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47 Volume No.

2015 Year

Winter

Systems with Religious Working Development Network of the Organization Journal Viets.

Organizations for Nonprofit Value Within: Us Awake Questions that Keep of Social Change: Seven Work Organizations in Nonprofit Traumatization

Amber Mayes, Anne Gordon, Michael Brazzel, Vogelsang, and Shana Hormann Vivian Mary Hiland Organization Destructurization in a Nonprofit Anita R Singh Slocum Rebecca Miguel Bonilla Doug Reeler Pat Michelle Heyne and Robert A. Gallagher Dynamics that Create John and Annie Cathy Royal, 45. Marvel Heterarchy: of The Structural 52. Consulting in Cross-Cultural Imagery and Symbolism Of Fists and Flowers: 15. Exploring the Real 25. Persistent 31. Understanding from 37. Relationship: Director Chair–Executive The Board 3. Sector to OD and the Nonprofit Introduction 8. in Small Nonprofits Building Resilience OD and the Nonprofit Sector OD Nonprofit and the

Winter Year 2015 Vol. 47 No. 1 OD Practitioner

Published quarterly Marjorie Derven Ross Tartell, PhD Copyright 2015 Managing Partner with Independent Consultant, Wilton, CT Hudson Research & Consulting Organization Development Network, Inc. Maya Townsend, MSOD ISSN #0256112312 Anne Gardon, MSW Lead Consultant, Partnering Resources, Principal, Strategies for Change Now, Cambridge, MA Poughkeepsie, NY Editor-In-Chief Peter B. Vaill, DBA John D. Vogelsang Tim Goodly, PhD Professor of Management, HR Executive, Vinings, GA Antioch University, Yellow Springs, OH Claire Halverson, PhD Lynne E. Valek, PhD Proofreaders Professor Emeritus, Master’s Program in Service, Adjunct Faculty, Alliant International University Loni Davis Leadership, and Management, SIT Graduate Institute, Fresno, CA Laurie Sacchet Brattleboro, VT Annie Viets, EdD George W. Hay, PhD Associate Professor of Management, Associate Professor, Business Psychology Department Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Editorial Review Board The Chicago School of Professional Psychology Khobar, Saudi Arabia John Adams, PhD Chicago, IL Emeritus Professor, Saybrook University Judy Vogel, MLA Organizational Systems PhD Program Alla Heorhiadi, PhD & EdD Vogel/Glaser & Associates, Inc., Columbia, MD San Francisco, CA International Programs Organization Learning & Development Dept. Don D. Warrick, DBA Philip T. Anderson, PhD University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, MN Professor, University of Colorado, BKD Consulting, Grayslake, IL Colorado Springs, CO David W. Jamieson, PhD Marilyn E. Blair, PhD Associate Professor and Department Chair, Therese Yaeger, PhD Principal, TeamWork Consulting, Denver, CO Organization Learning and Development, PhD and MSMOB-OD Programs Benedictine University, Lisle, IL Michael Brazzel, PhD University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, MN External Consultant, Columbia, MD Judith Katz, EdD Design Gordon Brooks, MSOD Kaleel Jamison Consulting Group, Troy, NY Whitehouse & Company, New York, NY Independent Consultant Anne Litwin, PhD Production Gervase Bushe, PhD Anne Litwin & Associates, Jamaica Plain, MA Frank Brayton, San Francisco, CA Beedie School of Business, Maurice L. Monette, EdD Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada The Vallarta Institute, Steven H. Cady, PhD Oakland, CA and Puerto Vallarta, Mexico OD Practitioner is now available to Graduate Faculty Member, Bowling Green State Cathy Royal, PhD University, Bowling Green, Ohio academic and corporate libraries by special Senior Consultant, Royal Consulting Group, LLC subscription. We invite you to include this Riverdale, MD Mee-Yan Cheung-Judge, PhD publication in your library resources. Visiting Fellow, Roffey Park Managment Institute; Peter Sorensen, Jr., PhD Dean, NTL/Q&E OD certificate program Library Subscriptions Director, PhD Program USA Canada* All Other* Allan H. Church, PhD Benedictine University, Lisle, IL PepsiCo, Inc., Pound Ridge, NY University Nancy L. Southern, EdD Non-profit $150 $160 $180 David Coghlan, PhD Chair, PhD Organizational Systems Program Corporate School of Business Studies, University of Dublin, Saybrook Graduate School, San Francisco, CA For-profit $200 $225 $255 Dublin, Ireland Dalitso Sulamoyo, PhD John P. Conbere, EdD President/CEO of the Illinois Association Individual Subscriptions $90 Professor, Organization Learning and Development, of Community Action Agencies, University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, MN Springfield, IL * All prices in US funds.

Organization Development Network

Organization Development Board of Trustees Executive Director Membership in the OD Network Network Matt Minahan, EdD, Chair Laura J. Rudzinski • Individual Membership: $225 330 North Wabash Avenue Sherry Duda, Vice Chair Magdy Mansour, Treasurer • Persons over 65: $115 Suite 2000 Director of Operations Yasmeen Burns, Secretary Chicago, IL 60611 • Full-time students in a degree program Christina Bell Christie Smaidris (employed half-time or less): $115 T: 312.321.5136 Norm Jones, PhD F: 312.673.6836 Jaya Bohlmann For information regarding Please direct all inquiries to: E: [email protected] Martha Kesler advertising opportunities in [email protected] Kris Lea the OD Practitioner, please www.odnetwork.org e-mail Andrew Werfelmann at Zoe MacLeod [email protected] Special Issue of the OD Practitioner Summer 2015 Design and Journal of the Organization Development Network Organization Development Call for Articles

Design lies at the heart of OD prac- so on. The formal role of traditional tice. Whether we are designing a team organization design remains important, development process, a learning cur- of course, and yet we need to push our riculum, a strategic change initiative, thinking beyond that boundary. Why, a new framework for service delivery, for instance, is there a sudden surge an organization’s work and report- of interest in the relationship between ing structure, something as simple as the formal discipline of design and the a meeting, or an offsite retreat, OD work of OD professionals? How can we professionals are always required to use leverage leaders’ current fascination “design thinking.” But how explicitly do with design? we and should we think of ourselves as We asked this question openly “designers”? ­during the 2011 OD Network Confer- This has become a more conten- ence. In his keynote address, Tom tious question over the last few decades ­Lockwood, the former head of the as “organization design” seems to be Design Management Institute and now emerging as a discrete, focused activity an independent design consultant, that can be clearly differentiated from noted that: “organization development.” Members There is no doubt about the buzz of the Organization Design Forum, the around design today. But what lies association of practitioners who position below the surface of cool prod- design as distinct from development, ucts and thoughtful services is an currently tend to espouse the view that amazing ability to drive change these domains represent connected, in organizations, in customer but distinctly different activities. The experiences, and even in ­business friction in this debate appears to reflect models. Design is, in fact, an the assumption that structure is sepa- agent of change. Because we don’t rate from process and that strategy is design what is, we design what is separate from human relationships. to come. Design is about creating Is this a useful dichotomy at this stage preferred futures, and the influ- in our understanding of the evolu- ence of designers and design tion of learning and change in human managers is more than one might systems? Or could design, in fact, be a initially think. creative, essential dynamic that unifies structure and process in ways that could This is where OD and the design com- collapse the dichotomy we seem to be munities clearly overlap. Lockwood also currently defending? shared some specific insights about the While this debate has important role of design in business, the process of implications, we want to pursue defin- design thinking, and how design can be ing and exploring the larger role of a catalyst to help move an organization design in the field of human systems to desired outcomes. Most importantly, guidance—purpose, change, strategy, he pointed out potential connections culture, development, values, transfor- between the design and organization mation, learning, sustainability, and development communities and invited

Design and Organization Development: Call for Articles 1 us to explore the potential power of a »» Are there design principles and challenges by changing the conversation stronger collaborative relationship. ­practices that can influence the about problems and potential solu- This special issue of the OD Prac­ development of organization tions. She has worked for more than ti­tioner will bring the possibilities for ­culture, and where are the points 30 years with clients including govern- partnership between design and organi- of intersection? ment agencies, corporations, nonprofit zation development into sharper focus. »» How might the design and OD com- organizations, and educational institu- We invite contributions that explore munities collaborate when the goal tions to design and facilitate organiza- these possibilities directly, and that is support for innovation? tional change and development efforts respond to questions such as: »» Is it possible to intentionally design ­involving diverse stakeholders. Kimball »» What is design thinking, and how is physical spaces and work environ- has a deep interest in designing pro- it related to effective OD practice? ments that help people do their cesses that engage stakeholders, and she »» What might the design and OD best work? What have we learned pioneered the development and applica- ­communities learn from each from past attempts? What are future tion of Liberating Structures, a mash up other, and how might a stronger possibilities? of open source methods that make high relationship influence both profes- »» How might design and OD profes­ engagement practical, exciting, and fun. sional roles? sionals best learn from one another She served on the Board of the Orga- »» How and where does design influ- and build truly collaborative nization Development Network from ence OD practice, and how might relationships? 2006-2011 and is currently on the Board OD practitioners become more of the Organization Design Forum. She consciously skilled as designers? And we welcome any article that illumi- can be reached at [email protected]. »» What might be a useful way to nates the relationship between design conceptualize the relationship and OD. Peter Norlin, PhD, Principal of Change- between organization design and Guides, and formerly Executive Direc- organization development? And is Submission Deadline tor of the OD Network, has spent over there value in seeking to re-concep- is April 14, 2015 30 years in the field of OD, serving a tualize or reconcile their apparent range of customers from two-person differences? Articles should be sent to the ODP partnerships to Fortune 100 compa- »» Where have organization develop- editor, John Vogelsang (jvogelsang@ nies. A graduate of The Johns Hopkins ment principles and practices been earthlink.net). Submissions should University Master’s Degree Program in used by design professionals, and follow the OD Practitioner Guidelines Applied Behavioral Science/Organiza- how have they affected design prac- for Authors, which appear on page 56 tion Development, he also has an MA tices, perspectives, and outcomes? of this issue of the ODP. The special and PhD from Northwestern University. »» What are the key design principles issue editors will screen the articles and His teaching experience includes faculty and challenges OD professionals provide feedback. Final articles will be appointments at Vanderbilt Univer- confront when they are asked to reviewed by two members of the ODP sity, Johns Hopkins University, and design strategic change initiatives? Editorial Board. Georgetown University. Based in Ann »» How might design be used to Arbor, Michigan, he is also a profes- develop even more effective organi- Guest Editors sional member of the NTL Institute, zational structures, work processes, and treasurer of the International OD relationships, or performance? Lisa Kimball, PhD, is CEO, Group Jazz. Association (IODA). He can be reached Where are examples of innovative She is an actionary known for her ability at [email protected]. organizational design thinking? to help organizations tackle complex

2 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Introduction to OD and the Nonprofit Sector

This special issue of the OD Practitioner Table 1. Values Most Important to the Nonprofit Sector attempts to capture the nonprofit ­sector’s current challenges and opportunities and some of the distinct approaches and Effective—providing programs and services of the highest quality at practices OD practitioners are developing reasonable cost; making a difference in the lives of individuals and 99% within the sector. the community.

The Nonprofit Sector Responsive—responding to clients, patrons, and communities; meeting needs that the market and government do not meet; pursuing innovative 99% The nonprofit sector includes a wide variety approaches when needed. of organizations with a wide range of sizes Reliable—resilient and demonstrating staying power both in good times and structures: hospitals and universities, 98% environmental advocacy and civil rights and bad; operating in a trustworthy and accountable manner. organizations, family and children services, Caring—serving underserved populations; providing services/programs community development and antipoverty 96% organizations, community health agen- at reduced or no cost to disadvantaged populations; community focused. cies, professional associations, founda- Enriching—giving expression to central human values; providing tions, community chests, orchestras, opera opportunities for people to learn and grow; fostering intellectual, companies, theatre companies, religious 94% scientific, cultural, and spiritual development; preserving culture and congregations, and many more. The sector history; promoting creativity. itself also has many identifying titles: social sector, third sector, independent sector, civil Empowering—mobilizing and empowering citizens; contributing to society, voluntary sector, and nongovern- public discourse; providing opportunities for civic engagement for 88% mental organizations (NGOs). the public good. In the US alone there are 1.6 million nonprofits including 501(c)(4) social wel- Productivity—creating jobs and economic value; mobilizing assets to 87% fare and lobbying organizations and 501(c) address public problems; enhancing local economic vitality. (3) public serving organizations, the largest category of nonprofits. »» Nonprofits account for 10% of the for services and goods from private they attempt to enact these values. The entire US labor force, making them the sources, 46.6%; payments (e.g., Medic- interviews we conducted with nonprofit third largest employer; only surpassed aid and Medicare) and contracts/grants leaders in preparation for this special issue by retail trade (15.4%) and manufactur- from government sources, 32.7%; and and the literature we reviewed identified ing (14.1%) (Salamon, et al., 2012). philanthropy 12.6%. (Pettijohn, 2013) three major challenges: Financial Sustain- »» 17% of nonprofits have budgets ranging ability, Increased Demand for Account- from $1m to $10m+; 83% have budgets Even with the sector’s diversity, many ability and Assessment, and the Shifting under a million. nonprofits share basic agreements about Structure of the Sector. »» The total assets for the US nonprofit the sector’s core values. The John Hopkins sector in 2011 were $2.9 Trillion. Nonprofit Listening Post Project heard Financial Sustainability »» An estimated $836.9 billion was from 731 US nonprofit organizations in The nonprofit leaders we spoke with talked contributed to the US economy by the the fields of human services, community about the challenges of constant fund nonprofit sector in 2011, which is 5.6% ­development, and the arts about the sec- ­raising, trying to motivate and reward an of the country’s gross domestic product. tor’s core values (Salamon et al., 2013). often underpaid and over-worked staff, and »» The major sources of revenue are fees Table 1 lists the core values; the percent- the increasing demand for their agency’s ages are how many of the respondents services with diminishing resources to indicated the value was important to very provide those services. Former Editors important. Wilson and Taylor (2004), Miller Larry Porter 1973–1981 (2008), and the Nonprofit Finance Fund Raymond Weil 1982–1984 The Challenges and Opportunities (2014) describe the constant challenge Don & Dixie Van Eynde 1985–1988 for the Sector of most donors and foundations funding David Noer 1989–1992 projects but not funding the administrative Celeste Coruzzi 1993–1995 David Nicoll 1996–2000 Although these common values are expenses needed to manage the projects. Marilyn E. Blair 2000–2008 strongly held, a vast majority of nonprofits There is also limited funding to help are dealing with persistent challenges as nonprofits build their capacity to effectively

Introduction to OD and the Nonprofit Sector 3 meet the needs of their current clients and facilitate capacity development for HIV/ impact or program metrics. While 77% of the growing demands for their services. AIDS services organization to make the respondents agreed that the metrics The Nonprofit Finance Fund’s 2014 survey the cultural and structural transition funders ask for are helpful in assessing of nonprofits found that 53% of the 5,019 from providing services for “dying with impact, only 1% reported that funders respondents from 50 states and Puerto dignity” to services for “living with always cover the costs of impact measure- Rico said funders were interested in sup- dignity.” ment; 71% said the additional costs were porting program expansion and never or »» The Centers for Disease Control’s rarely or never covered. rarely interested in covering the full cost of Healthy Communities Program worked Emphasis on performance measures programs. NFF also found: with the National Association of County can also contribute to mission drift. “On »» 80% of respondents reported an and City Health Officials, the National the one hand, performance measures drive increase in demand for services, the Association of Chronic Disease Direc- nonprofits to focus on outcomes, instead of 6th straight year of increased demand. tors, the National Recreation and Park just inputs and outputs. On the other hand, »» 56% were unable to meet demand in Association, and the YMCA of the an obsession with particular measures can 2013—the highest reported in the sur- USA to assist in the local develop- lead to mission drift and the cherry-picking vey’s history. ment and implementation of needed of services and clients, such that perfor- »» Only 11% expect 2014 to be easier than health-related environmental change mance looks best along just the dimen- 2013 for the people they serve. strategies; provide linkages to resources sions measured” (Brooks, 2003, p. 504). »» More than half of nonprofits (55%) have and other funding opportunities; In order to be accountable, community 3 months or less cash-on-hand. and connect local communities to development agencies focus on what can »» 28% ended their 2013 fiscal year with a national partners and experts (www. be measured and not on what effects long deficit. cdc.gov/nccdphp/dch/programs/ term change. There are also limited meth- »» Only 9% can have an open dialogue healthycommunitiesprogram/). ods and resources for measuring long-term with funders about developing reserves »» In spring 2014, the Hispanic Fed- social change efforts (Taylor & Saol, 2003). for operating needs, and only 6% about eration, Coalition for Asian American developing reserves for long-term facil- Children and Families, and New York Shifting Structure of the Sector ity needs. Urban League formed an alliance The traditional boundaries that have to provide capacity-building sup- divided the three sectors: private (for- According to the NFF survey, nonprofits port to Black, Latino, and Asian-led profit), public (government), and nonprofit indicated they would respond to this finan- community-based nonprofit organiza- are becoming blurred (Guo, 2004; Sho- cial sustainability challenge in the follow- tions throughout New York City’s five ham, et al., 2006; Martin & Osberg, 2007; ing ways: boroughs. These three organizations, Paton et al., 2007). Many nonprofits are »» 31% will change the main ways in along with the Asian American Fed- depending more on fee for services, and which they raise and spend money. eration and Black Agency Executives, many for-profits are providing services »» 26% will pursue an earned income developed this initiative to generate that have traditionally been the purview venture. new levels of support for the city’s of nonprofits, such as health care and job »» 20% will seek funding other than community-based organizations. The training (Guo, 2004). Social entrepreneur grants & contracts, such as loans or New York City Council has allocated approaches are producing organizations other investments. $2.5 million for this alliance (www. that utilize for-profit business methods and cdc.gov/nccdphp/dch/programs/ income generating strategies with mission Another way nonprofits are responding healthycommunitiesprogram/). driven ways to affect social change (Martin to the financial sustainability challenge & Osberg, 2007; Phills, et al., 2008). is through initiatives that bring together Increased Demand for Accountability The nonprofit leaders we spoke with funders (e.g., individual donors, founda- and Assessment want to be mission focused and business tions, and government), local communities, Scandals about use of funds have threat- smart. They want to develop organizational and other nonprofits to agree on specific ened public trust in the sector and structures that exemplify their mission and changes and develop collaborative pro- increased the call for greater account- values and support their services. cesses for achieving those changes. Some ability and performance measures (Aviv, Many nonprofits are experimenting examples are: 2004; Strom, 2008; Chan & Takagi, 2011). with various organizational designs and »» In the 1990s, when new HIV/AIDS However, tracking the relevant data and income generating business approaches. drugs became available, New York producing the required reports can strain They are becoming social enterprises City funders representing corporate, the organizational capacity of small non- whose primary purpose is to directly deal individual donor funds, and private profits (Campbell, 2003; Gammal, 2006). with a social need as either a nonprofit foundations came together with a Respondents to the NFF survey said that using earned income strategies to pursue nonprofit consulting group to fund and more than 70% of their funders requested its mission or a for-profit that pursues a

4 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 social good using commercial strategies levels so that each unit can better serve nonprofits and provide important insights (Social Enterprise Alliance, www.se-alliance. its constituents, anticipate and plan for about what interventions work. They also org). change, and respond to increasingly uncer- describe a set of characteristics for trauma- »» In New York City, Housing Works pro- tain and complex external environments. tized organizations and draw implications vides integrated services for those living In order to prepare people to be for effective OD practice. with HIV/AIDS. Besides receiving gov- leaders in this shifting nonprofit sector, The Episcopal Church is one of ernment grants, individual donations, nonprofit leadership development and the early adaptors of OD. As the church and Medicaid reimbursement, there education could benefit from a “greater applied OD it needed approaches that took are linked but separate (with their own emphasis on leadership in complex inter­ into account the unique dynamics and boards) for-profit enterprises that help organizational settings, where authority issues of the parish church, was expressed to financially support the work. Those may be ambiguous; a focus not only on in its own language, and drew upon the enterprises include a bookstore café, boards but also on multilevel governance central process for which it exists. Heyne 12 upscale thrift shops around New relationships; a greater recognition of the and Gallagher­ review the history of how York City, and a catering service. limits of rational management techniques OD has been integrated into parish life »» In Los Angeles, Chrysalis offers a path- and an appreciation of ‘post rational’ and how it has been modified to produce way to self-sufficiency for homeless and approaches to management and organiza- a form that enables consultants to work low-income individuals by providing tion using ideas such as complex adap- within religious systems. the resources and support needed to tive systems, sense making, emergence, Mary Hiland offers a study of how find and retain employment. In order to and managing paradoxes and dilemmas” the relationship between board chairs help individuals with the greatest barri- (­Patton, Mordaunt, & Comforth, 2007, and executive directors can influence the ers to employment, Chrysalis provides p. 160s). effectiveness of nonprofit organizations. transitional jobs through social enter- Nonprofit leaders need to recognize that prise businesses that include a profes- The Articles in this Issue the board chair and executive director sional street-maintenance and cleaning relationship is an important and powerful service and a full-service staffing agency Miguel Bonilla discusses key theoretical resource that can be leveraged in support (Social Enterprise Alliance). models and practices that are essential to of the organization’s mission. The board »» Harish Hande co-founded Selco Solar strengthening small nonprofits in times of chair and executive director need to pro- in 1995, to bring renewable energy adversity. Using two case studies, Bonilla mote and engage in dialogue about how to solutions to India’s poor. His approach provides examples of how to design best develop and nurture their relationship, has been to not just sell solar light- interventions at an individual, group, recognizing that building the relationship ing solutions, but create an entire or organization level. He also discusses itself is an important component of their ecosystem around it, including rela- evidence-based resilience assessments that work together. tions with banks, NGOs, and farmer can help uncover organizational strengths Anita Singh describes the heterarchic co-operatives for innovative financing, that can be cultivated and developed. structure of an Indian development organi- creation of income generation activities When it comes to the real work of zation that promotes the rights of women using solar, high-quality products, and social change, are we asking the right ques- and the marginalized. This emerging superior after sales service. Hande has tions? Doug Reeler offers seven important organizational design consists of loosely also started Selco Foundation, the phil- questions and lines of inquiry that guide coupled entities within a hierarchy that is anthropic arm of Selco, which seeks to his organization’s work with a wide variety held together by a common organizational provide the rural poor with renewable of community groups, local and interna- mission, vital information generation and energy services that can be leveraged tional NGOs, donor agencies, and govern- diffusion through lateral communication, for income generating activities (Social ment programs. He cautions that as we processes and forums where staff from Enterprise Alliance). desperately seek for answers, we have to different projects meet frequently either at recognize that in the sheer complexity of the headquarters or the project office, and a Some large nonprofits/NGOs are experi- being human and working with change, standardized accounting system across all menting with heterarchy. Stephenson so much remains that is unknown and its decentralized organizations. defines heterarchies as “an organizational even more that is unknowable. He argues Rebecca Slocum shares her experience form somewhere between hierarchy and for diverse, collaborative, learning-based of working in a consulting team with a network that provides horizontal links approaches to change. school in Johannesburg, South Africa. As a permitting different elements of an organi- Pat Vivian and Shana Hormann result, she returned home with a new ori- zation to cooperate while they individually share their experiences of working with entation to imagery, enabling her to attune optimize different success criteria” (2009, organizational trauma in highly mission- herself to a world rich in metaphor and p. 6). Anita Singh, in this issue, describes driven nonprofits. They explore the often full of meaning. She was more aware of one heterarchy that is decentralized at all unnoticed effects of traumatization on language patterns and how she can join the

Introduction to OD and the Nonprofit Sector 5 Michael Brazzel, PhD, CPCC, PCC is an OD and diversity consultant, leader- ship and diversity coach, certified professional coach, economist, and author. He is a member of NTL Institute and Editorial Board of the OD Practitioner, client’s use of metaphor and ask questions such as: How do these symbols resolve or organizer of Coaches for Equality and Diversity, co-editor of NTL Handbook spread confusion? How do they provide of Organization Development and Change and NTL Reading Book for Human direction or mislead action? How do they Relations Training. He was executive, consultant, and coach in US government perpetuate identity? agencies and university professor. He can be reached at [email protected]. The summer 2015 issue of the ODP is dedicated to Design and Organization Anne Gardon’s consulting focuses on strategy, leadership, and organiza- Development. Further information is tion change with diverse nonprofits, businesses, and communities around contained in the call for articles on page 1 the world, and principally in metropolitan New York City. She is a leadership of this issue. Submit all articles to the coach for Executive Education programs at Columbia University. Gordon is ODP editor, John Vogelsang (jvogelsang@ earthlink.net). Submissions should follow fluent in Spanish and has worked on large-scale change projects in Mexico, the Guidelines for Authors, which appear Latin America, and Mongolia. She is currently living in Madrid, Spain and can on page 56. be reached at [email protected]. John Vogelsang and the Guest Editors: Michael Brazzel, Anne Gordon, Amber Amber Mayes is an independent OD consultant and coach with over 15 Mayes, Cathy Royal, and Annie Viets. years of experience supporting the transformation of organizations, teams, and leaders. She has worked with clients in the nonprofit, government, and corporate sectors. She has taught Organization Behavior and Cross-cultural Communication at Bentley College, Northeastern University, and George- town University. She has a BA from Harvard University, an MSOD from the American University/NTL Institute program in Organization Development, and an advanced certificate from the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland. She can be reached at [email protected].

