statements about (the word of God)” and on the opposite end of the same line women or, on the other hand, Middle Eastern women have lived in is “tribal and family custom (the word of men).”14 Economic, inescapable bondage. Both are true, argue Fernea and Bezirgan.7 social, and familial variance determine how close or far one falls Openness to complexity without relying on strict dichotomy from the “Koranic ideal.” Faithful Islamic women find dignity is one of Paul Lederach’s principles toward developing the moral cbeinternational.org Priscilla Papers | 35/1 | Winter 2021 • 9 and liberation in the Qur’an. “The problem is the way the Qur’an to seize upon misreadings of what the Bible says about and Islam have been (mis) interpreted.”15 women as an excuse for claiming that Christianity in Many Muslim feminists are careful to distinguish themselves general is a wicked thing and we ought to abandon it. from the Western feminism that disparages sexual modesty.16 Unfortunately, plenty of Christians have given outsiders “Islamic movements emphasize the need for female modesty, a plenty of chances to draw those sorts of conclusions. But degree of separation and limiting women’s public roles.” They perhaps in our generation we have an opportunity to take view their approach to women’s liberation to be preferable a large step back in the right direction.28 to the Western feminism that has resulted in “promiscuity, Unfortunately, patriarchy has long been the dominant motif in pornography and the debasing of women.”17 Even as the Qur’an the church, as Greek philosophical views of women assumed acknowledges the sexual aspects of the female body and “its increasing influence after the laying of egalitarian foundations greater vulnerability to abuse in patriarchies, it does not do so in first-century Christianity.29 Over the centuries, cultural in order to discriminate against women,” to comment on moral views of women have been mistaken for the biblical view, and character, or to assign gender roles.18 egalitarianism in both religions has been falsely accused of Muslim women find the struggle for equality difficult “because capitulating to culture. of the assumption that equality is a Western, not an Islamic, value,” Rebecca Koerselman does not believe that “Christianity or yet Asma Barlas explains how “the Qur’an establishes the . . . equality the God whom we worship is patriarchal. If anything, the Bible of the sexes” in a way distinct from what Western “patriarchal is very clear about recognizing the poor and the oppressed and thought” draws upon.19 Additionally, Western history proves that raising their status—and women have always been among the “there is nothing innately Islamic about , inequality, or oppressed, historically.”30 patriarchy.”20 A Protestant missionary to Syria in the mid-1800s Disparity exists between both Christian and Muslim origins noted that Christians in Syria “beat their wives as often as Muslims.”21 and later practice. “Even after the Prophet’s time all Muslims The Qur’an also calls men to dress decently and to avoid sexual without regard to sex were treated alike by authority . . . later, provocation. Barlas writes that inappropriate interpretations of the in spite of the clearly expressed intentions of the Koran, its Qur’an and the “obsession with the female body” have enforced interpreters . . . who had been brought up in an environment veiling and have diminished the truth that “the real veil is in the eyes/ in which men avowedly ruled, imposed their own views and gaze” (Surah 24:30).22 This is strikingly similar to Jesus’s words in traditions upon the Muhammadan world.”31 Khadija was Matt 5:28–29, “But I say to you that everyone who looks at a Muhammad’s first wife, was older and economically successful, with lust has already committed adultery with her in his heart. If your and had been his boss. She and Aisha, his favorite wife after right eye causes you to sin, tear it out and throw it away; it is better Khadija died, along with daughter Fatima, had considerable for you to lose one of your members than for your whole body to be influence on Muhammad and subsequent trajectories of Islam.32 thrown into hell” (NRSV). Likewise, Jesus had numerous female disciples (Luke 8:1-3, etc.) Piper and Grudem’s 1991 book, Recovering Biblical Manhood and commissioned women to preach the gospel (Matt 28, Mark and Womanhood, rightly highlights the “high value [Jesus] placed 16:1–8, Luke 24, John 20). on women by according them dignity in his ministry”23 but then undermines this truth by overlooking the leadership of women Christian and Muslim Women have been Told to Submit to Men in the ministries of Jesus and Paul. Further, the authors argue that because Their God is Male. only men were apostles, though Junia is named as such in Rom Deuteronomy 4:15–16 warns against viewing God as male or 16:7.24 The book also insists that “top” leadership in the church female: “Since you saw no form when the Lord spoke to you at must be male, in contrast with Paul’s list of leaders in Rom 16, Horeb out of the fire, take care and watch yourselves closely, so which names more women in ministry roles than men.25 Philip that you do not act corruptly by making an idol for yourselves, Payne explains that Phoebe held “the clearest NT identification in the form of any figure—the likeness of male or female” of an individual with titles associated with senior local church (NRSV).33 leadership.26 Importantly, the women who “gave to Christ” and Viewing God as male results in giving power to men. Barlas “served him”—actions named as subservient roles by Piper27— notes that, “sexual hierarchies and theories of father/husband exhibited the leadership that epitomized Christ’s life and death rule in religious patriarchies derive from representations of God of self-sacrifice (John 13:1–17, 19:1ff., Eph 5:2, Phil 2:1–11). as Father/male.”34 She returns to the nature of Qur’anic divine N. T. Wright refers to such views when he gives the following self-disclosure to show that this ignores “the Qur’an’s unyielding chilling assessment of their outcome, concluding with a statement rejection” of such notions, “displacing father/male rule in favor of hope: of God’s Rule and Sovereignty.”35 I believe we have seriously misread the Similarly, a doctrine common in evangelical Christianity passages addressed in this essay. These misreadings is that a wife must unilaterally submit to her husband. This are undoubtedly due to a combination of assumptions, teaching, erroneously based on texts like Eph 5:22–24, has, in traditions, and all kinds of post-biblical and sub-biblical turn, been used to support male as “priest of the home” teachings attitudes that have crept in to Christianity. . . . in clear contradiction with the Bible’s message that Christ is the I do wonder sometimes if those who present radical one mediator between humanity and God (1 Tim 2:5, see also challenges to Christianity have been all the more eager Matt 11:27, John 14:6).36

10 • Priscilla Papers | 35/1 | Winter 2021 cbeinternational.org Christian and Muslim Women have been Told They are Equal but own protection.”43 Conservative interpretation of Muslim holy Have Different Roles. texts “inverts their intent” into a need to protect women from Surah 33:3537 and certain other passages in the Qur’an are often Muslim men, “or, alternatively, to shield the latter from viewing quoted to suggest that men and women are equal before Allah— potentially corrupt/ing female bodies. These reversals indicate but while women are equal spiritually, they are not believed to that conservatives accept [non-believers’] views not only of a be equal socially or economically.38 This sounds like the adage of dangerous and depraved female nature but also of a deviant male patriarchal Christians, “equal in worth, different in role,” which sexuality that can be kept in check only by ‘disappearing’ women parallels the modern American “separate but equal.”39 Instead, from view, themes which are missing from the Qur’an itself.”44 both traditions strayed from the trajectory set by their founders We see parallels within patriarchal Christianity: The intent of when deeply negative views of women from the surrounding certain biblical texts is inverted, and cultural ideas about women’s cultures infiltrated earlier, more egalitarian teachings and inferiority and male lack of self-control are adopted. For Islam, practices. This disparity between Scripture and culture is vital this has included compulsory and comprehensive veiling of to understanding the practice of veiling for Muslim women and bodies (not just bosom and neck).45 For patriarchal Christianity, biblical references to the same. subjugation of women often includes policing women’s behavior and clothing, failure of men to take accountability for one’s own Veiling: Dignity or Subordination? lust, and lack of access to leadership roles for women. The above description of commonalities between Christian and First Corinthians 11:2–16 Muslim women is largely doctrinal. Doctrine