Cathy Royal, PhD, is the owner and senior consultant of Royal Consulting Group. She is a System and Organizational Development professional with specialties in educational leadership, diversity, Appreciative Inquiry (AI) and organizational transformation. She presented her work on affirmative identity, gender, and Appreciative Inquiry at the 2009 AI World Summit in Katmandu, Nepal. Royal developed the Quadrant Behavior Theory (QBT)©, a dynamic theory that supports inclusion and social justice. She served as the Dean of Community Affairs and Multicultural Development at Phillips Academy, Andover, MA. She is a member of the ODN and a Ken Benne Scholar for the NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science (NTL). She has been honored by the US Congress for her work in gender and equality. She serves as an adjunct faculty member at Colorado Technical University. She can be reached at [email protected].

Annie Viets, EdD, is an Associate Professor of Management at Prince Moham- mad Bin Fahd University in Khobar, Saudi Arabia. Her career has included senior HR and OD positions at Ben & Jerry’s Homemade, Inc., The Hay Group, and Fletcher Challenge (New Zealand) Ltd. She has served on the facul- ties of the University of Vermont School of Business and the SIT Graduate Institute where she was Chair of the Management Degree Program. A global citizen, she has also consulted to large and small businesses, nonprofits, and government departments in the US and internationally on corporate social responsibility, sustainable leadership, conflict transformation, and management development. Current research interests center on women and entrepreneurship in the Middle East. She be reached at [email protected].

6 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 References Phills, J.A., Deiglmeier, K., & Miller, D. T. (2008, fall). Rediscovering social Aviv, D. (2004, June 8). Nonprofit account- innovation. Stanford Social Innovation ability: Inside and out. Speech pre- Review, 6(4), 34–43. sented at the Bridgestar community. Shoham, A., Ruvio, A., Vigoda-Gadot, E., & Brooks, A.C. (2003, Jul/Aug). Challenges Schwabsky, N. (2006). Market orienta- and opportunities facing nonprofit tions in the nonprofit and voluntary organizations. Public Administration sector: A meta-analysis of their relation- Review, 63(4), 503–506. ships with organizational performance. Campbell, D. (2003). Outcomes assess- Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, ment and the paradox of nonprofit 35(3), 453–476. accountability. Nonprofit Management Salamon, L., Sokolowski, S. W., & Geller, and Leadership, 12(3), 243–259. S. L. (2012). Holding the fort: Nonprofit Chan, E., & Takage, G. (2011, November employment during a decade of tur- 29). Avoiding trouble: What nonprofits moil. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins can learn from sex-abuse scandal. The University. Chronicle of Philanthropy. Retrieved Salamon, L. M., Geller, S. L., & New- from http://philanthropy com /article/ House, C. L. (2013). What do nonprofits Avoiding-Trouble-What/129920/ stand for? Renewing the nonprofit value Gammal, D. (2006, March 10). The non- commitment. Baltimore, MD: John Hop- profit accountability trap. Retrieved kins University Center for Civil Society from https://itunes.apple.com/us/ Studies. Retrieved from http://ccss.jhu. itunes-u/center-for-social-innovation/ edu/publications­findings?did=389 id385633199?mt=10 Stephenson, K. (2009). Neither hierarchy Golensky, M., & Mulder, C. A. (2008). Cop- nor network: An argument for het- ing in a constrained economy: Survival erarchy. Perspectives-point. People & strategies of nonprofit human service Strategy, 32(1), 4–11. organizations. Administration in Social Strom, S. (2008, May 26). Tax exemptions Work, 30(3), 5–24. of charities face new challenges. The Guo, B. (2004). The commercialization New York Times. Retrieved from www. of social services: Toward an under- nytimes.com standing of nonprofits in relation to Taylor, J., & Soal, S. (2003, March). government and for-profits. A paper ­Measurement in developmental submitted to the 6th ISTR Conference ­practice. Retrieved from http://www. in Toronto, Canada, July 11–14. CDRA.org.za Martin, R.L., & Osberg, S. (2007). Social Wilson, J., & Taylor, D. (2004). Financing entrepreneurship: The case for defini- development practice: How can we start tion. Stanford Social Innovation Review, to make the difference that makes a 5(2), 28–39. difference. Retrieved from http://www. Miller, C. (2008, summer). Equity capital CDRA.za gap. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 6(3), 41–46. Nonprofit Finance Fund. (2014). State of the nonprofit sector.Retrieved from http:// nonprofitfinancefund.org/ Paton, R., Mordaunt, J., & Comforth, C. (2007). Beyond nonprofit management education: Leadership development in a time of blurred boundaries and distributed learning. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Supplement, 36 (4 suppl), 148s–162s. Pettijohn, S. (2013). The nonprofit sector in brief. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

Introduction to OD and the Nonprofit Sector 7 “There is no doubt small nonprofits innovate where government and corporations cannot, they provide accessible, community-based services and employ the largest proportion of people in the nonprofit sector, making them critical contributors to our country’s development. Unfortunately, they are also the most vulnerable during tough economic times.”

Building Resilience in Small Nonprofits

By Miguel Bonilla Resilience is accepting your new increase in demand for services (Nonprofit reality, even if it’s less good than the Finance Fund, 2010). Small nonprofits one you had before. You can fight it, (budgets under $1 million), in particular, you can do nothing but scream about constitute 82% of the nonprofit sector what you’ve lost, or you can accept (Wing, Roeger, & Pollak, 2010) and are that and try to put together something more likely to struggle with inconsistent that’s good. program delivery, inexperienced leader- —Elizabeth Edwards ship, unstable operations, and cash flow (National Public Radio, problems (Simon, 2001). The culmination December 8, 2010) of these disruptive environmental changes place small nonprofits in the onerous posi- Nonprofits have always been a big part of tion of deciding whether to eliminate my life; I was a Boy Scout as a child, I vol- ­positions, programs, or close down. unteered for Junior Achievement in high This article discusses key theoretical school, and I was active in Amnesty Inter- models and practices that are essential to national in college. We all recognize the strengthening small nonprofits in times names of these large national nonprofits, of adversity. The focus of this article is on but for each established nonprofit, there building resilience, the process of maintain- are hundreds of local, emerging nonprofits. ing positive adjustment under challeng- After two decades in the nonprofit sector, I ing conditions. Throughout this article, see small nonprofits as hidden gems with I will bring in the true stories of Diego so much potential. I have worked in small and Andrea (not real names); two execu- nonprofits in Los Angeles, New York City, tive directors searching for ways to bring and Washington, DC. I have served on resilience to their organization. Their boards, volunteered and consulted with challenges, typical for small organiza- small nonprofits. There is no doubt small tions, demonstrates the interrelationships nonprofits innovate where government between leader behaviors and organiza- and corporations cannot, they provide tional resilience. This article also discusses accessible, community-based services and the use of appropriate individual, group, or employ the largest proportion of people in organization-level interventions. Often- the nonprofit sector, making them critical times, organization-level interventions, contributors to our country’s development. such as scenario planning, can be strength- Unfortunately, they are also the most vul- ened with the support of group and individ- nerable during tough economic times. ual-level interventions, especially for small Nonprofits are dealing with severe gov- nonprofits. Finally, I will discuss various ernment and private foundation funding evidence-based resilience assessments that cuts (McCambridge, 2009; McCambridge help uncover strengths that can be culti- & Cohen, 2010; Chen, 2010; Souccar, vated and developed. 2008), even though 80% anticipate an

8 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No. 1 2015 Case Study 1: Space to Grow small national organization in New York poor decision-making. There simply isn’t a City. She had several years of senior-level lot of room for errors in this economy.” Our first leader, Diego, exudes the bound- corporate experience and worked as execu- Even though it has been a challeng- less energy and passion for his work you tive director for organizations ten times ing year, Andrea believes “everybody’s got would expect in a small business entrepre- larger than her current one. Accustomed something that can help them through a neur. Diego, like 70% of nonprofit execu- to more financial resources and access to recession.” tive directors, is new to his position. A year discretionary funds, she found herself lead- How are Andrea and Diego’s actions ago, he joined New York City Leaders, a ing a very lean eight-person staff through indicative of behaviors that either pro- small leadership development nonprofit the economic downturn. mote or prevent resilience? Where are the that trains and places smart, energetic “When I was president of a $50 mil- opportunities for an OD practitioner to women and people of color in community lion nonprofit, we struggled through the intervene? organizations. recession in the 1990s,” said Andrea. “At During his first week, he was given the the time, we had to focus on quick cost Resilience Theory and Practice challenge of doubling the number of par- reductions. At the same time, we had to ticipants in a three months period without expand programs. The difference is that The study of resilience began almost 40 increasing his five-person staff. To make this was a very different organization from years ago when Lois Murphy, a noted child matters worse, he had to reinvigorate a dis- the one I work in now. There is little room psychologist, decried the vast “problem lit- engaged board with poor group dynamics to breathe in a smaller organization.” erature” on children despite our country’s and address poor staff morale impacted by When she first began at the new vast technological and scientific achieve- constant leadership changes and resigna- organization, she was able to leverage past ments (Masten & Reed, 2002). Most tion of a key employee. He had to find a relationships with funders to invest in research tended to focus on the impact way to keep his staff motivated, recruit an the organization. When the recession hit, genetics or environments had on chil- unusually large number of participants and she immediately developed contingency dren, such as offspring of schizophrenic organizations to place them in, and ensure plans, enacted furloughs, and ended their parents, premature births, or poverty. Ten they were fiscally sound. 403b match, a retirement savings plan for years after her remarks, researchers began Luckily, Diego had two elements of nonprofits, to keep the organization afloat. to study more closely how some children resilience that I will discuss in more detail Although these decisions were hard to were “resistant” despite being at-risk for later: he had overcome similar challenges make, her past experience managing dur- serious problems. Several of the studies in the past and he found himself with ing a recession taught her not to falter. found these children had unique assets or unexpected resources—his own internal “You just have to do something,” said resources that fostered their ability to adapt resiliency and changes in the economy Andrea. “That is the only thing that is simi- in hard times (Masten & Reed, 2002). that necessitated his nonprofit’s services. lar to a large organization because reality For example, children from impoverished Although he was a new Executive Director, requires action.” neighborhoods whose circumstances he had been in senior leadership positions She attributes her personal resiliency would have predicted otherwise, had good at other nonprofits where he had to deal to her attentive husband, a non-judgmental grades, were involved in age-appropriate with severe budget cuts, organizational board chair, and an obsession with lists, activities, had few symptoms of internal- changes, and low staff morale. He knew yet, she admits she could do more to help izing or externalizing behaviors, and main- from past experience that the best way to her staff become more resilient. tained healthy peer relationships. lead staff during tough times is not by lim- “I’m not the touchy feely type. I con- Resilience has since been studied iting information or micromanaging their sider myself a high expectations leader,” in adults, groups, and organizations, work, but to help them grow as leaders. said Andrea. “Staff should already be although most research still continues to “I’m very committed to organizational resilient. I’m very open regarding our be focused on individual resiliency. The health,” said Diego. “I think it’s important financial situation and encourage staff to study of individual resiliency has many to have resources for staff and to focus on take advantage of classes for their edifica- implications for organizational resilience, their development. As much as possible, I tion, but ultimately how they interpret our yet applying individual learning concepts to provide increased training opportunities, circumstances is their choice. They have organization-level systems and processes is meet with staff regularly, and coach them to choose what they want to do with the not necessarily correlated (McCann, 2004). to grow their roles, but, not necessarily information I give them.” A strong, resilient leader may not be able to responsibilities.” She acknowledged she encourages build organizational resilience because he/ risk-taking, but felt it must be tempered. she may not know how to change the struc- Case Study 2: High Expectations “You can’t let it go too far, especially during tures and processes needed to build resil- tight times. I’ve seen how some leaders use ience. For example, Andrea, from our case Almost three years ago, Andrea, our second laissez-faire management as an excuse for study, had great personal resiliency, but, leader, was hired as executive director of a did not feel the need to transfer that trait to

Building Resilience in Small Nonprofits 9 the rest of the organization. In her opinion, Agile organizations are open to change a good starting point for systematically staff should come to work with the capacity and quickly execute new strategies. For assessing how an organization’s current to recover from significant changes and small nonprofits, this may mean strategic practices support or hinder their ability to should make their own decisions based on alliances with other nonprofits to share be agile and resilient. Some examples of the information she shares with them. She costs, outsourcing administrative roles, interventions that build resilient organiza- expected her staff, many of whom were or refocusing their mission. More impor- tions include creating contingency plans young and new to the nonprofit sector, to tantly, it means making sense of emerging and crisis response capabilities in staff, quickly develop the experience, resources, conditions and redeploying resources in engaging in enterprise-wide risk assess- and knowledge she gained from her years a new direction. Both Diego and Andrea ments, developing assets inside and of service. were able to execute on new opportunities outside the organization if needed, and Aside from distinguishing individual that arose at the time. Diego’s organiza- making sure everyone shares the same and organization-level resilience, it is also tion provided a low-cost staffing alternative belief in the core values of the organization. important to define the difference between to organizations struggling to maintain Andrea and Diego both demonstrated resiliency and resilience. Resiliency is an services. He was able to meet his chal- these behaviors to varying degrees. Andrea individual personality trait (derived from ego-resiliency), whereas resilience is a Aside from distinguishing individual and organization-level process. Making this distinction helps the OD practitioner focus on structures resilience, it is also important to define the difference between and processes needed to make resilience resiliency and resilience. Resiliency is an individual personality possible rather than subjective judgments on a leader’s ability to adjust or lead in trait (derived from ego-resiliency), whereas resilience is a changing conditions. process. Making this distinction helps the OD practitioner focus Given these distinctions, there are at least two building blocks contributing to on structures and processes needed to make resilience possible an organization’s ability to be resilient, rather than subjective judgments on a leader’s ability to adjust according to Cameron, Dutton, and Quinn (2003): resources (social, emotional, mate- or lead in changing conditions. rial, etc.) and past experiences with similar challenges. Leaders can provide resources lenge by marketing the smart, motivated, made quick, decisive cuts through her con- through training, flexible work structures, young people in his leadership program tingency plan, which created resources that or even respectful interactions. Leaders who received weekly coaching, professional helped sustain the organization. Diego did can develop experiences of resilience by development training, and were paid only not have a contingency plan but engaged fostering practices where staff are able $13,000 a year – a bargain for most small staff in finding solutions. The impact of to exercise judgment, such as making or nonprofits. Andrea, on the other hand, these behaviors was evident in the way staff recovering from mistakes, experiencing used her connections to a large corporate interacted with each executive director. success, or providing process feedback. funder to develop a new leadership pro- Diego had a small, easily accessible office Diego, from our case study example, used a gram for seasoned professionals. and no administrative assistant. During combination of these strategies to keep his McCann, Selsky, and Lee recommend our interview, a staff person felt comfort- staff energized and engaged. He increased organizations build individual, group, able enough to interrupt the meeting to training opportunities, he coached each and organization-level interventions ask Diego an important question. Instead staff member individually, and he worked simultaneously because they found that if of providing an answer, Diego asked him with them to grow their roles. Collectively, organization-level interventions are weak, what he thought they should do. Satisfied these strategies had the impact of main- then individual and team efforts are likely with his own response, the staff person taining morale, keeping staff focused, and to fail. Andrea, for example, said she had eagerly returned to his work. Andrea, on building organization-level resilience. no problems letting her staff take risks, the other hand, had a large office far from Another research study argued that but was more hesitant to do so during the where most staff were seated. She had a organizations must also adopt agile prac- recession. This may have prevented staff secretary seated in front of her office who tices in addition to resiliency. McCann, from exploring new funding opportunities vetted guests and maintained her sched- Selsky, and Lee’s (2009) study of 471 or making program improvements if they ule. While waiting for Andrea to finish up companies revealed how turbulent environ- felt they did not have the autonomy to act a previous meeting, I spoke to one of the mental challenges, such as an economic on their own behalf. staff. I asked how they were managing the recession, are debilitating for organiza- McCann, Selsky, and Lee argue that turmoil the organization was undergoing. tions that do not build sufficient adaptive although studying the balance between She said it was stressful because of the capacity to meet their new conditions. agility and resiliency is complex, it can be drastic changes but that she was happy

10 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Past Experience

Andrea was in charge. She said, “It was comforting to have someone in charge who’s been in a similar situation.” The values, norms, and shared beliefs underlying Diego and Andrea’s organiza- tion are emblematic of the most critical component supporting an organization’s ability to be resilient: the organization’s culture. Meyer’s (1982) study of hospitals Resource Core Values Agility in the bay area impacted by a doctor’s Slack strike showed that “organization ideolo- gies explain responses better than their slack resources.” Even though a couple of the hospitals in his study had the financial or administrative resources to help them rebound, it was their ability to make strate- gic decisions linked to their shared beliefs that best supported their ability to thrive during a downturn. One of the hospitals, for example, did not have reserves to help them rebound but did have a very fluid, Flexible Structures entrepreneurial culture. Units were encour- Figure 1. Model of Organizational Resilience aged to actively seek out new opportunities and functioned with relative independence, and top administrators spent the majority or insight individuals or groups gained constrained by bureaucratic processes or of their time developing external relation- through similar encounters; dense political struggles. ships. When the strike decreased the num- »» Agility: openness to change and the Although the driving force for small ber of clients, administrators leveraged capacity to move quickly; and nonprofits is growth and vitality, their external relationships to quickly launch »» Structures: the activities such as task efforts are stifled by the founder’s need for new programs and services, which were allocation, coordination, and super­ control. Adizes claims that start-up organi- aligned with their existing, shared values. vision, directed towards organizational zations are dependent on their founder’s Hospitals who reacted against their shared goals. vision and leadership for their survival, beliefs, for example exhibiting a higher leaving staff with limited information. As level of distrust during the crisis, did not To add to our understanding, stage-based staff attempt to establish formal policies fare as well. theories of organization development, such and procedures, they may be challenged As I reviewed the research on orga- as Adizes (1979), can help OD practitioners by an administrative system written on the nizational resilience, a model began to identify common organizational challenges back of an old envelope in the founder’s emerge that brings together several recur- in small nonprofits. Adizes concluded that vest pocket. This makes them more vulner- rent themes (See Figure 1: Model of Organi- organizations exhibit predictable patterns able because access to information is what zational Resilience). Most researchers agree based on the size of the organization, researchers, such as Dutton and McCann, that central to an organization’s resilience when it was founded, and its infrastructure claim help organizations become more are its core values. Agility, past experiences, needs. He argued that “People, products, resilient. resources, and flexible structures are mean- markets, even societies, have lifecycles— According to Adizes, the amount of ingless without the engine, the core values, birth, growth, maturity, old age, and death. time spent on developing administrative that keeps these components in motion. At every lifecycle passage a typical pattern behaviors during the beginning stages Resilient systems, like DNA in a cell, are of behavior emerges” (p. 4). Decision- must exceed the amount of time spent on diverse in their edges, but simple at their making in the startup stage, for example, is entrepreneurial activities. These entrepre- core. The fuzzy, evolving components of more similar to the human relations model neurs usually struggle to delegate responsi- the model include: of managing organizations; decisions are bilities, meet with boards less often, or are »» Resources: the social, emotional, informal, flexible, rapid, and increasingly less likely to set board term limits (Cam- material slack reserved and used when linked to external support. Small organiza- eron & Quinn, 1983; Block & Rosenberg, needed; tions can more easily adopt a new stra- 2002). »» Experiences: the exposure, involvement tegic direction than larger organizations Oftentimes, founders’ command and control tendencies combined with tough

Building Resilience in Small Nonprofits 11 environmental circumstances create what organization-level needs. Given the wide team functioning, group composition, and Dutton, Sandelands, and Staw, (1981) call diversity of nonprofits, groups, and leaders goal clarity can be a good starting point. At “threat rigidity.” Threat rigidity is defined that exist, knowing which intervention is the individual-level, the model proposes by behaviors that are triggered by adverse appropriate for which level would require that OD practitioners look at autonomy, environmental conditions that push a more time than is allotted in this article. personal characteristics, task identity, and leader to behave in ways they might not A first step would be to use a diagnostic feedback on results. ordinarily behave. Under threat rigidity, leaders are more likely to restrict infor- If the organization’s leadership is open and ready for more mation, increase control, or conserve resources. Although small nonprofits are system-wide discussions, Large Group Interventions that naturally resilient, founders may not be support an organization’s potential, such as Future Search or able to remain open and may be stuck in the same patterns for years. Large Group Scenario Planning, can create organization-level Andrea and Diego have since moved commitments to a desired future and actions steps to get there. on to other organizations. They were not the founders of their organizations, which These interventions have been proven successful in utilizing can be a detriment when attempting to the social, emotional, and material resources available to help make substantive changes and struggle with challenging board relationships. They people and organizations build a greater future state together continue to develop their resiliency, which and can be customized to help organizations think through what kept their organizations from closing dur- ing a tough economic time. What could an will be needed in order to become more resilient. experienced OD practitioner have offered to strengthen their resilience? Below I tool, such as the Comprehensive Model for As mentioned earlier, nonprofit found- explore some possibilities. Diagnosing Organizational Systems (Cum- ers can present specific challenges for mings & Worley, 2008), to capture key smaller organizations. Tools that measure Developing Tools and Practices information at each level. At the organiza- the degree and need for control, such as tion level, practitioners can work with the the Competing Values Framework (Cam- In the past few pages, I have alluded to the client organization to look at environment, eron, et al., 2006), can help the practitioner importance of having right-sized inter- industry, strategy, structure, and culture. identify organizational dynamics that may ventions based on individual, group, or For groups, learning about group norms, be indicators of threat rigidity or an absent resilience response. This survey instru- ment measures whether an organization’s culture leans towards hierarchical, collab- Organization needs Senior staff orative, or creative. Another instrument, to adopt more coached to called the Organizational Culture Assess- flexible structures. new roles/ ment Instrument (OCAI), provides a quick Individual responsibilities. snapshot into the organization’s core val- ues, beliefs, and assumptions. For instance, if I were working with Andrea from the case study and found that the organization Consultant works with teams on a scored high for a controlling, authoritarian Work Redesign to align roles with work environment through the use of the Group chosen structure. OCAI instrument, I could use those results and one of the models mentioned earlier to influence leadership to create more oppor- tunities for staff to take risks so they may Organization hires consultant to conduct learn how to be more resilient. Scenario Planning to explore multiple futures. Another useful diagnostic tool used to Organization measure latent resilience in organizations is the Organizational Resilience Poten- tial Scale (ORPS). Developed in 2009 by Somers, it measures the degree to which Figure 2. Example of a Multiple-Level Intervention organizations have inherent behaviors that

12 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Table 1. Possible Resilience-Building Interventions at Multiple Levels

Resilience Skill Assessment Organization Group Individual

Build Resource McKinsey Capacity Develop contingency Adopt lean administrative Cross-train and move staff Slack Assessment Grid-can plan with defined crisis structures, for example, around to broaden skill/ help identify the social, response roles. have senior leaders make knowledge base. emotional, financial their own copies to save resources. money on staffing.

Strengthen Organizational Resilience Coordinate strategic Set clear priorities and Provide financial rewards Agility Potential Scale (ORPS)- planning with a well- deadlines. Hold teams and career incentives measures extent to researched environmental accountable for meeting towards action bias. which managers exhibit scan. them. behaviors that make them resilient, which includes openness to environmental risks.

Capitalize on The Resilience Benchmark Create knowledge sharing Provide diversity training Use Appreciative Inquiry Past Experiences Tool-measures various system to leverage various to reinforce idea that to help uncover relevant indicators including staff’s viewpoints/experiences. multiple viewpoints make experiences. ability to access various an organization stronger. types of experiences.

Develop Flexible Organizational Culture Scenario Planning to Work Redesign to support Coach senior staff to new Structures Assessment Instrument explore multiple futures. new flexible structures. roles/responsibilities. (OCAI)-helps identify core values. make them more or less resilient accord- such as “describe a situation in which and ready for more system-wide discus- ing to proven indicators of resilience. The you’ve observed resiliency in your organiza- sions, Large Group Interventions that indicators measure the extent to which tion,” or “tell me how you used new ideas support an organization’s potential, such managers perceive or seek information on to help your organization adjust to chang- as Future Search or Large Group Scenario environmental risks, the structure of the ing environmental conditions,” can help Planning, can create organization-level organization, or the degree of participation leaders recognize new ways of leading and commitments to a desired future and in community planning activities. growing the organization. actions steps to get there. These inter- Feedback from these diagnostic tools An example of how coaching helped ventions have been proven successful in is a helpful start, but perhaps, a promising an executive director make shifts in her utilizing the social, emotional, and material intervention with great impact could be mindset came from a small grief counsel- resources available to help people and coaching the client. Nonprofit funders are ing nonprofit that originally asked for help organizations build a greater future state continuing to take an interest in coach- building a new strategic direction for the together and can be customized to help ing as a means to help nonprofit executive organization. After interviewing their staff, organizations think through what will be directors deal with organizational chal- our team of consultants discovered the needed in order to become more resilient. lenges (Howard, Blair, & Kellogg, 2006) founder struggled with letting go of key Large Group Scenario Planning in par- because of its proven ability to help leaders decisions and opening the board to people ticular, can build organizational agility by identify solutions to problems, increase outside of her network. After receiving this allowing multiple stakeholders to have a organizational learning, and develop better feedback during her coaching meetings, voice in determining the organization’s self-awareness. As McCann, Selsky, and the client realized how her behavior was future, which, as discussed earlier, also Lee (2009) suggest, leaders need help in impacting the organization and decided leads to resilience. making sense of their circumstances, creat- it was more pressing to build a stronger, ing and sustaining an openness to change, more professional board with outsiders in Conclusion sharing knowledge, creating an action order to grow her organization and leave a bias in the organization, and developing legacy of her work. As the founder of the Research on resilience is still a burgeoning resources quickly. organization, she still struggles with letting field, especially when it comes to under- Appreciative-Inquiry based coaching, go, but has increasingly become more com- standing how to support small nonprofits. for example, can help leadership identify mitted to the idea that others need to be a What is certain is that OD practitioners strength-based possibilities that might part of the decision-making process. have to build on the organizational culture otherwise be concealed. Powerful questions If the organization’s leadership is open to develop slack resources, a flexible

Building Resilience in Small Nonprofits 13 Miguel Bonilla is the Director of Organization Development for the New York City Department of structure, past experiences, and agil- (9th ed.). Mason, OH: South Western ity. Theories on life cycle stages can also Cengage Learning. Youth and Community Develop- provide rich material for the OD practi- Dutton, J.E., Sandelands, L.E., & Staw, B.M. ment and formerly the Director tioner to develop relevant interventions. (1981). Threat rigidity effects in organi- for Strengthening New York City More importantly, OD practitioners are in zational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Nonprofits at United Way of New a position where they can facilitate critical Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4), York City. He holds a MS in Urban meaning-making interventions that tap 501–524. Policy from the New School for into their existing resilience. Well-worn Howard, K.A., Blair, J., & Kellogg, V. OD values of collaboration, authenticity, (2006). A blueprint for action: Coaching Social Research and a MA in and empowerment are plainly aligned with as a tool for building leadership and effec- Organizational Management from mission-focused organizations. With the tive organizations in the nonprofit sector. Antioch University Los Angeles. He help of seasoned OD practitioners, these Washington, DC: Grantmakers for was Vice President of the Organi- organizations can transition into higher Effective Organizations. zation Development Network of impact social cause groups by letting go Light, P. (2004). Spiral of sustainable excel- New York, is an adjunct professor of command and control leadership and lence. Nonprofit Quarterly, 10(4), 56–62. building fluid organizational structures. Lippitt, G. L., & Schmidt, W. H. (1967). for Alfred University’s Master’s Crisis in developing organizations. Har- in Public Administration program References vard Business Review, 45 (6), 102–112. and has published several articles Meyer, A.D. (1982). Adapting to environ- on nonprofit capacity building. He Adizes, I. (1979). Organizational passages: mental jolts. Administrative Science be reached at miguelbonilla70@ Diagnosing and treating lifecycle prob- Quarterly, 27(4), 515-537. gmail.com. lems of organizations. Organizational McCambridge, R. (2009). Foundation Dynamics, 8(1), 3–25. grantmaking during the 2008–2009 Bell, J. (2006). Daring to lead 2006: A economic collapse. The Nonprofit Quar- potential: An adaptive strategy for national study of nonprofit executive terly, 14(1), 38–45. organizational crisis planning. Journal leadership. San Francisco, CA: Compass McCann, J., (2004, Spring). Organiza- of Contingencies and Crisis Management, Point. tional effectiveness: Changing concepts 17(1), 12–23. Blackwood, A., Pollack, T.H., & Wing, K.T. for changing environments. Human Souccar, M.K. (2008, November 19). (2008). The nonprofit almanac 2008. Resource Planning, 27(1), 42–50, Financial crisis will kill nonprofits: Washington, DC: The Urban Institute McCann, J., Selsky, J., & Lee, J. (2009). Cuts in government spending and Press. Building agility: Resilience and per- dwindling donations provide a double Block, S. R., & Rosenberg, S. (2002). formance in turbulent environments. whammy for many agencies. Retrieved Toward an understanding of founder’s People & Strategy, 32(3), 44–51. from http://www.crainsnewyork.com/ syndrome. Nonprofit Management & Schmidt, H. (2006). Leadership styles and article/20081119/FREE/811199976 Leadership, 12(4), 353–369. leadership change in human com- Wing, K., Roeger, K.L., & Pollak, T. H. Cameron, K.S., Dutton, J.E., & Quinn, R.E. munity service organizations. Non- (2010). The nonprofit sector in brief: Pub- (Eds.). (2003). Positive organizational profit Management & Leadership, 17(2), lic charities, giving and volunteering 2009. scholarship. San Francisco, CA: Berrett- 179–194 Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Koehler Publishers. Simon, J. S., Donovan, T., & Andrews, R. Cameron, K.S., & Quinn, R.E., (1983). B. (2001). The five life stages of nonprofits Organizational life cycles and shifting (2nd ed.). Saint Paul, MN: Fieldstone criteria of effectiveness: Some prelimi- Alliance. nary evidence. Management Science, Smith, E. (2010). The state we are in: 29(1), 33–51. Don’t hold your breath. Retrieved Cameron, K.S., & Quinn, R.E. (2006). from http://www.nonprofitquarterly. Diagnosing and changing organizational org/index.php?option=com_ culture: Based on the competing values content&view=article&id=2103:the- framework (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: state-were-in-dont-hold-your- Jossey-Bass. breath&catid=225:the-state-were- Chen, D. (2010, April 18). Nonprofit groups in&Itemid=162 hopeful but wary as city aims to cut red Snyder, C.R., & Lopez, S. (Eds.). (2002). tape. New York Times, p. A17. Handbook of positive psychology. New Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C.G. (2008). York, NY: Oxford University Press. Organization development and change Somers, S. (2009). Measuring resilience

14 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 “Empowerment does not begin with the ability to find right answers but to continually develop more powerful questions, out of real experience. Questioning is the yeast of social change.”

Exploring the Real Work of Social Change

Seven Questions that Keep Us Awake

By Doug Reeler The important thing is the relation- to improve our observations and learn- ships, not the agenda . . . eventually ings, and to guide our next actions. We put they will call me to a meeting, I will good effort into encouraging the people we not call them to a meeting. Participa- engage to continually improve their own tion means that we participate with observational and questioning powers and the village people, not that they processes. Empowerment does not begin participate with us . . . the first thing with the ability to find right answers but to is to make relationships, not to make continually develop more powerful ques- projects.—Meas Nee (1999) tions, out of real experience. Questioning is the yeast of social change. People have to be seen as being Sometimes there are no answers, only actively involved, given the opportu- continual questioning into the future. As nity, in shaping their own destiny, Rilke implores: and not just as passive recipients of the fruits of cunning development Be patient toward all that is unsolved programs.—Amartya Sen (1999) in your heart and try to love the ques- tions themselves… Do not now seek This paper is written out of the work I and the answers, which cannot be given my colleagues have done over the past you because you would not be able 20 years as activists and social change to live them. And the point is, to live facilitators. We work out of an NGO based everything. Live the questions now. in Cape Town, SA called the Community Perhaps you will then gradually, with- Development Resource Association (www. out noticing it, live along some distant cdra. org.za), with a wide variety of people, day into the answer. Rilke (1929) from rural and urban communities and movements to networks and alliances, local Our important questions seldom have and international NGOs and donor agen- ready answers. Consider the question: How cies to government, in almost every sector do we bring communities and government and with a wide range of issues. We are together into a co-creative relationship? dilettantes in the finest sense of the word. The answer to this complex question is not Our practice is essentially about design- only different for different contexts but in ing and facilitating transformative prac- each of these contexts the response cannot tices and processes of social change and be simply cooked up in a strategic planning the kinds of organization and leadership session or a logframe1 with a fixed budget required to support these. under a donor’s deadline. The answer to This article is about exploring ques- tions that matter. We see ourselves as 1. Logical Framework Approach (logframe) is a “action researchers” and so we like good management tool used for designing, monitoring, questions, constantly working with them and evaluating international development projects.

Exploring the Real Work of Social Change: Seven Questions that Keep Us Awake 15 this question must be discovered through Question 4 – How do we work with for change is more likely to provoke resis- continuous cycles of doing, observing, uncertainty? tance or further passivity. If women in a reflecting, learning, and replanning, each Question 5 – What social change strategies community are stuck, seemingly passive requiring its own process of disciplined work best? and unable to break out of dependence questioning, and the more participative Question 6 – What kinds of organizations and subservience to the patriarchy, it is not the more likely to succeed. And it is likely and leadership do we need to face the because they are internally passive, but that the question itself will change, perhaps future? because their will and capacity to change to: How do we support communities and Question 7 – How can we have conversa- is held back by a series of constraints both local government to prepare themselves for tions that matter? internal (psychological and cultural) and engagement? This is the practice of social external. If they can be helped to remove change, continually searching for better Question 1 – What is social change and or lower these constraints they will be able questions and able to meet the intricacies how do we approach it? to change themselves and their (power) and nuances of life. relationship to the world. One of the disciplines we teach in In working with communities, organiza- Seen in this way, living beings, social our work revolves around an exercise that tions, or networks, before we ask, “What or individual, do not change via cause and helps people to improve their important are the problems and possibilities and effect but by the release of the inner and questions, based on looking again at the how do we change things?”, we like to ask, outer constraints that are holding them in a experience out of which their questions “How are things already changing and particular state. If they can be supported to come, reflecting on that experience, stimu- lating the developing of improved or new People cannot be changed from the outside as if they are pieces questions, and then deciding what our next most fruitful step might be, not looking on a chess board. Indeed to apply an external stimulus for for quick answers, but continually deepen- change is more likely to provoke resistance or further passivity. ing our understanding, and framing better questions and the next right steps forward. If women in a community are stuck, seemingly passive and This is not an easy stance to take in a unable to break out of dependence and subservience to the world that demands answers in the form of a solid plan up front, a budget that can be patriarchy, it is not because they are internally passive, but accounted for, and proof that this was the because their will and capacity to change is held back by a right plan, if the funding is still to flow. It takes a certain humility to say, “we don’t yet series of constraints both internal (psychological and cultural) know,” to say that we want to experiment and external. If they can be helped to remove or lower these our way forward. Yet without this humility we are unlikely to approach the future as constraints they will be able to change themselves and their learners and should not be surprised when (power) relationship to the world. the right answers continue to elude us. Are we asking the right questions? We why, if things seem stuck, is change being release the right constraints they can move offer seven important questions and lines constrained?” In this way we are able to themselves in the right direction. of inquiry that guide our work. The ques- acknowledge and work with the innate In the Limpopo Province in South tions are conceptually posed and we offer forces for and against change. Africa the CDRA has been working with conceptual takes on them, hardly answers The development sector tends to scores of self-organized women’s groups because these are ongoing inquiries and conceptualize change as a cause and effect who come together to see to the needs of serve to guide the asking of these in the process – “this effect (e.g., poverty) is the their young children. The program is called field of practice. When these questions are result of this cause. Therefore, I must Letsema (the Sotho word for a universal asked in a particular context, they take on change the cause to have a different effect.” tradition of working together to reach a an entirely different character, serving to Sounds logical, but this is only a useful common purpose). Until we started work guide a process of observation and experi- conception of change for the world of with them they were stuck within their own mentation. The seven questions are: inanimate objects and technical systems. worlds, unaware of their own interesting Question 1 – What is social change and Living, animate, social systems are differ- and useful experiences and capabilities. We how do we approach it? ent in that they are already in a constrained supported them to start visiting each other Question 2 – What is our primary role as flux of change from within (Franzetta, in horizontal learning exchanges, sharing development practitioners? 2010). People cannot be changed from how they live and what they do, learning Question 3 – How do we see and work with the outside as if they are pieces on a chess from each other’s innovations and from power? board. Indeed to apply an external stimulus that mutual appreciation developing the

16 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 self-worth and confidence to see a differ- NGOs, often begin work in such emer- regime is failing amidst corruption and ent future for themselves in which they are gent communities by suggesting that lack of capacity. active participants. the women form “daily savings groups” A key transformation that needs to In our work we have identified three through which they elect trusted collec- take place revolves around challenging dominant kinds of change that people, tors (emergent leaders) to collect from the top down nature of the system and communities, and societies go through each member of a block of shacks a the assumptions that a passive citizenry (Reeler, 2007): small amount of change each day. This must have its services delivered by an provides a seedling foundation of local active government. Even the language »» Emergent change describes the day- organization and leadership on which of “rights,” so beloved of Development to-day unfolding of life, adaptive and larger programs of change can be built Aid, which separates “rights holders” uneven processes of unconscious and in the future. from “duty bearers” encourages the conscious learning from experience and conception that local government and the change that results from that. This »» Transformative change. At some stage community have separate interests, applies to individuals, families, com- in the development of all social beings and feeds their mutual alienation. The munities, organizations, and societies it is typical for crisis or stuckness to endless cycles of protest and failed adjusting to shifting realities, of trying develop. This may be the product of a delivery will not end until communities to improve and enhance what they natural process of inner development; and government let go of these notions know and do, of building on what is for example, the crisis of the adoles- and transform the way they see each there, step-by-step, uncertainly, but still cent when that complex interplay of other, and their roles, to discover more learning and adapting, however well hormones and awakening to the hard co-creative ways of communities bring- or badly. realities of growing up breaks out into ing their resourcefulness and initiatives Emergent change conditions exist all manner of physical, emotional, and to meet the collective resources and most strongly in unpredictable condi- behavioural problems and issues. Or a larger systems of support held by the tions. These may be a result of external pioneering organization reaching the government. The conception that active uncertainties like an unstable economy limits of its informal structuring and citizenry is only about holding govern- or a fragile political dispensation, or relationships, unable to grow without ment to account is itself impoverished from internal uncertainty. a qualitative shift, a transformation of and even dangerous. In peri-urban areas around Cape the way it works. Crises may also be the How can we strengthen impulses to Town, like many cities of the South, product of social beings entering into let go of these attitudes? What can we rural migrants arrive every day seeking tense or contradictory relationships do to help either side to begin to see work and access to health services and with their world, prompted by shifts in past this fruitless cycle? schools for their children. They gather external political, economic, cultural, or Working with resistance to change and group on spare pieces of land, environmental contexts. is at the heart of transformation. In our illegally occupying them. Some are Crisis or stuckness sets the stage for heads we may know we have to change connected through rural ties and some transformative change. Unlike emer- but deeper down we are held captive, make new connections, for protection gent change, which is characterized frozen in the current state and unable and support. They are emerging com- as a learning process, transformative to let go. Three things stand out here: munities, still fragile and fractured and change is more about unlearning, of • Fear of losing power, privilege, and vulnerable to rivalries and exploitation. people letting go of those leading ideas, identity, of being hurt or worse. With time and experience leadership values, or beliefs that underpin the Fear of the dark and unknown that and a sense of place, trust and identity crisis, that no longer suit the situation will disrupt what we have become begin to form. Patriarchal and tribal or relationships that are developing. used to, even if these are just rifts are still prevalent. South Africa is riven by conflict coping strategies for what has not It is an emergent process of people and protest. Every day in scores of worked; learning to get along, to know and trust townships residents block the roads • Doubt and self-doubt that they or each other and to become authentically and march on their local councils, I cannot be better or do what is organized. What are the external sup- sometimes violently, to protest the required, that we and our ideas are port approaches that connect with this, lack of service delivery (water, hous- inadequate, and that we do not have enabling the emergent community to ing, electricity). They feel excluded and the capability; and strengthen itself? expect the government to deliver. But • Hatred or self-hatred. Where there The Federation of the Urban Poor, the government cannot deliver on its has been conflict, abuse or trauma built over time from organized shack own – its attempts at top-down delivery we can be consumed by bitter- dwellers, allied to the Shack Dwellers on the back of a bureaucratic infra- ness, resentment, and revenge or International, and supported by some structure inherited from the Apartheid paradoxically blame or even hate