and practice are, of course, interwoven, and we shift now to focus on a particular The veiling of Christian women, in its various forms over the ages, practice that millions of Christian and Muslim women have inevitably seeks a rationale in 1 Cor 11:2–16. Interpretations of this experienced over the centuries—veiling. This practice, together text have too often inverted Paul’s intent—a commonality with with the teachings and motivations behind it, will serve as an the experience of many Muslim women. Rather than recognizing extended example of the overlapping experiences of Christian Paul’s intent of veiling to protect and respect women and to secure and Muslim women. women’s authority, reading this text without understanding Middle Eastern veiling traditions results in an inversion of its The Complexity of Veiling in Muslim History intent. A statement by Thomas Schreiner, identifying female In 1923, Huda Sh’arawi, daughter of a wealthy landowner and submission as a key principle for understanding 1 Cor 11:2–16, founder of the Egyptian Feminist Union, removed her face veil serves as an example: “The principle still stands that women in an Alexandria train station in protest of her perceived inferior should pray and prophesy in a manner that makes it clear that status. She was well-educated and did not find headscarves to they submit to male leadership.”46 be a requirement in the Qur’an. A movement was born. Years Cynthia Westfall, in her book Paul and Gender, provides later, however, Egyptian daughters began wearing veils in much-needed clarity on 1 Cor 11:2–16. In the Greco-Roman favor of modesty, “ironically with the same [feminist] rationale culture in which Paul lived and worked, Aristotle’s teaching their grandmothers used to discard it.”40 “How could this be?” on “women’s essential inferiority” resulted in “gender-based we wonder in the West. “Who would put herself back under hierarchy . . . based on the [assumed] ontological nature of oppression?” is the question asked by those who view the women and men rather than the standards or conventions of situation without a culturally informed lens. c u ltu re .” 47 That is, women were devalued because of perceived Indeed, the history of veiling Muslim women (and men!) lower worth, intelligence, and ability; women were different in is more complex than the two contrasting situations described worth and thus different in role. Men were “shamed and despised” above. Consider the following selection of examples: “Early for displaying characteristics viewed as feminine; women were historical chronicles indicate that, in the time of the Prophet honored for exhibiting virtues considered to be manly.48 (This [sixth-seventh centuries], a veil was the sign of a respectable belief in woman’s essential inferiority remained centuries later in woman,” yet in some modern cultures, prostitutes now don the the polytheistic culture surrounding Islam.49) veil to conceal their identity to avoid vengeance from male kin It is in this culture that Paul carefully worded his arguments in the form of “honor” killings.41 Among the southern Sahara to protect the reputation and ministry of the church, to “take Tuareg people, the men are veiled to show their high status.42 Into every thought captive to Christ” (2 Cor 10:5),50 and to do the the ninth century, women prayed at the mosque and performed kingdom work of giving voice to the voiceless (Job 5:11–13, Prov the haj pilgrimage, Islam’s holiest ritual, with faces uncovered. 31:8–10, Luke 1:46–48, 6:20–26). First Corinthians 11:2–16 must Barlas notes that in ancient societies the veil indicated high be read through the eyes of Middle Eastern women, where men status for women to protect them from non-Muslim men, who held the power and women of status wore veils for protection and saw an unveiled woman as “fair game.” In a non-believing, slave- to signify respectability; “Slaves, prostitutes, and freedwomen owning society the veil signified sexual nonavailability, but only were prohibited from veiling.”51 Contrary to traditional Western when men invested it with such meaning. Consequently, the veil interpretation, it is much more plausible that women were “served as a marker of [non-Muslim] male sexual promiscuity refusing to remove veils in the church, as the “men were the ones and abuse at a time when women had no legal recourse who regulated the veiling according to their own interests.”52 against such abuse and had to rely on themselves for their (Consider Vashti in Esther 1:11 and Susanna