Exploring the Real Work of Social Change: Seven Questions that Keep Us Awake 17 ourselves for what we have done conditions or environments, especially There may be many more kinds of change, or not done or even what has been the relationships of a system, are coher- but the key is not to rush into any particu- done to us. ent, stable, and predictable enough, and lar approach, but rather to observe what where unpredictable outcomes or risks kind of change or changes are already at All of these constrain the will or do not threaten desired results, then play and to see if there are ways to work imprison the innate flux of change. the conditions for projectable change within and out of these. There are no easy methods for working arise and well-planned projects become How can we build a sensibility in with these deep resistances. We look possible. ourselves and those with whom we work to for ways to surface and share them, to The fact is that many of us, espe- more accurately read the nature of change bring them to light, either intimately cially those who control and are conditions and formulate approaches to or socially, to give them perspective, responsible for finances and resource change that can work with these? to enable them to be expressed, and allocations, tend to like Projectable through that comes the possibility of Change approaches because they give Question 2 – What is our primary role as release, of freeing ourselves from what the illusion of control and accountabil- development practitioners? is constraining us. Helping people ity, even when the conditions for proj- to share their stories is a well tried ects simply do not yet exist. Indeed few The need for change in marginalized and approach. Asking ourselves what we situations of marginalization, impover- impoverished communities the world over fear, doubt, and hate and supporting ishment, or oppression are projectable, are widespread and vast. But the ability and honest answers and conversations may by definition. Other work needs to be resources of governments and NGOs to be what is required. From our experi- done before projects make sense. work with these needs, in helpful ways, are ence we know that people start to free Of course, many practitioners only extremely limited. themselves when they are able to speak know of one way of doing things, most Yet those same communities, who more honestly about themselves and often by projects. Abraham Maslow said appear to outsiders as needy victims, have their experiences and directly describe in 1966, “I suppose it is tempting, if the reservoirs of hidden and potential capaci- their fears, doubts, and hatreds. We see only tool you have is a hammer, to treat ties and resources, and resourcefulness it working when they start to become everything as if it were a nail” (p.15). from hard-learned experience that vastly more physically energetic, when they are Projects, if they are to be sustained, outweigh what can be brought in from the able to look each other in the eye, and must come at the right time and take outside. Once surfaced and validated by when their will to move on is activated. root within the people who will sustain people themselves these are the seed-beds On the other side of fear, doubt, and them. out of which change can be nurtured. hatred we can find courage, faith, and Out of the savings groups (referred But most Development Aid Projects love. Good ideas for change are flimsy to above) the women become members we have seen unthinkingly dump capacity- without courage, and central to our of the Federation of the Urban Poor building, technology, and funding onto work is to face fear and more con- and are then supported to undertake communities, structured around the idea sciously and collectively decide what we enumerations--door-to-door research to that people lack capacity, resources, and have to do about it, to encourage each collect the information about them- organization and conclude that is what other. Love is one of the least spoken selves needed to better understand must be provided. And in doing so they words in the books and workshops on who they are and to be better under- further bury the hidden reservoirs of com- social change. But there can be few stood by their context, especially local munity potential. transformations that are not centred on government. The enumerations lead to And, of course, in burying what people the transformation of the heart. small visioning processes where they have and know and bringing answers and How do we work with doubt and envisage and plan possible water sup- resources from the outside, inevitably faith, fear and courage, and hatred and plies or good sanitation, or eventually people’s own will, confidence, and owner- love more consciously in our practice? their own houses. These are projects, ship are also buried and the projects con- in the best sense of the word, home- tinue to fail to sustain themselves once the »» Projectable Change. Human beings grown, owned and, therefore poten- capacity and resource bringers leave. This can identify and solve problems and tially sustainable. Local government is is the grand narrative of the Development imagine or envision different possibili- invited in to observe these preparation Aid Industry. ties or solutions for the future. We can processes and their support is sought. We must recognize that people have project possible visions or outcomes The savings that communities have been developing long before the Develop- and formulate conscious plans to bring made are revealed and can be offered ment Aid came into their lives and will about change. This is the essence of as a contribution. The question put to continue to develop long after it leaves. development projects. government by the community leaders The will to develop is innate, inborn. It is Where the internal and external is: “How can we help you to help us?” an inside-out and a continuous process.

18 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 It may not be happening in a healthy or women suggest, increasingly facilitating of) political oppression. These kinds of productive way in this or that community themselves and setting the agendas. They “unfreedoms” at the three levels of rela- and it may be that its potential is blocked are continually encouraged to reflect on tionship mutually reinforce each other and or buried by a series of constraints, but it is themselves, to draw strength, forgive- add up to a recipe for entrenched margin- the only game in town to work with. ness, and learning from lives that, without alization – the core target of development Development is already happening and exception, are filled with experiences of interventions. as an outsider I cannot deliver development hardship, trauma, sacrifice, initiative, and But the word or notion of “power” in to anyone or indeed bring change to any- triumph. In a few days they start to look at many cultures is difficult to work with. In one. Our role must be to work with what themselves and each other differently, each collective cultures power is often veiled is already developing in the community, a bit taller, their eyes filled with hope and and hidden behind seemingly collective not only with what they have but with how courage and their minds with new ideas. processes, where those with power use they do things, to help people to strengthen their influence, experience, and ability to and build on what is healthy and to let go Question 3 – How do we see and work steer decisions in directions they like. To of or change what is not. But these things with power? even suggest that there are power differen- tials and that they constrain development is But the word or notion of “power” in many cultures is difficult regarded as disrespectful to the culture. Power does strange things to the best to work with. In collective cultures power is often veiled and of us. Those of us who do confront power hidden behind seemingly collective processes, where those directly, violently or non-violently, often find that the harder we push, the more we with power use their influence, experience, and ability to steer struggle, the stronger becomes the resis- decisions in directions they like. To even suggest that there tance to change, the more we bolster the forces we had sought to weaken. Power is are power differentials and that they constrain development is paradoxical and can seldom be approached regarded as disrespectful to the culture. in a straight line. In the third learning week of the net- work of civil society organizations we ran are seldom visible to practitioners or even We live, learn, and develop within three a day-long role-play on power. We put the the people themselves. And so a key task differently experienced kinds or levels leaders in government positions and those is to bring to light peoples’ own hidden of relationships: relationship with self, with the quietest voices were asked to play resourcefulness, their untapped potential. interpersonal relationships with people the community organization leaders. Oth- So the question is what can those of around us, and external relationships with ers played the role of NGOs and the media. us who are intervening from the outside the rest of the world. These three levels A contentious scenario was developed do to help communities to surface, unlock, span the inner and outer experiences of and the day unfolded in an exciting and mobilize, share, and organize their own human beings and so it is at these levels disturbing way. We were amazed at how resources and resourcefulness in order of relationships that we find the work of those put into government roles resorted to develop and transform themselves and helping people to free themselves. Power to defensive and avoidance behaviour, how their relationship with the outside world? is held in relationships, whether it is the they shut themselves away from delegation Do we have the patience and faith to let struggle we have with ourselves to claim to civil society, how they sought to continu- them do this in their way and in their our inner power, or the power we have over ally portray their trustworthiness through own time? others, or the power we hold cooperatively exaggerations and even lies, and how they In the Letsema Program we sup- with others, or the power the State wields spoke down to the “little people” they were port the rural women’s groups to bring in relation to its citizens – without relation- supposed to serve. In the reflective debrief their leaders together for five day work- ship power means little, it has no force, for afterwards none were more horrified and shops. These are not training sessions but bad or for good. If we want to shift power, we disturbed by their own behaviours than the development sessions where the women have to shift relationships. directors themselves. are encouraged to tell their life stories, to It is within each or all of these three The corrupt and powerful, who are listen to each other, to experiment with levels of relationships that people are free addicted to power and money, and fearful asking better questions, to inquire into the or unfree. If in our view of ourselves we and dismissive of others, will have to be power relationships they are caught in, have self-doubt or self-hatred we become confronted with the truth of their destruc- and to build trust and solidarity between inhibited, entrapped, or unfree. A stuck, tive and self-destructive obsessions and them. There is very little teaching, just abusive relationship with a partner may be fears, and either persuaded or toppled. the odd concept or two, and no fixed as great a hindrance to development as a Sometimes the powerful undermine curriculum. The workshop moves as the lack of social opportunity or (relationship themselves, blinded by their egos and often

Exploring the Real Work of Social Change: Seven Questions that Keep Us Awake 19 hiding or denying what their power mani- of power requires that we have diverse and ongoing experience required to learn our fests. How can we engage them in ways layered approaches to change when obsti- way into an uncertain future. that do not burn down the country? nate and brutal power is being faced. But Our critical capacity to honestly learn When the powerful are unseated by still many more questions remain. from our mistakes is hobbled by our fear force, how often is their place taken by of losing funding or position. We dare not people who adopt the same behaviours, Question 4 – How do we work with be too honest. We find results where there using the old regime’s laws and institu- uncertainty? are none and ignore failures that could, if tions to secure their new regime? Or worse, analyzed hold the key to learning and inno- rival pretenders to the throne rush into the Most of what is happening inside a change vative ways forward. Logframed projects, political vacuum and new wars begin. It did process is invisible not only to ­outsiders when implemented, as they usually are, in not take long for the hopeful and unstop- but also to communities themselves. We emergent or transformative change condi- pable “Arab Spring” to degenerate into are all stumbling around in the dark pre- tions, promise success and accountability, several nightmare scenarios. tending that we can see, imagining that we but deliver failure and cultivate corruption. Clearly there are distinctions to be have or can find the answers, desperately How can we actually reward hon- made. Some good people lose themselves trying to create enough certainty to feel safe esty about “failure” and learning above in their power and can be persuaded away and in control and to show we are account- accountability for results? We know that in from dysfunctional uses and be helped to able. But the future, like the skies over our uncertain times it is only through honest share. But more often the powerful will biggest cities, is hazy more and more so it learning and the innovation this enables only change when confronted by a crisis, seems each year as global economic insta- that sustainable results become possible. a transformative challenge where the bility and environmental crises lay waste to This is not a new question and many read- perceived costs to themselves of holding onto our best laid plans. ers are probably tired of hearing it. And power are greater than the perceived risks of So what do we do? First of all we therein lies the real question. Despite our letting go. Calculating and communicat- need to recognize that uncertainty can- doubts about bureaucratic accountability ing perceived costs and risks can be where not be wished away and nor can it be for results, what keeps holding us captive? some of the key work lies in weakening brought under control by more planning. Too often we box our questioning and the resolve of the dysfunctionally powerful. The mind-sets that shape the planning, learning processes into our Monitoring and The fall of the Berlin Wall and Apartheid monitoring, and evaluation systems that Evaluation2 systems, outsource them to both happened when a point of sanity was frame and shape Development Aid Projects experts and effectively rob the stakeholders reached and the regimes were helped to see usually emphasize control and account- of the one thing that may enable success: the writing on the wall. ability above learning and adaptation. To the ability to learn our way forward through Some people would focus on building get the funding everything needs to be continuous processes of action learning. alternatives rather than confrontation: thought through, activities and budgets But it would be wrong to simply agreed upon upfront, and monitoring and see learning as a way to better navigate You never change anything by evaluation checks put into place to ensure complex change, or something that should ­fighting existing reality. To change that people do what they have promised occasionally or periodically accompany something, build a new model that to do. The pre-analyzed causes and effects the work we do to improve it. In our view makes the existing model obsolete are solved by project planned causes and learning is far more important than that. —R. Buckminster Fuller effects. A little failure and some learning In our view social change is fundamentally (see http://bfi.org) is tolerated but not much. Miss enough a learning and unlearning process best targets and your funding is cut and you met by a learning practice. Indeed change, This choice does not always exist and can may get fired. development, and learning can be seen as be naïve in many situations. Modern-day This is a significant problem for two virtually indistinguishable. slaves cannot wait for alternatives to their reasons. First, the tendency is to do the The challenge is to recognize and bondage to develop. But as a part of a sus- big planning upfront back in the NGO or work with learning and unlearning in every tainable approach, developing alternatives government offices and then to sell the aspect of a change program, to see in its can be critical. Facing climate change will plans to the communities, again undermin- DNA the spirals of learning that describe require the development of alternatives but ing authentic processes of ownership and the reality of how we actually do learn and these will only flourish as viable invest- the surfacing of hidden resourcefulness. unlearn our way into the future. ments when the causes of global warming Second, the promise and illusion of control are tackled and made more politically, mor- and accountability that the logframed, 2 ally, and financially costly than the power- bureaucratic development project brings . Some twenty years ago we used the phrase ­Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluation, seeing it ful can stomach. Is there a different way to undermines the thoughtful and continual as a continuous cycle. The dropping of Planning reach the powerful? adjusting of practice and plans based on from common discourse reflects this outsource to The complex and paradoxical nature M&E experts.

20 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 What does this actually mean for experience, drawing learnings from In the Letsema leadership work- practice and how does it link to results those reflections, and building the shops, through telling and listening to and impact? implication of those learnings into each other’s life stories, not only do the There can be many results, but the future actions. Most NGOs I know, women learn from each other, but they most critical result, the foundation of through their M&E systems try to draw begin to unlearn many assumptions sustainability of any social change initia- learnings immediately from experience about themselves that constrain their tive, is that communities have become without deep observation and reflec- ability to change – that they must fear better learners, continually improving on tion, resulting in shallow and mislead- those who are in charge, that they are their experience, and continually enhanc- ing learnings. Action Learning is a just women and not able to lead, that ing their ability to respond creatively nuanced change process that requires their role is to respond and not to initi- to whatever life throws at them – their a disciplined approach (see Barefoot ate, that they are not as worthy as men response-ability. This is real evaluation, not Guide to Learning Practices in Organiza- to enjoy their lives. Each woman has in the form of the deadening M&E systems tions and Social Change, http://www. had turning points to relate where they that we attempt to use to account for and barefootguide.org/barefoot-guide-2.html). have, despite the odds, stood up for themselves and claimed some power. It should be clear by now that many M&E systems have Through sharing they reduce their isolation and begin to unlearn the inner little to do with real learning, and as such, they are more constraints that are holding them back, often an impediment to good practice than a support. sparking a critical process of personal transformation. The things that matter most are the least visible, the least »» Horizontal Learning. Since time imme- measurable, and if we insist on certainty in our plans and morial people have learnt from each other, informally sharing stories and if we demand the achievement of contracted results, then we wisdom, trading innovations and reci- will learn even less. Continual observation, listening, pes, teaching each other techniques and technologies, neighbour to neighbour, reflecting, and questioning, within a learning orientation farmer to farmer, parent to child. This provide the only keys to the locked doors that we are horizontal learning has always been a powerful motor of social change. continually confronted and confounded by. When Education arrived in the form of expert teachers, doctors, nurses, control our precious plans, but as the living This connects strongly to emergent lawyers, agricultural extension work- processes of feedback that throw light and change discussed earlier. ers, etc. – for many people as part of perspective on the hidden depths of our »» Unlearning. Sometimes, in order to colonial domination – the result was evolving endeavours for all stakeholders. move forward, learning does not help that people’s belief in the value of their It should be clear by now that many because we are constrained by ideas, own and their neighbour’s experi- M&E systems have little to do with real beliefs, or attitudes that are too close ences, knowledge, and ideas became learning, and as such, they are more often to us to easily let go. Before we can increasingly diminished. Cultures and an impediment to good practice than a continue to learn our way forward we practices of horizontal, community support. have to pause to unlearn these things, learning and knowledge have become The things that matter most are the i.e., how White people see Black people, half-buried and vertical dependencies least visible, the least measurable, and if how men see women, how women see have emerged over the past few genera- we insist on certainty in our plans and themselves. These prejudices have to tions, continually reinforced by modern if we demand the achievement of con- be unlearnt. But usually, unless there is society. Knowledge and learning have tracted results, then we will learn even less. the force or pain of a crisis, people are become external commodities increas- Continual observation, listening, reflecting, unwilling to do so. Fear, doubt, and self- ingly removed from the organic life of and questioning, within a learning orien- doubt, as well as resentment, hatred, or communities, robbing people not only tation provide the only keys to the locked even self-hatred are the predominant of access to their own local knowl- doors that we are continually confronted factors for this kind of resistance to edge and potential, but weakening the and confounded by. change. Helping people to surface and accompanying age-old interdependent There are three types of learning to face these can be the key work of social relationships of community. Restoring recognize here: change. This connects strongly to trans- or renewing cultures and practices of »» Action Learning. Simply put this formative change discussed earlier. horizontal learning, hand-in-hand with involves continual reflection on

Exploring the Real Work of Social Change: Seven Questions that Keep Us Awake 21 action learning, surely becomes central genetically-modified seed finally tipped above cannot move, whether in its own to a developmental practice. the scales and provoked the renewal of interest or because of external uncer- But horizontal learning can take the old practice. tainties. Marginalized and oppressed us even further. If we want to work Now, at a different village each year, people must free themselves. Commu- together collaboratively and fruitfully the farmers once again send repre- nities cannot wait for a collapsed local we might best begin this by learning sentatives of each village to gather government to deliver water before it together, horizontally. The powerful and congregate for several days, each takes matters into its own hands. housing and farmers movements of bringing bags of their beans and grains »» Inside-out strategies. All sustainable Shack Dwellers International and Via to cook and taste and then to freely change begins as an inward journey. Campesina use horizontal exchanges share as seed, with advice on how Before people can free themselves from at the heart of their mobilization and best to plant and grow. And all of this their oppressors they must free them- organization. In South Africa the Let- generates the revival of other cultural selves from their own self-identifica- sema program uses horizontal learning practices, of songs and dances and tion. This is transformative change, of exchanges not only to share innovations stories that express a renewed identity individuals and communities, unlearn- but also to build relationships and soli- of community and interdependency ing what they have held to be true of darity (Reeler, 2005). Horizontal learn- (Reeler, 2005). and seeing themselves with new eyes, ing exchanges are, arguably, the most The question that we continue to before embarking on changing the atti- powerful motivator of engagement ask is how can we cultivate support tudes and even the laws and practices between the women in the program, for open-ended horizontal learning of society. so much so that after the first few were practices and approaches that cannot »» Sideways strategies. This is closely con- stimulated and supported from the guarantee this or that outcome, but that nected to horizontal learning, as a pow- outside, they now happen regularly and prepare the soil for working together erful motor of change, where people without any external support. through learning together? connect across boundaries within and From this we see that horizontal between communities, perhaps involv- learning also begins to provide an Question 5 – What social change ing some unlearning, to create new answer to the conundrum described strategies work best? communities to face their problems earlier that the need for change in and take advantage of new possibilities. marginalized and impoverished com- In our experience there is seldom one strat- »» Do nothing strategies. Sometimes a munities the world over is widespread egy that is sufficient to meet the complex situation needs the space and time to and vast. But the ability and resources processes of social change. And quite often sort itself out, for a crisis to ripen, or of governments and NGOs to work several consecutive or concurrent strategies for the will to change to gain suffi- with these needs in a helpful way are called for. Some of the different strate- cient strength. We may need to spend are extremely limited (Reeler, 2005). gies are described or implied in the text time to simply observe to see if we do Indeed through horizontal learning above, but here I would like to spell them have a role and what that role might processes, communities can stimulate out more clearly: be. We should not assume that the and support change in each other, with »» Top-down strategies. Democratically kind of change that we can support minimal external help, with develop- elected governments, legitimately is always needed or possible. Be wary ment spilling from village to village, or appointed leaders, and skilled manag- of the change merchants posing as even of change catching fire as good ers may find call to implement changes social change practitioners who always ideas and innovations spread widely from above, particularly those that meet assume they can be helpful! and generously by word of mouth, as initiatives from below. Universal health- Complex or comprehensive change they used to before modern times. care, sanitation, education, transport agendas, programs, and interventions quite In the Limpopo province a group and communication infrastructure, often contain several of these strategies, of 60-odd villages revived a traditional and police forces to combat criminal- running concurrently, or the one set of practice of meeting once a year for a ity may all be top down initiatives. Of actions paving the way for the next. Hori- seed-sharing festival. This had fallen course how they meet the varied needs zontal exchanges (sideways strategies) have into disuse since the agricultural of communities and at what point they proven to have surprising success in creat- industry, ushered in by government require community engagement from ing foundations of learning and solidarity extension officers, began showing small below must be considered, but there for collaborative or co-creative initiatives. farmers the modern way, creating deep are valid aspects of social change that Top-down or bottom-up strategies seldom and worrying dependencies on corpo- are legitimately and developmentally succeed unless they provoke some transfor- rate-controlled seeds, fertilizers, and brought from above. mative inside-out change in key actors. pesticides. An awareness workshop by »» Bottom-up strategies. Sometime change But no planned strategy can account a local NGO on the looming dangers of begins from below, where stuck power for the full story nor anticipate what will