in Susanna 1:31– cbeinternational.org Priscilla Papers | 35/1 | Winter 2021 • 11 33, where similar dynamics are at work.)53 In this contentious of Religion and the European Court of Human Rights,” Indiana Law environment, Paul grants back to the woman authority “over her Review 22/1, https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/iiclr/pdf/vol22p93.pdf. Jessica own head” (1 Cor 11:10).54 Mendoza. “Why are Non-Muslim Women Wearing the Hijab?,” Christian Conclusion Science Monitor (Dec 17, 2015), discusses various factors around American perception of the hijab: https://csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2015/1217/ In the religious and cultural complexity of the Middle East, Why-are-non-Muslim-women-wearing-the-hijab. we find Muslim women seeking compliance to a faithful 2. I use “patriarchal” instead of the group’s preferred term, interpretation of the Qur’an. Muslim women desire to be modest, “complementarian,” because egalitarian Christians also believe men and as Islam requires, but resist restrictions that go against the spirit women complement one another; for the latter, God’s gifting takes precedence and letter of certain texts in the Qur’an. It is my hope that Muslim over gender in role distinction. N. T. Wright clarifies this well: “to use the women can begin to see Christians as co-laborers in the fight for word ‘complementary’ and its cognates to denote a position which says that proper readings of Scripture as it opposes patriarchy. Likewise, I not only are men and women different, but also that those differences mean pray that Christians will humbly learn from the shared cultural that women cannot minister within the church, is unfortunate. I think the observations by Islamic women, and thus move toward more word ‘complementary’ is too good and important a word to let that side of the consistent biblical interpretation. issue have it all to itself.” N. T. Wright, “The Biblical Basis for Women’s Service From my perspective as a religious and cultural outsider, the in the Church,” Priscilla Papers 20/4 (Autumn 2006) 5. 3. Elizabeth Warnock Fernea and Basima Qattan Bezirgan, eds., Middle varied reaction to “the veil” by Muslim women has much to do Eastern Muslim Women Speak, The Dan Danciger Publication Series with autonomy and respect. Paul’s words accomplish both. The (University of Texas Press, 1977) xvii. Apostle Paul led the way in affirming a woman’s “authority over 4. Philip Barton Payne, and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical her head” (1 Cor 11:10 CEB), which in that cultural context meant and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters (Zondervan, 2009) 29. that Paul was supporting women, “their judgment, and their 5. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi explains the complex religious paradoxes honor . . . possibly even against church leadership.”55 We can surrounding women’s rights and patriarchy in the United States, the understand this by looking at ancient Middle Eastern culture, Vatican, and Muslim states, in particular Iran and Saudi Arabia. These which is similar in many ways to its culture in modern times. countries proclaim support of women’s rights but exempt themselves This understanding, together with Westfall’s full explanation from implementation by citing their constitution, natural law, church of the passage, makes sense of the difficult literary and cultural tradition, and shariah law, respectively. Saudi Arabia and Iran follow context of 1 Cor 11. The modern Muslim women who choose hijab different branches of Islam, and restrictions for women vary. Ibrahim M. for modesty (much to their grandmothers’ dismay) are living Abu-Rabi, The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought, examples of the women Paul supported in 1 Cor 11. Blackwell Companions to Religion (Blackwell, 2006) 627. Until nearly the 1980s, most traditional interpretation 6. Many would argue that this is not always the case. Here I make a “assumed the ontological inferiority of women . . . and it is generalized statement about the contrast between Eastern and Western implausible to think that an interpreter can effectively shed culture, with specific application in the institutional churches that limit the foundational assumptions of the traditional view and ordination to men. This acknowledges the existence of denominations still coherently maintain the remainder of interpretation and that are more Eastern in their expression and Middle Eastern in their applications virtually intact.”56 Patriarchal leaders, however, roots, which often uphold a communal (though patriarchal) paradigm. attempt to do just that. Though “separate but equal” is a central 7. Fernea and Bezirgan, Muslim Women Speak, xvii. argument for patriarchal approaches to Christianity, the church 8. John Paul Lederach, The Moral Imagination: The Art and Soul of must reject “the view that God established ‘separate but equal’ Building Peace (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) 5. Lederach says leadership roles for men and women in the church.”57 this in an intriguing way: “the ability to sustain a paradoxical curiosity that Christ’s body, the church, must humbly grow enough moral embraces complexity without reliance on dualistic polarity.” 9. The #ChurchToo movement and violence against women in Islamic imagination to see every person in a connected web where the “honor killings” begin to make this point. The emotional and spiritual human barriers of race, class, and gender have been leveled. harm is less quantifiable, yet undeniable. With God as Lord, not gender, may we move into such a future 10. Ruth Roded, Women in Islam and the Middle East: A Reader (I. B. with Spirit-infused creativity and the vision of the new heaven Tauris, 1999) 9. and earth of Rev 21. What we will find, if open to the wisdom of 11. Asma Barlas, “Believing Women” in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal another perspective, is that Scripture has more to offer than we Interpretations of the Qur’an̄ (University of Texas Press, 2002) 2. Pakistani have been privy to. Many Christian men recognize patriarchal born and educated, Barlas received political asylum in the United States ideology for what it is: the sinful desire for primacy over fellow in 1983 and joined the politics department of Ithaca College in Upstate bearers of God’s image. Many Muslim men do as well.58 New York. As an affirmation of women and men working side by side in 12. John Piper and Wayne Grudem, eds., Recovering Biblical Manhood servant leadership, I close with a Psalm: and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism (Crossway, 1991) 53. O magnify the Lord with me, 13. Piper seems well intentioned in his idea that men are to lead and and let us exalt his name together. (Ps 34:3 NRSV) that anything that counters this viewpoint is from Satan. He believes that instead of pride enforcing a view of (his own) leadership, pride and Notes laziness are what prevent men from leading, proposing that women who 1. See, for example, Jennifer Heider. “Unveiling the Truth behind the “take more leadership” are falsely seen as virtuous (Piper, Recovering, 53). French Burqa Ban: The Unwarranted Restriction of the Right to Freedom In Piper’s view men are to be servant leaders, yet servants boost others

12 • Priscilla Papers | 35/1 | Winter 2021 cbeinternational.org to reach fullness. His view stifles gifting that falls outside of his narrow women, men who guard their chastity and women who guard, men paradigm of “manhood” and “womanhood.” who remember God frequently and women who remember—God has 14. Fernea and Bezirgan, Muslim Women Speak, xix. prepared for them a pardon, and an immense reward.” ClearQuran 15. John Hubers, “Through the Eyes of Women: Re-reading the translation; see https://blog.ClearQuran.com. Qur’anic Creation Accounts” (Ind. Study, Lutheran School of Theology, 38. Roded, Women in Islam, 3. Chicago, 2007) 2, available at Academia.edu. Qur’anic creation accounts 39. “Separate but equal” was a legal precedent in the United States to have been misinterpreted in the same ways which egalitarian Christians uphold racial segregation in the late 1900s through mid twentieth century show that the Genesis accounts are. when it was legislated as unconstitutional. The same segments of the 16. Barlas, Believing Women, 160. church that spearheaded racism also hold to patriarchal interpretations 17. Roded, Women in Islam, 16. of Scripture. Essentially, “separate but equal” for the sexes is the central 18. Barlas, Believing Women, 166. argument of Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood. 19. Barlas, Believing Women, 27. 40. Jeffery Brodd, Layne Little, Bradley P. Nystrom, Robert Leonard 20. Barlas, Believing Women, 2. Platzner, Richard Hon-Chun Shek, and Erin E. Stiles, Invitation to World 21. Roded, Women in Islam, 6. Religions, 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2019) 530–31. See also Fernea 22. Barlas, Believing Women, 157–59. and Bezirgan, Muslim Women Speak, xxx. 23. Piper and Grudem, Recovering, 117; description of women’s 41. Fernea and Bezirgan, Muslim Women Speak, xxv. importance continues on pp. 117–20. 