22 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 prevail. The complexity of change can only attention less to the decisions and more to we hear the voice of a parent, a friend, or be met by diverse approaches that learn the quality of process and the conversations teacher pop up into our heads in response their way into the future. that lead to good decisions. to a situation? We debate and argue with In the organization I have worked with ourselves when faced with a dilemma, Question 6 – What kinds of organizations over the past 18 years the idea of a particu- using some points of view of two or more and leadership do we need to face the lar “leader” always felt strange. Indeed for of the influential people in our lives. Hold- future? a number of years we had no one who was ing and allowing different voices can be a called “the Director.” People would call us healthy thing because this working with Communities can discover their own and ask for the Director and the reception- diversity inside us helps us to prepare for agency, develop their own organizations ist would reply, “Please hold on, I will see and meet the diversity and complexity of and leadership required to take initiatives who is in.” Eventually we did designate life outside, to prepare for conversations and to meet government and social-minded a Director because this answer was too with others. As a social facilitator I know business in co-creative partnerships. disturbing for the outside world. However, that to get good participation I often need Sovereign, local organizations and leadership is essentially and mostly held in to support these inner conversations to sur- leaders, able to express what people think, our monthly learning days, when we gather face in one way or another before bringing feel, and want are key building blocks to reflect on the issues and experiences of people into conversation with each other. of social change, without which little is the month to learn our way forward and to The second conversation is the one sustainable. Projects are not organiza- make important strategic decisions. The each individual has with another or oth- tions, and too often substitute for them process is the leader. ers, engaging to chat, share, confront, because donors, government, or practi- How can we re-imagine leadership and resolve the issues of life, bringing tioners are too impatient to support their as intelligent learning processes, in many the voices of each together. In doing so, development. possible forms, to meet the complex and and in issues of social change, we may or But in this post-modern age the con- diverse challenges we face? may not find common ground. But we are ventional and traditional hierarchical forms also changed by these conversations – we of organization and strong leaders at both Question 7 – How can we have continually learn and unlearn, emerge and community and local government level are conversations that matter? transform. To the extent that we do move less and less appropriate. Young people, closer together, we prepare ourselves for in particular, are emerging en masse, How different are we from the conversa- the third type of conversation. informed and empowered by education, tions that we have with ourselves and with Several years ago I assisted with an the TV, and the internet as never before, yet each other. In many ways we are conversa- action learning program in West and Cen- unwilling to meekly follow strong leaders. tions. If we were to stop conversing we tral Africa. Its purpose and logic were quite Through social media they have become would find that we would soon stop living. simple – to introduce the action learning easy to mobilize but more difficult to orga- Human conversation, in human relation- cycle into the formal conversations of dis- nize in conventional forms. ship, lies at the very heart of the processes ability movements and town councils to The world is starting to experiment of social life. improve their processes, to help them to be with less controlling, more participative, Good social change happens from more learningful. They were shown how to less hierarchical, more networked forms good conversations. Almost all change use the action learning cycle as a conscious of organization but these are tentative. takes place through conversations of one and more disciplined frame for conducting What is clear is that they are not so easily kind or another. Conversations that lead their meetings. In the program evaluation a held together by formal structure and rules to change are in themselves processes of year later the mayors from two town coun- but rather by new kinds of relationships, change and in paying attention to the qual- cils in Cameroon related stories of how conversations, and understandings. Their ity of our conversations we are determining their meetings, previously over-formalized, ability to be agile and to learn may be a the kind of change that emerges. This is dry and unproductive, had become trans- determining factor in navigating the uncer- an obvious and simple truth but one that formed as more people participated, of how tain future ahead. is easily forgotten in all the clever change honestly they spoke and how their reflec- strategies and complicated project plans tions and learnings led to action. A word on leadership. Leaders are only one that we construct to drive the change The third type of conversation is the form of leadership. Conventionally they are we seek. one we collectively have with others. It the dominant form. But increasingly, as The first conversation is the one that might be a group of parents engaging people demand participation and joint deci- each of us has with ourselves, if we allow their children’s teacher, or a community sion-making, it is through conversations, it, between the different voices that live in speaking to their councillor. What it carries in meetings and workshops, that leader- our heads and hearts. We are social beings, though is social power and the potential to ship is taking place. As this grows, the role continually influenced by the people with spark or pave the way for social change. of leaders becomes more facilitative, paying whom we grow up and live. How often do As social change practitioners we must

Exploring the Real Work of Social Change: Seven Questions that Keep Us Awake 23 Doug Reeler works for the Com- munity Development Resource Association in Cape Town. After pay attention to each of these levels of evaluation, and other technical systems conversation as each level prepares people to manage and control social change, all studies in anthropology and to engage at the next. instrumental manifestations of our fear of economic history he worked In all these conversations that involve losing control and power. This is perhaps as a high school teacher in the change there may be those voices of fear, our greatest challenge, to let go of our need turbulent townships of the Cape of doubt, and self-doubt, of resentment or for certainty and control and to have more in the 1980s before moving into self-hatred, moving from individual to the faith in our collective ability to humbly organization and community group. How these are surfaced and met learn our way forward in messy but cre- will determine whether the individual or ative, human, and real processes. development. His work focuses the group are able to act, to find the will to One question each of us needs to keep on social change process design be part of the change. asking is: In what ways are our own needs, and facilitation with a wide range doubts, and fears hindering the ability of of actors towards developing Out of the diversity of “voices” we find people we work with to learn their way into more effective social change the richness of conversations, and out the future? practices and co-creative, collab- of our rich conversations spring the relationships, ideas and impulses for References orative organizational forms. He change. We are social beings and it pioneered the Barefoot Guides to is through our many voices in many Dlamini, N. (2013). Voices: the building Social Change in 2007. He can be conversations that we are most social. blocks of social change. Cape Town, ZA: reached at [email protected]. How authentic voices are brought, Community Development Resource received, engaged with, and sup- Association. Retrieved from http://www. ported makes a world of difference to cdra.org.za/uploads/1/1/1/6/111664/ the quality of conversation, to human voices_-_the_building_blocks_of_social_ engagement, and to the contribution change_-_by_nomvula_dlamini.pdf we each can make to processes of Franzetta, D. (2010). Realizing possibilities: change.—Nomvula Dlamini (2013) Effective action in the real world - a con- versation with James Wilk. Retrieved Concluding Thoughts from http://goo.gl/Ys7IfA Maslow, A. H. (1966). The psychology of sci- As we look for better questions in deeper ence. Ithaca, NY: Zorba Press. conversations, continuously observing Nee, M. (1999). Restoring life in Cambodian and learning, and as we desperately seek villages (3rd ed.). Phnom Penh, KH: for answers, we have to recognize that in JSRC. the sheer complexity of being human and Reeler, D. (2005). Horizontal learning— working with change, so much remains Engaging freedom’s possibilities. that is unknown and even more that is Retrieved from http://www.cdra.org. unknowable. And so, I have argued in this za/uploads/1/1/1/6/111664/horizontal_ paper for diverse, collaborative, learning- learning_-_engaging_freedoms_ based approaches to change that can meet possibilities_doug_reeler_2005.pdf the learning-based nature of change. Reeler, D. (2007). A three-fold theory of social Social transformation can happen in a change – and implications for practice, simple conversation that leads to a change planning, monitoring and evaluation. of heart. Or it can take decades of strife and Retrieved from http://www.cdra.org.za/ hardship. So much hinges on the human threefold-theory-of-social-change.html qualities of questioning, observing, learn- Rilke, R. M. (1929). Letters to a young poet. ing, relating, and conversing amongst the Leipzig, DE: Insel Verlag – in an edition role-players. Up to a point several of these by M.D. Herter Norton (translator). can be consciously acquired, even taught, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1993. but the human trust and commitment Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom (1st required to carry and sustain change are ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University the less tangible and malleable qualities Press. that need to be unblocked and cultivated. But we are all still in the thrall of obsessively detailed planning, monitoring,

24 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 “Nonprofits whose missions are to serve traumatized individuals, groups, or communities open themselves to the effects of trauma and traumatization. Mission-driven nonprofits that do not serve traumatized populations still may be at risk of traumatization for other reasons.”

Persistent Traumatization in Nonprofit Organizations

By Pat Vivian and Introduction Mission-driven nonprofits that do not serve Shana Hormann traumatized populations still may be at risk Through consultation, research, and train- of traumatization for other reasons. ing we have been studying the phenom- enon of organizational trauma in highly Organizational Trauma mission-driven nonprofits for nearly 15 years. In this article we first define Howard Stein defines trauma at any level highly mission-driven nonprofits and as “an experience for which a person- organizational trauma, then explore often family-group is emotionally (not only un-noticed effects of traumatization on cognitively) unprepared, an experience nonprofits. We share important insights that overwhelms ones’ defensive (self- about intervening in traumatized organiza- protective) structure and leaves one feeling tions and important lessons about what totally vulnerable and at least temporarily works in such circumstances. Specifically, helpless” (personal communication, Sep- we offer new awareness about what hap- tember 28, 2004). pens to an organization that has suffered Trauma and traumatization may result from traumatization over time without from a single devastating event, from the recognition of the symptoms and the effects of several deleterious events, or effects that hinder it. We acknowledge the from cumulative trauma arising from the toll taken on leaders of these entrenched nature of the organization’s work. Trauma traumatized systems. We also name and and traumatization overpower the organi- describe a set of characteristics and draw zation’s cultural structure and processes implications for effective OD practice. and weaken the organization’s ability to respond to external and internal challenges Highly Mission-Driven Organizations (Kahn, 2008). These experiences leave the organization feeling vulnerable and help- A highly mission-driven organization is less and create lasting impact on the orga- one whose mission is compelling and nizational psyche and culture (Stein, 1991). pervasive, defining not only the nature of While all organizations might have the work but also the approach to the work dysfunctional patterns, trauma-genic orga- and the nature of the internal relationships. nizational cultures, cultures that reproduce Examples are nonprofits that deal with traumatizing dynamics and circumstances sexual assault, domestic violence, women’s so that the entity never completely heals health, runaway youth, homelessness, and from traumatic events, exacerbate that dys- victims of crime (Vivian and Hormann, function. These cultures harbor effects of 2002). Nonprofits whose missions are unhealed sudden traumatic events as well to serve traumatized individuals, groups, as insidious cumulative traumatization. or communities open themselves to the Unless the effects of organizational effects of trauma and traumatization. trauma and the resulting dynamics are

Persistent Traumatization in Nonprofit Organizations 25 Table 1. Characteristics of Traumatized Systems

Closed boundaries between the Environment is perceived to be hostile addressed effectively, organizations organization and environment with little outside information or feedback are doomed to repeat them (Vivian & accepted. Organization becomes isolated. Hormann, 2013; Kahn, 2003). Without developing approaches that work in these Centrality of insider relationships There is an over-reliance on internal persistently traumatized systems usual OD relationships for safety and support and interventions, even those developed for suspicion towards outsiders. use in nonprofits, are less effective or not Stress and anxiety contagion Stress becomes a central lens through which effective at all. the work is experienced. Anxiety spreads among members. Rural Crisis Agency (RCA) Story Inadequate worldview and The organizational identity begins to unravel. We continue with a story from our practice. identity erosion A constricted worldview distorts interpretation of events. A request came into our website from Jan, an experienced executive director who had Depression expressed through Recurring conversations trigger helplessness taken a new position at an agency provid- fear or anger and anxiety. Productivity and effectiveness ing services to victims of crime, including decrease. sexual and domestic violence survivors. On Despair and loss of hope Spirit and optimism are exhausted. The her second day Jan knew she had entered organization is left with insufficient energy to a traumatized system and was feeling keep going. overwhelmed. In our initial assessment we dis- covered deeply rooted patterns of harm, discouragement, and distrust among staff. doubted that the agency had the capacity to Seven months into this project we For example, several staff members were stabilize itself enough to survive. heard about two other sudden departures initially unwilling to speak with us because The lack of stability had taken on a of executive directors from agencies they they feared reprisals for sharing informa- life of its own. The agency’s probationary deemed extremely traumatized. Personally tion. On the other hand board members status meant grants were approved for no drained of hope and energy, they felt as reported relief about being on the road to more than six-month periods and funder though they were “escaping” from dysfunc- recovery and expressed eagerness to pro- representatives were monitoring closely. In tional systems that had no capacity left to ceed with strategic planning. Sonya’s first three months staff turnover recover. As in RCA these individuals were Six months into our work, the new continued, undermining progress towards asked to come into an organization to “fix executive director left. She said, “Even if programmatic improvements and worsen- it.” They entered to find the organization in this new opportunity had not come along, ing a sense of impermanence among the worse shape than they thought, with more I knew I would not last much longer. I staff. At the beginning of our consultation deeply ingrained patterns of trauma and have continued to be overwhelmed by the many staff worried that the agency would dis-ease. As these other instances of lead- depths of problems and effects of trauma close. For a brief period that worry sub- ers and organizations in serious trouble in this agency.” Jan’s leaving signaled to an sided. Then it erupted again and settled surfaced, we began to reflect on what was important funder that an already precari- in as an underlying malaise about the going on in these systems. ous situation had become more serious. future of the agency, work with clients, and The funder informed the agency it was at individuals’ jobs. Staff vacillated between Description of a Persistently risk of losing all the money for a vital pro- faith in Sonya’s ability to hold the agency Traumatized System gram. In addition to Jan’s leaving, a second together and depression that things would staff person had been fired and a third never change. As described in Organizational Trauma and had left for another job, a staff turnover of Board members gained understanding Healing (2013) and shown in Table 1, we almost 50%. of the depth of harm and distrust expe- noted repeating characteristics in trauma- Sonya, who had been working in a rienced by staff and fully supported the tized systems. leadership capacity with Jan, was offered second executive director in her progress Interconnections strengthen the the executive director position and towards stability. Unlike the staff, the board six characteristics, however presence of accepted. She started her new role with had stayed together as an intact group one or two of the characteristics does not an optimistic sense that she could turn throughout the tumultuous two years. signify traumatization. These characteris- the organization around. Less than three Though not unaffected, board members tics provide one concrete way for leaders months into her tenure, she confessed to had been distanced from the worst dynam- and members of nonprofits to examine us that she was feeling discouraged and ics; they came through much of the year’s and to understand the dynamics of their turmoil unified and strong. systems, to “see” patterns that are present

26 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 but un-noticed. The characteristics also We discovered that these situations Inadequate emotional containment provide guidance about what to watch for were fraught with: in an organization’s health and wellbeing. »» Compromised ability to see that trauma The environment is one of high drama. Finding that several characteristics are exists – denial occurs and perceptions Staff never know what to expect, are extra pertinent to their organization makes many are distorted; sensitive to others’ emotional moods leaders nervous, while some minimize the »» Almost universal emotional content – and outbursts and describe “walking on relevance of this information or receive it tone is intense, language is extreme, eggshells” because of feeling unsafe. Either skeptically. Others ask for additional infor- collective “pile on” of emotional mate- no one speaks up about his or her experi- mation, coaching, or consultation. rial occurs quickly and easily; ences, or they do so with intense reactivity. Opportunities to work with trauma- »» Experience of two steps forward and Events are blown out of proportion and no tized systems led us to reexamine our one step back – progress feels tenuous one provides a tempering and safe arena belief that organizations experiencing at best; for conversation. Staff report widespread despair or an inadequate identity would be »» Profound uneasiness – widespread stress, sickness, and time lost from work. at risk for failing. Yes, we saw examples of doubt about efficacy of any help and Sometimes the physical setting seems organizational closures involving severe pessimism about the future; gloomy and tired. Many staff report feeling despair or crises that crippled already »» Stunted perspective – there is reinforce- physically ill when they approach their weakened entities. However, over the past ment of group thinking and reactivity workplaces. couple of years we began to see chronically and little evidence of insight; and traumatized nonprofits that continue to »» De-skilled organizational members – Ongoing instability function. They had suffered from a variety usual abilities, e.g., communication of harmful situations and events: death of skills, cannot be counted on. Leadership and staff turnover from firing a leader, sudden loss of significant fund- and quitting interfere with building an ing, abusive leadership actions, cultures of We now turn to describing the characteris- effective team and reinforce a sense of meanness and blame, widespread undiag- tics of a persistently traumatized system. impermanence about the organization. nosed secondary traumatic stress among Staff remain unsure of themselves in staff, rapid and sudden staff turnover, Characteristics of a Persistently their roles, and programmatic progress etc. These organizations displayed deeply Traumatized System feels tenuous. Probationary status with rooted patterns of dysfunction, some- funders and loss of funding destabilize the times despair and hopelessness, and were A persistently traumatized system is one organization’s finances and undermine its limping along in the fulfillment of their in which a pattern of traumatic events and self-esteem. The temporary nature of com- missions. Harmful conditions were so impacts occur over time and are addressed mitments and revolving door experiences pervasive and deep that entities ended up incompletely or not at all, resulting in a with staff fuel serious questions about the with cultures organized around a set of system organized internally around trauma organization’s survival. dysfunctional dynamics. RCA was such an and creating a trauma-genic pattern. example. Put simply, organizational mem- Often long-term chronic impacts become Shame and guilt bers became inured to trauma and trauma- invisible. Individuals inside these systems tization. Collectively as well as individually may not perceive the patterns, and cannot Frequently, thinking the problems are they accepted their condition as normal change their behavior easily. They are suf- caused by their shortcomings or fault, and unchanging and persevered in serving fering not only from a workplace with very individuals suffer in silence. Favoritism their clients. dysfunctional ways of operating, but also and misplaced loyalty further separate staff Continued consultation with clients from their inability to take in new infor- from each other. In a system with escalat- and leaders and discussion with each mation and change their behaviors. We ing conflict, staff describe being hunkered other resulted in insights about “persistent offer the following list of characteristics of down and looking out for themselves, traumatization” and its characteristics. We persistently traumatized organizations: maybe even trying to figure out ways to noticed we were at the edge of our practice, »» Inadequate emotional containment; leave. Often these dynamics result in facing situations in client organizations »» Ongoing instability; individuals leaving with a sense of failure that were not responsive to our usual tools, »» Shame and guilt; and betrayal. skills, and interventions. Facing these situ- »» Deeply rooted lack of trust; ations over and over again began to take its »» Regularity of re-traumatizing triggers; Deeply rooted lack of trust toll on us as practitioners. We realized how »» Anxiety-based interactions; messy and daunting these situations were. »» Cycles of discouragement and hope; Because of past experiences organizational We needed to better grasp the additional and members find it safer to stay quiet rather and different dynamics in order to have »» Inadequate and/or unsafe organiza- than assume trustworthiness and risk effective ways of responding. tional processes. speaking honestly. Chronic ineffective

Persistent Traumatization in Nonprofit Organizations 27 Table 2. Characteristics of Persistently Traumatized Systems

Inadequate emotional There is an environment of high drama – change efforts mean few staff trust leaders containment intense reactivity, widespread stress, and (executive directors and boards of directors) sickness. to move the organization forward. They become cynical about decision-making and Ongoing instability The systems are destabilized and there the future. In addition staff worry about are serious questions about organizational the security of their jobs in an unstable survival. economic climate and avoid risking that Shame and guilt Individuals feel at fault and isolated. security. Deeply rooted lack of trust Staff fear speaking up and are cynical about Regularity of re-traumatizing triggers any changes. Regularity of re-traumatizing Past fears and hurts are retriggered, fostering Systems with a deep history of trauma triggers a sense of hopelessness. have used up countless resources and are depleted rather than resilient. Regularly, Anxiety-based interactions There is widespread anxiety and severely events occur that re-trigger past fears and compromised communication. anxieties. With few resources to respond Cycles of hope and The pendulum swings between enthusiasm calmly these re-triggering events pull discouragement and relief – and discouragement and worry. organizations backwards into negative patterns. The organization is re-harmed Inadequate and/or unsafe Fair and transparent systems are lacking to in the moment and becomes overcome organizational processes support safety and trust. by negativity and hopelessness. A hopeful future seems out of reach. leader begins to feel overwhelmed. He or effective internal systems, it is easy for Anxiety-based interactions she becomes discouraged and loses energy. a personality-based style of operating to Other workers sense the change and develop. Competition for favored status Communication has been severely compro- begin to temper their feelings of relief and with leaders and favoritism flourish. Some mised by longstanding patterns; frequently enthusiasm. staff feel lucky or entitled while others members employ communication skills This cycle also fuels burnout. New feel unsafe and aggrieved. With too few to protect themselves and keep safe rather staff arrive to find that they have to pick up safeguards deeply ingrained hurts from the than to speak openly and honestly. Staff the pieces of a program left in disarray by past surface and color current organiza- blur the differences between reaction and previous staff or start from scratch. Then tional functioning. response. Already anxious about speaking they discover their executive director has The interplay of these dynamics out and showing emotions, they react in no time and energy to support them. After (Table 2) worsens until the whole agency is intense and defensive ways. Colleagues are a few months the pressure and burden take awash in them. The dynamics become the left wondering about co-workers’ reactions their toll on the new hire and she or he gets organizational context and influence the and frequently misinterpret them. With discouraged. That pattern repeats as indi- entity at a profound level. The organiza- constrained sharing it is hard to have open viduals come onboard or leave. Staff unity tional culture becomes inured to traumatic and meaningful discussions. It is nearly disintegrates and adds to a discouraged history, except in a common retelling of its impossible to respond creatively to their atmosphere. Worry and concern replace wounding. Dysfunctional dynamics destroy situation. positive feelings, and staff begin to think normal processes and structures and exac- again that little will ever change. erbate inadequate ones. New members are Cycles of hope and discouragement swept up into this reality. With these factors Inadequate and/or unsafe present agencies exhibit an “on the brink” Cycles of hope and discouragement organizational processes demeanor that is physically palpable. develop. A new leader comes into the One analogy comes to mind. These agency with positive energy and lifts every- Poor or no performance appraisal systems, trauma-genic entities experience rabbit one’s spirits. That person provides relief to lack of effective accountability mecha- holes, like in Alice in Wonderland. Staff the serious atmosphere and sense of worry. nisms, inadequate financial controls, and converse about something occurring in the She or he embarks on changes and soon too few policies and procedures hamper present. A comment made by one person discovers the enormity of the task. So many organizational functioning. Inadequate and triggers a fall (not necessarily recognized) things need to be fixed. After jumping in unfair processes harbor an over-reliance by the group down the rabbit hole into with enthusiasm and assurance the leader on personal relationships. No one believes the past. The situation quickly becomes begins to feel tired. As others feel buoyed that there are fair and transparent systems unreal as the words being used relate to to be no longer carrying the burden, the in place to protect the individual. Lacking a past trauma and bring up unresolved