42. Fernea and Bezirgan, Muslim Women Speak, xxv. 24. Piper and Grudem, Recovering, 120. See Margaret Mowczko, “Is 43. Barlas, Believing Women, 56. Junia Well Known ‘To’ the Apostles?,” https://margmowczko.com/is- 44. Barlas, Believing Women, 56. junia-well-known-to-the-apostles/; Dennis J. Preato, “Junia, A Female 45. Barlas, Believing Women, 55. Apostle: An Examination of the Historical Record,” Priscilla Papers 33/2 46. Thomas R. Schreiner, “Head Coverings, Prophecies and the (Spring 2019) 8–15. Trinity: 1 Corinthians 11:2–16,” in Piper and Grudem, Recovering, 138. 25. Piper and Grudem, Recovering, 120–22; Margaret Mowczko, “A 47. Cynthia Long Westfall, Paul and Gender: Reclaiming the Apostle’s List of the 29 People in Romans 16:1–16,” https://margmowczko.com/ Vision for Men and Women in Christ (Baker Academic, 2016) 14. Cf. list-of-people-in-romans-16_1-16/. Mowczko notes that, “seven of the ten Westfall’s introduction and chs, 1 and 8 with Piper and Grudem’s chs. 3 women are described in terms of their ministry (Phoebe, Prisca, Mary, and 5. The latter hold to “headship” as leadership like Christ (63). Junia, Tryphena, Tryphosa, Persis). By comparison, only three men are 48. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 15–17. described in terms of their ministry (Aquila, Andronicus, Urbanus), and 49. Roded, Women in Islam, 4. two of these men are ministering alongside a female partner (Aquila with 50. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 4–8. Prisca, Andronicus with Junia).” 51. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 25. 26. Philip Payne, https://pbpayne.com/is-it-true-that-in-the-nt- 52. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 33. no-women-only-men-are-identified-by-name-as-elders-overseers-or- 53. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 32. -and-that-consequently-women-must-not-be-elders-overseers- 54. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 39. To understand this argument in full, or-pastors (Nov 10, 2010). and for an extremely plausible explanation of “because of the angels” in 27. Piper and Grudem, Recovering, 121. 11:10b, see Westfall, Paul and Gender, 1–43. 28. N. T. Wright, “The Biblical Basis for Women’s Service in the 55. Barlas, Believing Women, 39, 42. This is best understood in the context Church,” 10. of an ancient Middle Eastern culture, as described by Westfall on pages 7–43. 29. Bob Edwards, “Chain of Inference,” (Dec 4, 2014), CBE 56. Westfall, Paul and Gender, 4. International, https://cbeinternational.org/resource/article/mutuality- 57. Payne, One in Christ, 463. blog-magazine/chain-inference. 58. Carla Power, “What the Koran Really Says About Women,” The 30. Interview with Rebecca Koerselman, Apr 4, 2020. See Dr. Telegraph (Nov 6, 2015), http://s.telegraph.co.uk/graphics/projects/koran- Koerselman’s writings at https://inallthings.org/contributor/rebecca- carla-power/index.html. koerselman. 31. Fernea and Bezirgan, Muslim Women Speak, xxiv. 32. Roded, Women in Islam, 32–33. 33. On God and gender, see Abigail Dolan, “Imagining a Feminine God: Gendered Imagery in the Bible,” Priscilla Papers 32/3 (Summer 2018) KRISTIN LASSEN holds a bachelor’s degree in 17–20. exercise science and fitness management, with 34. Barlas, Believing Women, 26. a minor in biblical and theological studies, from 35. Barlas, Believing Women, 26–27. Northwestern College in Orange City, Iowa. 36. Rebecca Merrill Groothuis, “Equal in Being, Unequal in Role,” in She will graduate with an MA from Western Discovering Biblical Equality: Complementarity Without Hierarchy, ed. Theological Seminary, near Grand Rapids, Michigan, in May 2021. Ronald W. Pierce, Rebecca Merrill Groothuis, and Gordon D. Fee, 2nd ed. She teaches courses in philosophy and in marriage and family (InterVarsity, 2005) 313. at Northwest Iowa Community College. Kristin navigates life in 37. “Muslim men and Muslim women, believing men and believing northwest Iowa with her husband of seventeen years and their four women, obedient men and obedient women, truthful men and truthful children, who are their greatest blessings. Kristin blogs at Coffee with women, patient men and patient women, humble men and humble Kristin https://coffeewithkristin.wordpress.com. women, charitable men and charitable women, fasting men and fasting

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