28 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 pain. The conversation stays “in the hole” – »» Graceful and affirming exit strategies. and empathy to encourage everyone to the past reality – where the outcome is a share their perspectives. Keen listening in reinforcement of old bad feelings and/ Specifically we use the following guidelines the discovery process allows the consul- or a re-wounding of people and relation- in working with organizations that have tant to use intuition to understand deeper ships. There is no obvious way out of the unresolved trauma or are traumatized patterns. In a consultation with an anti- rabbit hole. systems. violence agency, Vivian was surprised to Here is another analogy. When an »» Make help accessible and notice staff offer excuses for and minimize organization suffers from persistent trau- nonthreatening. a departed leader’s actions that had been matization, it is at the bottom of a muddy »» Ensure and reinforce containment, described as harmful, hurtful, and abusive. hole. There are no footholds or ladders, and safety, and stability. She thought this was due to long-term what can be seen above is only a small cir- »» Collectively acknowledge, name, and wounding and acceptance of dysfunction. cle of sky. The bottom of the hole is muddy, talk about the trauma. She named the pattern in her summary making it slippery and unsafe. Those in the »» Normalize what members are to agency leaders. Creative use of graphics bottom of the hole are stuck, literally and experiencing. and metaphors (like the rabbit hole and figuratively. They cannot see beyond the »» Make sense of what has occurred in muddy hole descriptions) allows client edge of the top and have no footholds to meaningful ways. members to grasp patterns and see the start climbing out. If they move too much »» Identify priority actions. organization in different ways. Sharing the they make the ground muddier. Anyone “rabbit hole” metaphor early on allows for who jumps in the hole to help runs the risk Our philosophy and guidelines are relevant interventions with a common language. of being stuck like everyone else. to all interventions in traumatized systems. For example, when group members appear Furthermore in a figurative sense, the Working with persistently traumatized triggered by one member’s comments and group does not know that it is in a rabbit or systems requires additional sensibility to escalate the conversation until many are muddy hole until it tries to problem-solve be successful. These additions take into quite upset, the consultant can intervene, its way out. To see more than the small account the special conditions of persistent “I just saw you fall down a rabbit hole into circle of sky, to begin to climb up, to have traumatization and acknowledge impacts your memories. No one seemed to notice some hope that they will not fall back down on those consulting with traumatized this was happening.” again require assistance from outside the systems. Re-wounding or triggering during an hole. Those in the bottom need tools and For example, all consultants run the intervention is always a possibility. Con- perspective. Outside resources can provide risk of being inducted into a system, that sultants need to be aware of the potential encouragement, scaffolding, ropes, and is, being swept up into the system’s inter- for unforeseen consequences and ready for reports on what the environment is like nal dynamics and losing perspective. With emotional reactions. In one consultation beyond the top of the hole. traumatized systems the risk of induction Vivian asked staff to share their motiva- increases as exposure lengthens and the tions for joining a social change effort. Implications for OD Practice with work deepens. Interveners need to be com- Unbeknownst to her this team had never Traumatized Systems mitted to the client without being swept shared in this way, and they became fearful into the organization’s dynamics. To be and upset. Luckily one member let Vivian In our interventions we rely on a set of effective they extend empathy to everyone know that many did not feel safe enough principles grounded in the values, skills, in the system, including those who are sus- to share. This introductory getting-to- and assumptions of organization develop- picious of outsiders trying to help. Inter- know-you exercise ended up being an ment. Our core philosophy and values veners importantly advocate for the entity intervention about trust and risk taking in include: as a whole. During the RCA consultation this team. »» Stance of compassion, optimism, and we, Vivian and Hormann, were able to keep Achieving enough forward progress hope; the health and future of the whole agency and confidence to overcome fear about »» Understand that a system can be front and center by repeatedly affirming backsliding seems to be a longer, slower traumatized; the common commitment of staff and process in persistently traumatized »» Continual attention to the emo- board to the agency mission and clients. By systems. It is easy for staff and leaders to tional life of the organization and its not getting swept into conflicts we helped retreat into old feelings of fear, hurt, and members; estranged staff repair relationships and isolation. Consultants need to address »» Structured and easily understood meth- enabled the board to show more patience this dynamic directly with patience and ods of change; and support of staff who had borne the empathy. With honesty and kindness they »» Persistent and ongoing support to brunt of harmful behavior. can help members see what is going on leaders; Uncovering patterns and probing past and regain traction on forward progress. »» Clarity about an organization’s readi- history requires sensitivity and pacing. For example, staff turnover in RCA re- ness to continue healing on its own; and Interveners demonstrate trustworthiness kindled everyone’s worries about program

Persistent Traumatization in Nonprofit Organizations 29 Pat Vivian, MA, has consulted for over thirty years with community- based nonprofit organizations, ineffectiveness and agency closure. Staff on them. Consultants need to remain lost focus on agency progress as they were aware of dependency dynamics and stay state and national coalitions, and swept back into fear-based conversations. ready to offer confidence in their clients’ government agencies. Her ­passion We patiently listened to their fears, normal- ability to move forward on their own. We is to help heal and strengthen ized their recurring feelings, and helped have had clients express desire for more mission-driven nonprofits that them remember the progress they had frequent access to us and joke about our are working for positive change made. moving closer to them. We have learned and social justice. Vivian is known Leaders need continuous support and to balance supporting client independence attention. They feel vulnerable and unsure while showing ongoing interest in the orga- for her insight, compassion, and of themselves but hesitate to reach out for nization’s progress. honesty; her positive energy help. One leader needed assistance to crys- Effective intervention happens when helps traumatized organizations tallize and understand her deep ambiva- consultants understand strategies and tech- feel hope for the future. She lence about remaining in her ED role. As niques that work: they know when to enter can be reached at patvivian71@ she distinguished her own needs from an organization, what to do when they are gmail.com. the organization’s needs, she was able to inside, and when to leave. Practitioners consider her options more dispassionately. who have the energy, compassion, and Shana Hormann, PhD, has over Leaders in their busyness may be infre- stamina for this work can assist trauma- 30 years’ experience provid- quent and erratic communicators. We find tized organizations to transform by moving ourselves reaching out over and over again beyond their trauma. We interveners need ing training and consultation to leaders before we receive a response. to be ready for the depth of work required nationally and internationally for Vivian developed creative ways to stay in to help organizations heal from damage nonprofit organizations, tribal touch with several executive directors who and wounding. Otherwise helping persis- communities, and government were too far away to visit informally. She tently traumatized systems is doomed to agencies. Hormann is passionate used travel for other client work as oppor- failure or superficial Band-Aid fixes. Even about strengthening resilience in tunities to visit. Those leaders responded if we are knowledgeable about trauma with appreciation for the extra effort of and traumatization, practitioners need to organizations and communities staying in contact with them. be ready personally and professionally to that have experienced trauma. In any consultation, follow-up activi- work at a profound level to help nonprofits She brings a calm and capable ties include support of leaders; this is recover and heal. presence to conflicted and painful especially important for a leader in a situations. She can be reached at persistently traumatized system. A leader References [email protected]. was mired in her organization’s unhealthy patterns and feeling stuck. With support Kahn, W.A. (2008). Transformation of she was able to set priorities for her atten- meaning in traumatized systems: A case tion and develop strategies to continue her study. Presentation at the International change efforts. Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Often dysfunctional patterns get in the Organizations Conference, Philadel- way of interventions. Communication can phia. regonline.com be sporadic, follow through on tasks inter- Kahn, W.A. (2003). The revelation of orga- mittent, and focus easily lost. Consultants nizational trauma. Journal of Applied can be left wondering about an organiza- Behavioral Science, 39(4), 364–380. tion’s motivation and readiness to do the Stein, H.F. (1991). Metaphors of organi- work. Intermittent or sporadic behavior zational trauma and organizational does not necessarily mean that leaders and development: A case example. Orga- staff are unmotivated or unready. It often nizational Development Journal, 9(4), means they are overwhelmed by their cir- 22–30. cumstances and stuck. It is important for Vivian, P., & Hormann, S. (2002). interveners to have a personal reservoir of ­Organizational trauma and healing. energy, compassion, and patience. OD Practitioner, 34(4), 52–57. Outside helpers can be seen as lifesav- Vivian, P., & Hormann, S. (2013). Orga- ers to the organization and its members. nizational trauma and healing. North They act as an oasis of safety in an unsafe Charleston, SC: Create Space. world. The more effective outsiders are, the more the organization trusts and depends

30 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 “We seek to understand and appreciate the values and deeper underlying assumptions of the groups we work with. For us that process is an eclectic mix of Edgar Schein’s work on organizational culture and the systems-oriented approaches found in pastoral and ascetical theology.”

Understanding from Within

Working with Religious Systems

By Michelle Heyne and We practice OD “from within” church NTL. Within the first two years of the new Robert A. Gallagher systems. In the most obvious sense that priest’s leadership, the parish experienced is because we are practicing Christians in significant changes: the Anglican tradition. We participate »» From average Sunday attendance of 89 in the Eucharist each Sunday and in the to 150; in 2014 pressing toward 300; daily prayers of the church. We engage in »» From an operating deficit of about practices of reflection and community. We $70,000 and in default to the diocese, seek ways to serve. That we are relatively to a balanced budget and current on proficient practitioners in our religious diocesan obligations; tradition does help us gain entry and trust »» From ambivalence about identity to a with client parishes and dioceses. widely-shared commitment to its iden- There is also a less obvious way in tity as a progressive “Anglo-Catholic” which we practice OD “from within.” We church; and seek to understand and appreciate the »» From a deeply prayerful parish beset values and deeper underlying assumptions by anxiety and inertia, to a parish of the groups we work with. For us that grounded in both prayer and hope and process is an eclectic mix of Edgar Schein’s beginning to confidently set a path work on organizational culture and the forward. systems-oriented approaches found in pastoral and ascetical theology. The new rector began work on several After sharing a case example of how fronts in building the capacity of the whole OD can be applied from within church system. She used her OD skills and knowl- systems, we describe what influenced edge in a manner that connected with the churches to consider OD, the Episcopal spirituality of the Anglican tradition. She Church’s particular relationship with quickly identified the parish’s fuzzy identity OD, and what is a pastoral and ascetical as a key area for change. While well-known theology-based OD approach. for the beauty of its liturgy and operating out of an Anglo-Catholic tradition, seg- A Case Example ments of the parish were ambivalent about that identity. When its rector retired in 2003, St. Paul’s During the first two years of her had reached a plateau marked by atten- tenure, she implemented initiatives to dance decline, low energy, and moderate strengthen the inclusion and formation of financial difficulties. During the subse- members, the sense of community, and quent interim period, these difficulties the life of common prayer. These initiatives were exacerbated. The parish then hired a were developed using standard OD meth- new rector who had completed training in ods and knowledge in combination with the Church Development Institute (CDI) the use of pastoral theology models such as and had obtained a certificate in OD from those discussed later in this article.

Understanding from Within: Working with Religious Systems 31 Here is some of what was done: The Context after the Second World War »» There was interest in the church’s »» Parish-wide listening/conversation The general context for churches’ use of role in the “humanization of institu- sessions identified strengths, clarified OD emerged out of the Second World War. tions.” The World Council of Churches priorities, and built shared commit- There were five threads: conducted an action-reflection study ment. Survey feedback processes were »» A questioning of the usefulness of the on “The Role of Christians within used that kept the data real-time and parish as the primary structure for ­Changing Institutions: Studies on tangible, avoided bureaucracy and the church’s work. There were experi- Humanization and Mission.” The delay, and built trust and commitment ments of many kinds—house churches, Roman Catholic Church engaged the by openly sharing valid and useful worker priests, and inner-city missions. same theme in John XXIII’s Pacem in information. The process capitalized »» Parish churches faced a new social Terris: it is not enough for Christians on energy generated in the room and arrangement. Before the war people “to be illumined by the heavenly light moved quickly to recruit volunteers for tended to live in the same community of faith and to be fired with enthusiasm working groups. and work for the same employer all for a cause; they must involve them- »» Improved quality of Sunday worship by their lives. After the war that shifted selves in the work of [every] institution, training members for a more profi- to a society in which there was more and strive to influence them effectively cient participation in the Eucharist and mobility. The sectors of life became from within” (John XXIII. 1963). increased the training of servers and more fragmented, with work, family, »» A network of industrial missions was readers. Music was further integrated religion, civic life, leisure, and educa- established. The most famous was the in the flow of liturgy. tion in competition for the person’s Detroit Industrial Mission, working »» Experiential and participative educa­ time, money, and energy. with the auto makers and the UAW. In tional methods were used to help mem­bers explore and make decisions about how they would shape their spiri- Parish churches faced a new social arrangement. Before tual life. The Benedictine tradition’s the war people tended to live in the same community and emphasis on community was combined with OD skills to improve two-way com- work for the same employer all their lives. After the war that munication and have focused conversa- shifted to a society in which there was more mobility. The tions around community issues. »» Community life was improved by facili- sectors of life became more fragmented, with work, family, tating connections with others, attend- religion, civic life, leisure, and education in competition for ing to early inclusion, and reinforcing the general culture of acceptance and the person’s time, money, and energy. invitation. This took shape in the coffee hour after Sunday mass, groups going »» The failure of the church in Germany Philadelphia there was MAP (Metro- to a local pub after evening classes, and was a moral and institutional crisis for politan Associates of Philadelphia) regular newcomers’ gatherings in the large segments of the church. There conducting action research on how rector’s home. was a sense of shame in the recognition Christians might influence the institu- that the baptized Christians in the insti- tions in which they worked. “During its We will revisit the case later in the article. tutions of the military, courts, police last 5 years, MAP focused its energies forces, and business community rarely on trying to better understand the Coming to a Willingness to Understand did anything significant to oppose, and change process within institutions, Itself in New Ways. in many case colluded with, the Holo- and the way in which local churches caust and a war of aggression. That might offer support for laity commit- What brought Saint Paul’s Parish, Seattle, failure was seen in contrast to the work ted to serving as change agents within and other churches to make use of OD? of Lutheran Pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer the organizations where they worked” There are two parts to this backstory. First, and the Confessing Church. Bonhoeffer (Specht, Broholm, & Mosel. 2001). there’s what came out of the Second World was executed because of his resistance War; and second, there’s the particular activities. His thinking was that what A sixth thread emerged in the 1960s. relationship of the Episcopal Church with mattered was that people take respon- The church began to experience a loss Organization Development. sibility for their world; that we are to of membership and the need to reduce enter into the struggles of life and the costs of maintaining so many history and accept the uncertainty and buildings. possible guilt that comes with respon- This historical and sociological sible action. context caused church leaders of all

32 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 denominations, including the Episcopal interest in the development of diocesan basis, and make use of a trained consul- Church, to seek new ways to address insti- consulting networks. tant. As new priests were appointed they tutional life. Today in the Episcopal Church it is were required to complete an early form of routine to hear of a parish using Apprecia- CDI, in addition to the other requirements. OD and the Episcopal Church tive Inquiry and methods for increasing Over a five-year period parishes with Billie Alban, Barbara Bunker, and Dick participation and listening in meetings. leaders participating in the CDI training Axlerod (2007) in their chart of the devel- You also hear words and phrases that program experienced 80% average pledge opment of Organization Development suggest familiarity with OD, along with increase (vs. 68% for non-participants) and name four “early adapters”: the military, various diocesan and national programs 24% in attendance (vs. 15%). All these par- TRW Systems, General Mills, and the Epis- offering brief introductions to theory. ishes reported increased satisfaction with copal Church. Mostly it is thin stuff. the central elements of parish life, e.g., In 1971 Loren Mead defined the There are however three training worship, formation, service, evangelization, church’s OD role in a position paper, “The programs offering a more comprehensive, etc. This occurred while the state’s popula- Parish is the Issue.” Mead was the director competency-based approach. All have tion was declining and as the percentage of of Project Test Pattern (PTP), an Episcopal integrated OD in training parish teams— the diocesan budget allocated to financial Church action research project learning the Church Development Institute (CDI), aid to these was also declining. about how parishes might be renewed. Shaping the Parish, and the College for Mead wrote about his contact with consul- Congregational Development. All share Drawing on the Church’s tants working with parishes, “It became core elements such as 6–8 workshop Self Understanding obvious quickly that the consultants in the weekends, a course of reading in the field, field were in touch with information that and the completion and critique of 3–6 Using OD in Combination with the Church did not have about the way that developmental initiatives in parishes. Pastoral/Ascetical Theology parishes work” (p.13). Mead identified the Shaping the Parish also includes coaching During the 1970s and into the 1980s the work of parish development consultants for each parish team and an early T-group church’s use of OD was largely grounded as based in the descriptions found in the weekend with a focus on group dynamics in the MATC program, Organization Addison-Wesley Series on Organization and feedback skills. Development in Volunteer and Religious Development and in Process Consulting by Over the last 20 years 18 US dioceses Systems (which had learned from a variety Edgar Schein. He differentiated parish (of 99) and one Canadian (of 34) have of NTL and university-based programs). development from other models of change made use of these programs. There have The program did not, however, make very in congregations, such as the crusade or also been hundreds of individuals attend- useful connections between OD and the revival, clustering parishes in common ing national expressions of the programs. unique dynamics of the parish church. effort, and leadership development. Around half of those dioceses have The shared experience of many church This direction took institutional form engaged the programs for enough years to members was that while the skills and quickly. PTP launched a series of action see a significant impact on their parishes. methods were seen as valuable, there was research consultations in parishes. The Leaders in parishes that have been not an explicit exploration that related it Mid Atlantic Training Committee (MATC), through one of the programs are more to the church’s faith and practice. Some an ecumenical agency with strong Epis- likely to understand the consequence of participating in the 1976 MATC program copal involvement, offered dozens of labs doing survey feedback rather than a mass found themselves wanting a direct, rather each year in human relations, group devel- survey. Most have read large sections of than presumed, connection between spiri- opment, and experiential education design Cummings and Worley’s Organization tuality and OD. That connection was devel- skills. MATC also launched Organization Development & Change and Schein’s The oped in the early CDIs of the Dioceses of Development in Volunteer and Religious Corporate Culture Survival Guide. They Pennsylvania (1976-1981) and Connecticut Systems, a year-long program with three have used models from OD and pastoral (1982-1988) and again at the General weeks of workshops, application, read- theology to help their parishes assess, Theological Seminary (1985–2000). ing in between workshops, and the use plan, and act. They have used the MBTI in Models grounded in Anglican and Bene- of an experienced practitioner as a coach. regard to emotional intelligence, organi- dictine spirituality were used to explore The Association of Religion and Applied zational leadership, and group dynamics. the spiritual life of parish churches. It was Behavioral Sciences was established, offer- They have learned group participation and a beginning. ing a recognition process in OD and other facilitation skills. The church faces a significant problem fields. Loren Mead convened a Conference In the late 1980s the Diocese of Con- in that few people in parish leadership (and for Managers of OD Networks (most from necticut required all of its small, struggling, even fewer non-leader members) receive Episcopal dioceses) creating a common financially-aided parishes to participate in any significant training in the practical base of “best practices” and generating processes of self and peer reflection and theology of the parish church or in how to assessment, meet together on a regular effectively partner with one another. On the

Understanding from Within: Working with Religious Systems 33 whole, the seminaries and first-two-years- to equip Christians, in our tradition, to whether people are “satisfied.” In some out programs fail in what they could do to address the pressing social issues and parishes, satisfaction is achieved as long work on increasing emotional intelligence, needs of this age? as they are not producing hurt, unhappi- basic group and OD skills, and an under- Ascetical theology is about spiritual ness, and depression; in others they seek standing of the parish church grounded in practice. It is concerned with the on-going harmony, contentment, and occasional a systems approach to pastoral and asceti- task of living the Christian life and reflect- enjoyment. It is as though it would be cal theology. ing upon it. The questions are: an adequate measure if General Motors OD, by its nature, is complex and »» What kind of person and human com- sold no cars and made no money but implementation of OD processes is munity do we want to shape? the employees were satisfied and usually demanding. A lack of shared theological »» How might the parish contribute to that showed up at the plant and office. conception and language by the parish’s task? members and leaders—what amounts to »» How do we foster practices that Primary Task a misunderstanding, often not articulated, increase emotional intelligence and of the parish’s primary purpose—can exac- spiritual maturity; practices that assist “Every organization has some central erbate the challenges commonly experi- people in being responsible participants process for which it exists” (Albrecht, 1983, enced in organizations that embark on OD in their workplace, civic life, families, p.4). Albrecht called it the “prime axis.” In improvement processes. and friendships? the church a common way of conceptualiz- This means that while it is true that ing that process is as a cycle, or oscillation the parish church could make use of all Under the Tip of the Iceberg between two poles: active—contemplative, the same basic OD theory and methods The starting place in pastoral and ascetical gathered—scattered, extradependence— as any other organization, as OD estab- theology, as with OD, is to look at what “is.” intradependence, consolation—desolation, lished its value in church systems we also We begin with what is already happening renewal—apostolate, inward nurture—­ needed ways that took into account the rather than with what “should be.” The task outward witness. unique dynamics and issues of the parish is not to offer an idealized image of the One point of confusion comes when church, and provided quickly-accessible “best” but to ground the improvement of people pull apart the oscillation. Instead of pathways to shared understanding of its the parish system in what already has life its being an integrated process it becomes purpose and highest expressions. For the in the culture and tradition. We begin there a preference between the poles (I’m more church, the parish was a microcosm of the even if that life is weak and distorted, as is activist vs. I’m more contemplative) or a Body of Christ and was also a nonprofit the case in too many parishes. seeking of balance (we need the right organization. In each of the three models offered amount of attention to renewal and the The need was for “understanding below we begin with what already exists. right amount to apostolate). from within.” The church needed a way »» People engage spiritual practices and of using OD that was expressed in its own return to the routines of daily life in Renewal-Apostolate Cycle language and from the perspective of its family, with friends, at work, and in In our work we have looked upon facilitat- self-understanding. The nature and mis- civic life. ing that central process as the primary sion of the church needed to play a role »» A parish expresses forms of common task of a parish. We call the process the in the conversation. The practices of the prayer, community life, ways of reflec- Renewal–Apostolate Cycle (Gallagher, church needed to be seen by the OD prac- tion, and service to others. 2008). titioner as interventions that advanced or »» The parish church is a community This cycle describes a central dynamic hindered the health of the parish. Pathways that includes people in various stages of the individual’s and parish’s life. It to increased health needed to be based in of their spiritual life and provides focuses attention on the movement both the common prayer and spirituality of resources for change. The parish between being renewed in baptismal the church, and OD understandings of the is made up of the disciplined and identity and purpose and living our daily parish as a system. proficient along with the tentative. It life—in our families, with friends, in the The fields of pastoral or practical and consists of people present every Sun- workplace, and in our civic life. The cycle is ascetical theology came into play. The part day along with those coming only on between a conscious and intentional atten- of pastoral theology that most directly con- Christmas and Easter. tion to our renewal in the spiritual life, and nects with parish development is the work a subconscious reliance upon that spiritual to understand society and human need, The models work from within the church’s life. The parish is to offer the climate, and from that to shape parish communities self-understanding. They also suggest an structures, and processes that assist in that that will effectively address that society and approach to what we are to measure. renewal and contribute to the oscillation. those needs. The question is: What kind Leaders and members most commonly In its own understanding it is to provide of oversight and leadership, structure and understand the parish’s success in terms of the climate, prayer life, and other resources spiritual life, do we need in a parish church attendance at programs and worship and that renew baptized members in their faith

34 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 and practice so they may be instruments of side-by-side—Community and Reflection. replace two others not based in what “is.” the Divine Compassion in daily life. We participate in imperfect communities One ignores the differences among peo- that we allow to nurture and influence ple—“we’re all the same”—and a second Primary Elements of the Parish System us, including a parish church. Reflec- would pretend everyone is fully committed tion includes developing our capacity to and competent. What are the key elements that relate to be silent and still, to listen, and to learn the organization’s functioning? There are from our experience. The final element is Returning to Saint Paul’s, Seattle many OD models that identify the key Service. Individuals serve in ways that fit elements of a system, such as Weisbord’s their gifts and temperament. The parish The Renewal—Apostolate Cycle was Six-Box Diagnostic Model. We have used develops an expression of common and strengthened with a three-year cycle of models like these to help parishes get a pic- shared service. The assumption is that such experiential and participative educational modules and training members in spiri- tual practices. The Shape of the Parish Leaders and members most commonly understand the parish’s model was used in formulating a strategy to strengthen the center while accepting success in terms of attendance at programs and worship and people in all stages of their spiritual life. whether people are “satisfied.” In some parishes, satisfaction is And the community, daily prayers of the church, and service elements of the system achieved as long as they are not producing hurt, unhappiness, were made stronger. and depression; in others they seek harmony, contentment, and The Experience of Using OD in the occasional enjoyment. It is as though it would be an adequate Church System measure if General Motors sold no cars and made no money Between the two of us we have trained hun- but the employees were satisfied and usually showed up at the dreds of Episcopal Church parish leaders plant and office. in this fusion of OD with pastoral/ascetical theology in CDI or the Shaping the Parish programs. The programs include both ture of their key systems in the same way service will be more fruitful and authentic, formal and informal assessment processes. as any other nonprofit organization. and less self-serving, when it sits upon the There are three phrases we have heard In our work with Episcopal churches base of the other four spiritual practices again and again: we also use models that address elements (Heyne, 2011). »» “This is hard.” That is said early in the of the parish’s spiritual practice. Benedic- training programs. Part of it is that the tine spirituality, which is deeply embedded Critical Mass: A Shape of the Parish Model programs are demanding and require in Episcopal culture, considers how the focused time and energy. But as the parish functions in light of the commu- Critical mass models are an important OD participants begin to engage change nity’s need for Stability (primarily found tool used to assess the organization’s need projects in the parishes, we hear about in worship and relationships), Obedience for enough weight—enough commitment the need for persistence, wisdom, and, (mutual listening in community to our- and competence—at the center to accom- at times, courage. They talk about how selves, our leaders, God, the tradition, and plish the organization’s work. complex interventions are and how the wider church), and Conversion of Life We assume that people are in many challenging the work is intellectually, (change that emerges from Stability and different places in regard to spiritual life: emotionally, and spiritually. response to careful listening). some more disciplined, others more lax; »» “This works!” That’s the second state- We also use a map of spiritual prac- some with an “owned” faith, others more ment we hear about one year into the tices that includes five elements. At the tentative. There is a two-fold strategy training. The feelings of being over- base there are two practices—one weekly, implied—accept people were they are whelmed and disoriented have passed. one daily. That rhythm is common to many and invite them to grow. There is also an Interventions have been planned, religious and spiritual traditions. These assumption that a parish is healthier when implemented, and reflected upon. elements have to do with living in the there is a critical mass of people proficient Some of the “this works” response rises habits and ways that keep us grounded in in the practices of faith. That more profi- out of a sense that the parish system is that tradition. In Anglicanism they take cient group grounds the parish and creates more understandable. They are learn- form as the Holy Eucharist (Mass) and the a climate conducive to growth (Gallagher, ing to look under the tip of the iceberg. Daily Office (Daily Prayer of the Church). 2008). The other part is they are beginning There are two more elements standing This is a mental model that serves to to see some initial success or, if not

Understanding from Within: Working with Religious Systems 35 Michelle Heyne and Robert A. Gallagher have developed approaches using OD in religious success, some understanding of why References their interventions did not go as they systems that, in combination intended. As the training comes to an Alban, B., Bunker, B., & Axelrod, R. (2007). with the church’s disciplines of end we hear comments about changes Chart – History of organization develop- pastoral and ascetical theol- in parish culture—more trust, more ment and the environment. In B. Bunker ogy, have offered an innovative openness, and more competence in (2010), A short history of OD. Practising approach grounded in the church’s the core practices. As parishes send Social Change, 2, pp. 38–40. tradition. Heyne’s day job is as a additional teams through the training Albrecht, K. (1983). Organization develop- that sense of “this works” increases and ment: A total systems approach to positive Managing Director with Precedent becomes more internalized; the compe- change in any business organization. Consulting, providing OD-based tency is now within the parish, rather Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. consulting services for financial than simply within those attending. Gallagher, R. A. (2008). Fill all things: The services companies. Gallagher »» “This is inspiring.” This one comes dynamics of spirituality in the parish has moved between OD work with later; maybe during the last workshops, church. Fayetteville, AR: Ascension church systems and a variety of sometimes after that. People have seen Press. themselves, others, and their parish Heyne, M. (2011). In your holy spirit: nonprofit organizations in the change. It is a kind of reasonable hope Traditional spiritual practices in today’s fields of affordable housing, about their future together. A confirma- Christian life. Fayetteville, AR: Ascen- domestic abuse, and poverty law. tion of the investment they have made. sion Press. Heyne has received certificates John XXIII. (1963). Pacem in terris: Encyc- from the NTL OD Program and the The phrases we have heard from others lical of Pope John XXIII on establishing Church Development Institute. are also our own. It is what we experience. universal peace in truth, justice, charity, Of course that is not unique to church and liberty. Vatican City: The Vatican. Gallagher has an MA in OD from systems. Heyne knows it from her work in Mead, L. (1971). The parish is the issue: Goddard College. His core faculty the financial services industry and Galla- Revised. Project Test Pattern position person was Elsie Cross, then presi- gher knows it from his work with a variety paper. Washington, DC: Project Test dent of NTL. Heyne can be reached of nonprofits. Pattern. at michelle@precedentconsulting. Specht, D., Broholm R., & Mosel, E. (2001). net and Gallagher at ragodct@ Conclusion An approach to developing a working ­theology of organizations. Paper pre- gmail.com. Their web site is Con- The use of both church-specific and secular sented at Business as a Calling: The gregationalDevelopment.com. On OD models highlights the fact that the Calling of Business, Fifth International that site you can find PDFs on the parish is a nonprofit organization like any Symposium on Catholic Social Thought models mentioned in this article; other nonprofit, with many of the same and Management Education. Bilbao, see the section “Understanding issues and dynamics. It is also unlike oth- Spain. from Within.” ers in its purpose, dynamics, and primary task. This provides a reality orientation and an energy catalyst grounded in connecting to the parish’s mission in light of its actual functioning and actual potential.

36 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 “Nonprofit leaders need to recognize that the board chair–executive director relationship is an important and powerful resource that can be leveraged in support of the organization’s mission. They need to promote and engage in dialogue about how to best develop and nurture it.”

The Board Chair–Executive Director Relationship

Dynamics that Create Value for Nonprofit Organizations1

By Mary Hiland Conventional wisdom emphasizes the The Study importance to a nonprofit organization of its core leadership: a “healthy” board chair– To learn more about the dynamics and executive director relationship (Eadie, influence of board chair–executive direc- 2001; Howe, 2004; Lechem, 2002; Light, tor relationships, a study was conducted 2002). Organizational effectiveness is at in 2005 with board chairs and executives stake when this relationship is weak, or from 16 nonprofit 501(c)(3) organiza- worse, dysfunctional. While such an asser- tions in Silicon Valley, California. Semi- tion may seem intuitively correct, there is structured interviews with open-ended limited empirical work that explores the questions were done individually with each dynamics of this key relationship or its volunteer participant to elicit descriptions influence, if any, on the nonprofit organiza- of the dynamics in their relationship and tion (Brown, 2000; Miller-Millesen, 2003). its effect on the organization. In the nonprofit governance literature, Participants and their organizations consultants and practitioners prescribe the were selected on a first come, first served roles and responsibilities of board chairs basis so their characteristics were unpre- and how those roles and responsibilities dictable. Fourteen of the 32 study partici- are shared with, or distinct from, those of pants were female (44%) and 18 were male the executive. These typically “one size fits (56%). Half (8) of the study pairs were of all” job descriptions fail to consider the mixed gender and half were the same. The incredible diversity of the sector. In addi- lack of ethnic diversity among participants tion, beyond “to do” lists and role clarifi­ was disappointing: 94% were Caucasian. cations, there is very little that helps board There was diversity among the orga- chairs or executives anticipate and effec- nizations in the study. The fields of service tively manage the complexities of their rela- ranged from recreation to the arts to tionship. The roles, as typically assigned, organizations that provide services to other create a paradox in which the board chair nonprofits. The largest cluster was human is at once providing both support and service—25% (4) of the organizations. oversight. This paradox, coupled with the Study nonprofits ranged in size (measured real possibility that both the board chair by annual expenditures) from less than and the executive are experienced leaders, $500,000 to over $10 million. Time in the highlights the importance of learning more board chair and executive director relation- about the dynamics of this relationship ships ranged from 6 months to 5 years. than simply who should do what. Social capital is the resource that is created as a result of interpersonal relation- ships within a social structure (Coleman, 1990). Social capital theory explains how 1. A version of this article appeared in the Journal relationships can add value to organiza- for Nonprofit Management. tions and is, as yet, under-explored as an

The Board Chair–Executive Director Relationship: Dynamics that Create Value for Nonprofit Organizations 37 asset in nonprofit organizations (Cohen & or thinking things through together. In implications. Like Mishra’s findings, the Prusak, 2001; King, 2004). Social capital contrast to facts-sharing, ideas-sharing more diverse the interactions in the pair, theory was used as a lens in the study to involved the engagement of both parties the stronger the trust built. The interac- understand whether and/or how the board in the interaction—a two-way exchange. tions provided the contexts in which trust chair–executive director relationships Initiated by either party, the focus of board building behaviors were enacted and the added value to nonprofit organizations. chair–executive ideas-sharing ranged from pairs with the strongest trust demonstrated Study findings revealed cumulative a quick check-in to consult each other all of the interaction types. It is interest- patterns of dynamics that, when integrated, about organizational issues to the board ing to note, though, that the frequency of formed a typology of “Good to Great” board chair serving as a “sounding board” for the interactions and the amount of time spent chair–executive relationships. This pattern executive. together did not relate to the “Good to was built from the following: (a) types of Great” framework that characterized the interpersonal dynamics; (b) levels of trust; Knowledge-sharing other study findings. It was the quality, not (c) what the pairs worked on together; and The third interactions type was knowledge- quantity, of interaction that mattered. (d) how the above, combined, linked to sharing—defined as learning and/or coach- social capital creation in the organization. ing interaction. This type was distinct from The Strength of Trust sharing facts or ideas in that there was a Based on study participants’ teaching component and identifiable con- There are numerous, different conceptual- descriptions, five types of tent learned about the organization, some- izations of trust in the organizational and thing outside the organization, or about the social science literature (Bigley & Pearce, interpersonal dynamics person him/herself. The most common 1998). These varied concepts reflect trust’s characterized the board examples were coaching of the executive by complexity. Most address trust in the con- the board chair and the executive teaching text of personal, as compared to working, chair–executive relationships: the board chair about the organization or relationships. Integrating and adding to the facts-sharing, ideas-sharing, nonprofits in general. work of Lewicki and Bunker (1996), Reina and Reina (1999), and Mishra (1996), a knowledge-sharing, feelings- Feelings-sharing model of trust building in organizations sharing, and give-and-take. The participants’ descriptions of support, was formulated. reassurance, caring, and/or appreciation Nineteen different trust-building were defined as the feelings-sharing type behaviors were identified. Each was linked Characteristic Interpersonal Dynamics in of interaction, which varied in intensity to one or more of the interaction types the Relationships among the pairs. Expressions of support discussed above and each fit within one of most often came from the board chair to three levels of trust in the model: calculus- Based on study participants’ descrip- the executive; expressions of appreciation based (weak trust), knowledge-based tions, five types of interpersonal dynamics were exchanged by both. (moderate trust), and identification-based characterized the board chair–executive (strong trust). These levels are cumula- relationships: facts-sharing, ideas-sharing, Give-and-take tive, i.e., knowledge-based trust builds on knowledge-sharing, feelings-sharing, and The give-and-take dynamic reflected the calculus-based trust; identification-based give-and-take. board chair or executive’s adaptation to the trust builds on knowledge-based trust. other person’s style, personality, and/or Drawing on Mishra’s research, the level of Facts-sharing preferences and their process of working trust assessed in each study pair was deter- Facts-sharing was defined as a one-way out differences. It is understood that execu- mined by the type and number of different giving of information that did not involve tives need to adapt to new board chairs trust-building behaviors they experienced. the engagement of the other party in the as they may transition several times over The lowest level, calculus-based trust, exchange. This interpersonal dynamic type executives’ tenure and the give-and-take exists to the extent that punishments and/ was primarily demonstrated in reports dynamic included, but went beyond, the or rewards motivate someone to invest in of how much information the executive executive adapting to a new board chair. It a relationship or to remain trust­worthy. shared with the board chair and if it was was quite evident that both parties in the There is a calculation of the value of experienced as enough. Facts-sharing was relationship made changes or concessions trusting in a particular relationship and the most basic of the interpersonal interac- to accommodate the other or to achieve interactions in the relationship reflect a tions and was evident in all study pairs. alignment in a variety of circumstances. cost-benefit evaluation. Though this is a Examining these types of board chair– weak level of trust it is important to note Ideas-sharing executive interpersonal interactions from that it is not “bad.” It is still trust and in The ideas-sharing dynamic represents the perspective of trust building provided some working relationships this level of brainstorming, problem solving, and/ a framework for understanding their trust is more than adequate to accomplish

38 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Trust building

Trust begins Identification-based Trust: identifying with Calculus-based Trust: each other assessing risk and reward

Trust Builds Trust Builds

Knowledge-based Trust

“Getting to know you”: Investing time to build relationship Contractual Trust (Trust of Communication Character) Trust (Trust of Disclosure) Competence Trust (Trust of Capability

Figure 1. Trust-BuildingFigure 1. Model Trust Building Model goals. Only one study pair did not build Identification-based trust, the highest The Focus of Work trust beyond this level. level of trust, is not as evident in orga- The next level, knowledge-based trust, nizational contexts as calculus-based or Study participants were asked to describe results from knowing each other to an knowledge-based trust (Lewicki & Bunker, experiences that were characteristic of extent that facilitates predictability. This 1996). Identification-based trust results what they worked on together. Findings level includes trust that built as board from going beyond knowing each other to indicated three patterns of the scope and chairs and executives gained confidence in identifying with each other. It is built less type of work the pairs engaged in together: each other’s competence, showed respect, on predictability of behavior than on the managing, planning, and leading. These communicated effectively, and honored internalization of each other’s preferences patterns, like the levels of trust, were agreements and commitments. The (Sheppard & Tuchinsky, 1996). Pairs with cumulative, that is, all pairs planning executive’s willingness to be vulnerable identification-based trust act on behalf together were also managing; all pairs lead- and the board chair creating safety for the of each other and can substitute for each ing were also planning and managing. executive also exemplified behaviors that other in other interpersonal interactions. built ­knowledge-based trust. As the model The dynamics in pairs with this level of Managing reflects, knowledge-based trust incorpo- trust included a more personal dimension. All the pairs indicated they worked together rates the behavioral categories most readily In addition to the levels of trust on some aspect of the internal operations associated with trust-building: communica- evident in each pair, the study revealed of the organization, for example finances, tion, meeting commitments, and demon- different patterns in what each pair focused personnel, facilities, and fundraising. This strating competence. Knowledge-based on when they worked together on behalf of pattern was categorized as managing. Also, trust was the most common level of trust the organization. It is the integration of the pairs were managing when they worked on evident in the relationships. Nine pairs’ trust levels and these “working-together” or about the board, e.g., developing board built trust to this level. Six pairs built trust patterns that provide the “good to great” meeting agendas together, working on beyond this: those six also built identifica- framework the study revealed. The work- recruiting new board members, or identify- tion-based trust. ing-together patterns are discussed next. ing board leaders to head committees. Six

The Board Chair–Executive Director Relationship: Dynamics that Create Value for Nonprofit Organizations 39 study pairs worked together only at this the highest level: identification-based trust. they have interests” (Coleman, 1990, p. level and are referred to as the manag- The following reflects these findings using 300). They engage in various exchanges ing pairs. These managing pairs did not a “Good to Great” framework: and transfers of control; that is, they form describe working together with the board social relationships toward the goal of or anyone else. This was an important Good: managing pairs achieving their interests. These interac- distinction. Managing focus + low to moderate tions take place within a social structure. knowledge-based trust Unlike other forms of capital (physical, Planning human, intellectual), the resources that are The planning pattern of working together Better: planning pairs social capital are only accessible through was characteristic of pairs who engaged Planning focus + moderate to high social ties – they are not the possessions or with the board to determine direction and knowledge-based trust specific attributes of the individual (i.e., not strategy, as well as doing other activities human capital). directly related to organizational strategic Great: leading pairs The Good to Great types of board focus. In contrast to the managing pairs, Leading focus + identification-based chair–executive director relationships are planning pairs described building relation- trust discussed below in terms of the social capi- ships with board members and interacting tal created and the benefits that accrued with board committees. There were three A final question explored in the study was to the organizations as a result. The pairs’ pairs, the planning pairs, whose work what, if any, influence did the board chair– strength of trust, focus of work, and the together evidenced only the managing and executive relationship have on the organi- benefits of social capital creation all aligned planning patterns. zation from the participants’ experience? within each type. Given the framework, was there a relation- Leading ship between the nature of that influence, The Good Relationships Six study pairs were managing, planning, if any, and the good, better, or great pairs? As the leadership team for the nonprofit and leading. These are the leading pairs. organization, the board chair and execu- They described working with engaged Board Chair–Executive Relationship’s tive director have the opportunity to build boards on mission-related and strategic Value: Social Capital Creation social capital with each other, the board, the matters. They also described a web of staff, and other stakeholders. By defini- board, staff, and community relationships. As noted earlier, social capital theory tion, managing pairs were not working in The labeling of this pattern as leading was used to understand if and how the an engaged way with their boards or other is not intended to imply that the other study pairs’ relationships influenced their stakeholders. However, a trusting board study board chairs and executives were organizations. Social capital is the asset chair–executive relationship alone can gen- not leaders. The distinction is the level of created through relationships. It is “the erate social capital if that trust facilitates engagement the pairs had with the external stock of active connections among people” cooperative work relevant to organizational community as well as the level of engage- that makes productive action possible in goals. “Even when social capital invest- ment they helped to create between their organizations (Cohen & Prusak, 2001, ments are made solely by individuals who boards and the community. Neither was p. 4). Leaders have a critical role to play in develop ties with one another, many real evident in managing or planning pairs. creating social capital that is useful to the advantages accrue to the organization as a organizations they serve (Cohen & Prusak, whole” (Cohen & Prusak, 2001, p. 4). The Levels of Trust and the Working-Together 2001; King, 2004). level of trust in the managing pairs, whose Patterns All study participants believed that engagement with others was minimal, was their relationship mattered to the effective- a source of social capital but there was no The study found three levels of trust ness of the organization, but, prior to the evidence that these pairs influenced any and three patterns of how pairs worked study few had reflected on how. The study social capital creation outside of their rela- together. Was there a relationship between was not structured to specifically measure tionship. These pairs created social capital these two dimensions? There was. Using social capital. However, when participants within their own relationship by building Mishra’s approach to measuring the were asked how their relationships affected trust, stating expectations, and working strength of trust (i.e., the number of dif- the organizations their responses were cooperatively on agreed-upon goals. The ferent trust-building behaviors evident) characteristically about key relationships benefits for the organization they reported revealed that the strength of trust in the and networks, and other benefits associated were improved information sharing and leading pairs was 67% higher than in the with social capital. The primary elements better decision making. planning pairs and 133% higher than in the of social capital are resources and relations managing pairs. The planning pairs had (Lin, 2001). Individuals come to relation- The Better Relationships stronger trust levels than the managing ships “with resources over which they have In addition to developing social capi- pairs. Only the leading pairs had achieved some (possibly total) control and in which tal within their own relationships, the

40 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 planning pairs created social capital by as funders and legislators. One leading These findings are reflected in Figure 2 strengthening relationships with and pair reported increased engagement with (next page). engaging the members of their boards of local ethnic communities around strategic directors. They described doing this by issues that the board chair directly attrib- Discussion jointly meeting with each board mem- uted to their relationship and how they ber, appreciating and tapping into board worked together. This study provided a closer look at the members’ individual skills, leveraging Sources of social capital among the dynamics of the board chair–executive board members’ networks, and focusing leading pairs included board relation- director relationship in nonprofit organiza- on opportunities for strategic discussion. ships with staff. One executive director tions and asked if and how this relationship Planning pairs described influencing their described how the energy of the board had matters to the organization. Consistent boards to be more productive and oper- spread to the staff and that the quality of with the literature (Light, 2002; Howe, ate on a strategic versus operational level. the board members that he and the board 2004; Millesen, 2004; Carlson & Donohoe, These pairs clearly valued the board as an chair attracted contributed to high staff 2010) study participants responded with a important resource and worked together morale. Another board chair described resounding “Absolutely” when considering significant involvement between the board whether the relationship mattered. Despite The leading pairs worked members and staff in working together on this strong consensus, or maybe because key projects and sharing expertise in the of it, there has been limited empirical together, with engaged boards, organization. exploration of why or how this relation- on issues of organizational Leading pairs worked with engaged ship matters to the nonprofit organiza- boards on mission-related and strategic tions executives and board chairs serve. By vision, mission, and strategic issues. Their boards were active and lent exploring the interpersonal dynamics of the focus. They described their expertise to the organizations in ways relationship and its impact, this study took that went beyond their board roles. These a step toward understanding the powerful energy and synergies in pairs described a web of board, staff and potential of this important leadership pair. their relationship and with community relationships. The social capital Trust-building was the primary built in these relationships facilitated dynamic in the board chair–executive the board and the staff that access to a variety of resources—intellec- relationships studied. The nonprofit catalyzed organizational tual, financial, and social—needed by the governance literature emphasizes the organizations. The reach of relationships importance of trust for an effective board productivity and engagement touched by these board chairs and execu- chair–executive relationship but falls short with the community. tives spanned organizational boundaries. of detailing the interpersonal dynamics and They reported attracting more people to specific behaviors that actually build trust. the organizations (e.g., volunteers) and General statements that information shar- to tap that resource through purposeful emphasized that relationship resources ing and/or communication are important relationship building, thus, creating more were more fully utilized. The leading pairs to the board chair–executive relationship social capital. As a result, per their report, noted powerful impacts on the organiza- do not reflect the nuances of the relation- the organization benefited from a well- tions that resulted from their relation- ship dynamics. The great relationships all performing board that generated better ships, how they worked together and demonstrated identification-based trust. information, additional resources and con- the social capital created. Leading pairs Identification-based trust reflects a closer, nections, and access to expertise. described the influence of their relation- more personal relationship. Understanding ships on the ­organizations as motivating, these nuances can give board chairs and The Great Relationships energizing, and engaging others (staff, executives the tools they need to build a The leading pairs worked together, with board members, and stakeholders) on great not just a good relationship; to value, engaged boards, on issues of organizational the organizations’ behalf. They described not avoid, a more appropriate personal vision, mission, and strategic focus. They their own involvement with an engaged dimension to their interactions. Building described energy and synergies in their board of directors—individuals who were a personal connection between the board relationship, and with the board and the giving “work, wealth, and wisdom”—and chair and the executive director is not only staff, that catalyzed organizational produc- the valuable personal connections their desirable, but contributes to creating social tivity and engagement with the community. relationship and their board members’ capital. They reported leveraging the relationships relationships yielded. The leading board chairs were very and expertise of the board as a result of Leading pairs conveyed that, together, involved and had frequent, direct contact how they worked together and how this they helped to create the confidence and with staff with whom they worked on enabled them to make many connections synergy that permeated the whole orga- specific and varied projects. Contrary to the with key people in the community such nization and improved effectiveness. common view that this type of hands-on,

The Board Chair–Executive Director Relationship: Dynamics that Create Value for Nonprofit Organizations 41 Networks Effectiveness Information Energy

The Community Synergy Better decisions Access to the board’s networks Resources Results in and external Productivity relationships builds LEADING: social capital. Engaging with Confidence the community Social to achieve mission. Capital

The Board An engaged Information board adds social capital. Social Better Results in decisions PLANNING: Capital Working with an Connections engaged board on strategic issues.

Information Social Building social Results in capital with the Capital BC/ED BC/ED relationship. Better decisions

MANAGING: Working on internal operational issues together. Working Together

Figure 2. Board Chair-Executive Relationship’s Influence: Building Social Capital and the Benefits Figure 2. : board involvement is characteristic of meaning and connection that attracts and value of social capital for the nonprofit younger, less sophisticated nonprofits, builds social capital. organizations they serve, results in the these participants chaired some of the Purposeful attention to relationship investment of board chair and executive’s largest, oldest and best-known nonprofits building can increase social capital. It energies and attention elsewhere. The mul- in the study. Open access to staff was cited was interesting that the majority of study tiple, competing demands they encounter several times by board chairs as a source of participants indicated that they did not require purposeful, strategic thinking in trust in the executive. think about working on the relationship— considering where to invest for the best The social capital generated by study as compared to working on the business social capital return. This study highlights pairs resulted in numerous benefits for of the organization. In the words of one that one of the first places to invest is in the organizations. These included: energy, executive, “You forget it’s a relationship.” their own relationship. productivity, synergy, links to numer- This is particularly surprising given the ous networks, access to information, and adamant affirmations of the importance Implications for Practice improved decision-making. This study of the relationship to the organization by reinforces those who note that nonprofit almost every study participant. If, as the Nonprofit leaders need to recognize that organizations are uniquely suited to maxi- findings suggest, the creation of social the board chair–executive director rela- mizing the potential and promise social capital was an unconscious byproduct of tionship is an important and powerful capital offers organizations (Chait, Ryan & a high-trust relationship, it suggests that resource that can be leveraged in support Taylor, 2005; King, 2004). From generating the potential for social capital creation in of the organization’s mission. They need more productive work within the organiza- the study nonprofit organizations was even to promote and engage in dialogue about tion to building critical, richly resourceful, greater and unrealized. how to best develop and nurture it. Board relationships with stakeholders, nonprofit Relationship building takes time and chairs and executives should focus on their organizations have the opportunity to offer skill. Failure to recognize the potential and relationship, recognizing that building the

42 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 BC/ED Relationship: Building Social Capital

Prior The relationship knowledge Networks begins with interactions. Some BCs/EDs Effectiveness knew each Information other before. Energy The Community Better decisions Interpersonal Synergy Results in interactions Give and Access to the take board’s networks Productivity Facts Resources Feelings and external Ideas LEADING: relationships builds Confidence Knowledge Engaging with social capital. Social the community Capital to achieve mission. Interactions provide the opportunities for building trust.

Information The Board An engaged Social board adds Results in Better Trust building social capital. Capital decisions

Connections Trust begins PLANNING: Calculus- Working with an Trust Builds: based Trust engaged board Information on strategic issues. Social “Getting Capital Results in Knowledge- to know Better based Trust you” Building social decisions Trust Builds: capital with the Indentifying with Investing time BC/ED BC/ED relationship. each others’ needs to build and preferences. relationship. Communication Trust Identification- MANAGING: based Trust Contractual Trust Competence Working on internal The types of trust Trust operational issues built influence how the BC/ED together. work together and the social capital they build. Working Together

Figure 3. TheFigure Relationships 3. Among All of the Findings Discussed. relationship itself is an important compo- stories from them about the times the directors comprise the key leadership nent of their work together. relationships of the past had not worked fulcrum of nonprofit organizations. It is Nonprofit leaders need to ensure that and what a negative impact it had for the a myth that what is personal is not pro- the importance of this leadership dyad is organization. fessional and what is professional is not reflected in the practices of board chair Nurturing relationships and establish- personal. The potential to leverage the selection, terms of office, expectations of ing and sustaining trust is strategic work board chair–executive director relationship executives, and board leadership develop- essential to organizational effectiveness. and increase nonprofit organizations’ stock ment. Several board chairs interviewed The power and potential of relationships of meaningful, productive relationships, indicated that their boards spend more must be more broadly recognized and (i.e., social capital) is great and unrealized. time concerned about who to bring on promoted. The importance of connection, Building and nurturing this relationship the board and how, than they spend on caring and meaning should not be lost in must be a priority. determining leadership succession—who an over-emphasis on more “business-like” will be the next board chair and why? And, practices and claims of harried busyness. References what is the executive director’s role in the Trustworthiness is the basis of effective process? Although board chairs and execu- leadership. Nonprofit leaders are stewards Bigley, G. A., & Pearce, J. L. (1998). Strain- tives alike felt positive about their current of the well-being of individuals and our ing for shared meaning in organization relationships, the study yielded over twenty communities: board chairs and executive science: Problems of trust and distrust.

The Board Chair–Executive Director Relationship: Dynamics that Create Value for Nonprofit Organizations 43 Mary Hiland, PhD, works with nonprofit leaders to unleash the potential of boards for maximum The Academy of Management Review, Lewicki, R. J., & Bunker, B. B. (1996). 23(3), 405. Developing and maintaining trust in results. Her consulting practice Brown, W. (2000). Organizational effective- work relationships. In R. M. Kramer & focuses on board development, ness in nonprofit human service orga- T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations effective governance, and the nizations: The influence of the board of (pp. 114–139). Thousand Oaks, CA: board/executive partnership. She directors (Unpublished doctoral disserta- SAGE. has worked with 100s of non­ tion). Claremont Graduate University, Light, P. C. (2002). Pathways to nonprofit profits. She is a coach and mentor Claremont, California. excellence. Washington, DC: The Brook- Carlson, M., & Donohoe, M. (2010). The ings Institution. for boards, individual board executive director’s guide to thriving as a Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of leaders, and executive directors. nonprofit leader(2nd ed.). San Francisco, social structure and action. New York, Her 26 years of executive experi- CA: Jossey-Bass. NY: Cambridge University Press. ence includes being the CEO of Chait, R., Ryan, W. P., & Taylor, B.E. Miller-Millesen, J. L. (2003). Understand- a large nonprofit with over 525 (2005). Governance as leadership: ing the behavior of nonprofit boards staff and a $25 million budget. Reframing the work of nonprofit boards. of directors: A theory-based approach. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Hiland has 16 years of experi- Cohen, D., & Prusak, L. (2001). In good 32(4), 521–547. ence as a board member. She is company: How social capital makes orga- Mishra, A. K. (1996). Organizational a published author, speaker, and nizations work. Boston, MA: Harvard responses to crisis. In R. M. Kramer & researcher. Her PhD is in non- Business School Press. T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations: profit governance and leadership; Coleman, J. (1990). Foundations of social Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 261– and she has Masters Degrees in theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- 287). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. versity Press. Reina, D. S., & Reina, M. L. (1999). Trust organization development, social Eadie, D. C. (2001). The board-savvy CEO. & betrayal in the workplace: Building work, and public administration. Washington, DC: BoardSource. effective relationships in your organiza- Hiland can be reached at mary@ Howe, F. (2004). The nonprofit leader- tion. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler hiland-assoc.com. ship team: Building the board-executive Publishers. director partnership. San Francisco, CA: Sheppard, B. H., & Tuchinsky, M. (1996). Jossey-Bass. Micor-OB and the network organiza- King, N. K. (2004). Social capital and non- tion. In R. M. Kramer & T. R. Tyler profit leaders. Nonprofit Management & (Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers Leadership, 14(4), 471–486. of theory and research (pp. 140–165). Lechem, B. (2002). Chairman of the board. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

44 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 “The historical support of political and social scientists, might lead us to believe that hierarchy is the natural way to organize and that without it, organizations could be subject to the choice being between hierarchy and anarchy . . . However, there is ample evidence that hierarchy and centralized control is not necessary for discipline and systematic ways of working.”

The Structural Marvel of Heterarchy

Destructurization in a Nonprofit Organization

By Anita R Singh Introduction texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html), Max Weber reasoned that an organization exists only Heterarchy, has long been promoted when there is a person in authority who by many practitioners of organizational issues commands. The historical support theory as preferable to hierarchy as the of political and social scientists, might basis for organizational structure. Why, lead us to believe that hierarchy is the then, it might be asked, are there so few natural way to organize and that without organizations structured as heterarchies. it, organizations could be subject to the While practitioners are looking for concrete choice being between hierarchy and anar- examples of how heterarchies are created chy (Fairtlough, 2005). However, there is and what enables them to function (Schein, ample evidence that hierarchy and central- 2009), most studies focus on how such ized control is not necessary for discipline organizations work with communities and systematic ways of working. In fact, (Fernandez, 2003). Very few propose alter- a hierarchical organization may only suc- native models (Schumacher, 2010), or even ceed in stable conditions as learning often discuss organizational structure (Anheier, takes place only for top-level managers. 2000; Schultz, 2008). This article endeav- Lower-level members follow directions in ors to explore the following questions the absence of the big picture (Fairtlough, through a case study of a development 2005). Moreover, in traditional hierarchies, organization in India: subordinates may feel insecure, anxious, »» Is it possible to have a heterarchical and vulnerable (Goleman, 2007). structure in a nonprofit organization? As organizations become increasingly »» What does a heterarchical structure in a intertwined, the hierarchical model simply nonprofit organization look like? is inadequate because “traditional business »» Can a heterarchical structure be created models and structures are cumbersome, only in widely geographically dispersed costly, and too slow” (Allee, 2002, p. 7). organizations? Hence organizations are now operating »» How important are technology and in a more networked market, where their trust to the development of a heterar- boundaries are becoming increasingly chical structure? fuzzy. Such organizations are also learn- ing to anticipate and plan for change and Hierarchy has been the dominant model respond to increasingly uncertain and of organizational structure since time complex external environments. “What is immemorial. While Thomas Hobbes needed [then] is a multi-organizational net- argued that without a sovereign to keep work to support the seamless exchange of order, there would be a war of all against information laterally in a heterarchy among all (http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/ hierarchies” (Stephenson, 2009, p. 6).

The Structural Marvel of Heterarchy: Destructurization in a Nonprofit Organization 45 And, since this is difficult in a hierarchical its evolution and by defining the process of platforms—and by “concrete collaborative top-down organizational structure, new destructurization. planning,” or strategic design are impor- models are needed. tant for the success of a heterarchy (Hellin- Stark (2000) argued for the heterar- Literature Review grath and Küppers 2011, p. 1). “Long ago, chy model as “[it] represents a new mode when the world was local, trust enabled our of organizing that is neither market nor The concept of heterarchy was introduced primordial ancestors to cooperate and over- hierarchy: whereas hierarchies involve in 1945 by McCulloch, a biologist, who come overwhelming odds. As our world relations of dependence and market discovered that the human brain was became more globally interconnected, involves relations of independence, heterar- heterarchically organized. This revelation technology trumped trust” (Stephenson, chies involve relations of interdependence” had a profound impact on neurology and 2009, p. 4). However, a heterarchical struc- (p. 6). Driven by a set of radical changes information technology but less on social ture enables interdependencies among in the internal and external environments, science that viewed societies as essentially different elements of organizations to be Bartlett and Ghoshal (1993) showed hierarchical (Crumley 1995). In 1977, supported by trust. “As the world contin- evidence for the emergence of this new Ogilvy introduced the concept of heterarchy ued to shrink . . . interdependencies began organizational form. to the discourse on decentralization and to grow and trust was again recognized as The emergence of the globalized, lib- on the governance of large corporations. the missing link in free-trade agreements, eralized, and privatized twenty-first century Understanding its potential for studying civic-engagement initiatives, and financial has posed unprecedented challenges for ancient societies, Crumley, an archaeolo- markets” (Stephenson, 2009, p. 4). nonprofits as well as for-profits. Nonprofit gist, defined heterarchy as a system of rela- Since the 1980s, heterarchical struc- organizations working with marginalized tions “in which each element possesses the tures have been used in large, often communities face the daunting challenges potential of being unranked . . . or ranked geographically dispersed organizations, in of dwindling donations and fickle avail- in a number of different ways, depending cross-functional teams (Aime et al., 2014), ability of funds. In addition, they are often on systemic requirements . . . Elements in in multinational enterprises (Hudlund, expected to perform better with depleted a hierarchical structure are most frequently 1986; Williams & Lee, 2011), and as inter- funding. Reports on the misuse of funds perceived as being vertical . . . whereas governmental responses to large public and power by some nonprofits have led heterarchical structure is most easily envi- problems (Mars, 2013). Researchers have to donors and the public losing trust in sioned as lateral, emphasizing the number argued that heterarchical organization them (http://indianexpress.com/tag/ngo- and variety of connections among elements structures allow nonprofit organizations to funds-misappropriation). With advances in and the varying circumstantial importance make real changes in the world and act in information technology, greater transpar- of any single element” (Crumley, 1979, responsible ways (Fairtlough, 2005). They ency on their part is not only possible but p.141–173). A heterarchy thus has a balance have pointed out that shared power allows essential. Under these circumstances, the of powers, where no one person or group adaptability and flexibility to grow and hierarchical model with its long chain of is dominant, and decisions are reached enables organizations to refine their mis- communication, delayed response times by dialogue. sions over time and to evolve along with and inflexibility is no longer appropriate. Heterarchies are “an organizational the community they serve (Schumacher, Organizations engaged in development form somewhere between a hierarchy 2010). It can therefore be a useful structure work must therefore embrace alternative and a network that provides horizontal where organization members operate in structural models. links permitting different elements of an “an environment of institutional uncer- This case study shows evidence of an organization to cooperate while individu- tainty” (Stark, 2001, p. 21), potentially lead- emerging heterarchy in the organization ally optimizing different success criteria” ing to efficiency gains through collective being studied, an interrelationship across (Stephenson, 2009, p. 6). Heterarchies leverage of the complementary competen- units (under the same banner) at three typically operate more informally than cies of members (Mars, 2013). levels. The “subunits” simultaneously play hierarchies, with relations among modules Despite the intuitive sense of many the role of “center,” a nodal link as well as that are operationally more horizontal and practitioners that heterarchy may be a pre- critical coordinators of discrete and distinct less functionally differentiated. Finally, ferred structure to hierarchy in nonprofits, activities. While technology facilitates since different organizations in a heterar- research on the topic is scant. Schumacher coordination, trust plays a crucial role in chical model can be aligned for a common (2010) argued for a heterarchy model for integrating the heterarchy of hierarchies. purpose, its structure enables greater a volunteer-driven nonprofit community Though there are formal control mecha- participation among its members at both arts gallery and arts advocacy organiza- nisms, a key role is played by informal the individual and organizational levels tion, but few other researchers have and more subtle control and integration (Stephenson, 2009). studied this alternative model in nonprofit mechanisms. This study contributes to It has been argued that both tech- organizations. organization development theory and prac- nology and trust, facilitated by techno- In this study, the term destructurization tice by describing an actual heterachy and logical drivers—such as the Internet, Web is used to describe the process of taking

46 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 the elements of an organization structure Based Organizations (CBO).4 This primary (since mid-1990s) legally independent apart, rearranging them, and integrating qualitative data was supplemented with and autonomous organizations, Myrada them back together. Destructurization has secondary research from publicly available Promoted Institutions (MPIs), which were been defined as rethinking, redesigning, documents on Myrada.5 registered as societies, trusts, and compa- and bringing a radical change in organiza- nies. By 2005, the HO resembled a holding tion structure. Taking the elements of an Myrada: A Nonprofit Development company (Myrada, 2010) that also gave organization structure apart destroys the Organization greater autonomy to POs in the districts, hegemony of hierarchy. Reintegration adds which increasingly raised resources on value for stakeholders, so there is “multiple Myrada was founded in 1968 in India by their own, building corpus funds and insti- rule” (Fairtlough, 2005), and redistribution Captain William Davidson to assist the tutional assets. This was reflected in the of hierarchy, power, and decision-making Indian Government in resettling Tibetan organization’s organogram which placed authority throughout the organization. refugees. When the resettlement program Myrada at the center of the institutions it ended in the early 1980s, Myrada6 started promoted (Myrada, 2010). During the third Case Study focusing entirely on promoting the rights phase, the agency coordinated the activi- of women and the marginalized to build ties of its numerous projects and MPIs The case study, which is part of a larger and manage their own institutions, develop spread over three states, and by 2007 it was research in Mysore1 Resettlement and their own livelihood strategies, lobby effec- just one among many institutions which Development Agency (Myrada), covers tively to change oppressive relations, access it helped to promote (Myrada, 2010). This the time period from November 2009 to resources, and build linkages (Myrada, integration was also achieved by federat- March 2011. It is based on meetings and 2010). It is presently managing nineteen ing the Self-Help Affinity Groups (SAGs) discussions with twelve Myrada staff and projects, in twenty poor and drought prone under CMRCs during 2007–08. electronic correspondence with another districts in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Myrada’s structural evolution can staff person from the head office (HO) in Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh in South India. thus be described as moving from the first Bangalore. In Myrada Kollegal Hill Area phase of dependence of its entities on the Development Project (MYKHADP),2 the The Evolution of Myrada’s Structure HO, to the second phase of independence author had meetings and discussions with of its entities, though Myrada continued to a program officer, the training director, and To document the structural evolution play a major role in managing its projects another staff from the Centre for Institu- of Myrada, this study divides the period and institutions (Myrada, 2010), and finally tional Development and Organisational 1968–2011 into three phases: 1) 1968–mid to the third phase of interdependence of its Reform (CIDOR), and six Community 1990s; 2) 1990s–2004; and 3) 2004–2011. various entities. Managed Resource Centre (CMRC)3 man- During the first phase, from agers. Several pieces of electronic corre- 1968-mid1980s, Myrada undertook the The New Organization Structure of Myrada spondence were also exchanged with the Tibetan resettlement program, and since training director at CIDOR. the mid-1980s has been concentrating This section describes in detail Myrada’s To undertake this study, the author on building poor people’s institutions. new organization structure with the head made three one-day visits and another five- Myrada had a hierarchical structure office, project offices, and Myrada Pro- day visit to the Project Office (PO). During with unitary control, whereby all strate- moted Organizations intertwined and these visits Myrada assigned a CIDOR staff gic decisions regarding settlement and interdependent. person who served as interpreter from development programs were centralized In this new structure, there are many English to the regional language of Kan- in the HO and communicated to the PO, autonomous institutions sharing the same nada and vice versa to facilitate an under- which in turn implemented them. ­During vision as the parent organization. These standing of the organization and enable the second phase, Myrada decentralized MPIs are: interactions with CMRCs managers and decision-­making, and encouraged finan- 1. Myrada Kaveri Pradeshika Samsthe members from the base level Community cial sustainability at every level of the (MYKAPS);7 organization (Myrada, 2010) by creating 2. Soukya Samudhaya Samsthe (SSS), an 1. Mysore State has become Karnataka. association of sex workers at the district 2. One of the 19 Myrada projects; it is in the South- 4. They are homogenous and membership groups level; ern State of Karnataka. (Self-Help Affinity Groups, Watershed Development 3. CIDOR; 3. CMRCs are comprised of 100-120 base level Associations, and Soukhya Groups of sex workers) CBOs that are integral to Myrada’s withdrawal of poor people at the village level, federated at the strategy. The role played by Myrada in mentoring, second level, under a resource centre managed by the monitoring, and supporting these CBOs is taken community itself (Singh et al., 2011). over by the CMRCs. The CBOs seek out member- 5. See website http://Myrada.org/Myrada/ 7. NGO working in the southern districts of Kar- ship in the CMRC and the latter levies fees for the 6. The acronym Myrada has become the organiza- nataka, South India, to support the disadvantaged services they provide to non-members. tion’s logo. poor, landless, and tribal people and children.

The Structural Marvel of Heterarchy: Destructurization in a Nonprofit Organization 47 4. Mahila Abhivruddhi Mattu Samrak- shana Samasthe (MASS), an associa- tion of Devadasis;8 5. CMRC; 6. Sanghamitra–a micro finance institution; 7. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), a center for agricultural research and training; 8. Management of Enterprise and Devel- opment of Women (MEADOW); and 9. Non Formal Technical Training Centres (NFTTC).

As can be seen in Figure 1, there is still an Figure 1. Myrada’s Heterarchical Organizational Structure element of hierarchy in the new structure as the program officers in the POs directly as to form a single, integrated heterarchical The PO and MPI “subunits” were report to the HO. Myrada also has a pres- organization structure. created to allow for increased autonomy to ence on the Board of Directors in MYKAPS, At the turn of the twenty-first century, enable them to respond more effectively Sanghamitra, MEADOW, CIDORs, KVK, Myrada reexamined the long-standing and efficiently to the local and specific and NFTTC. The second line of hierarchy principle that “HO always knows the best” needs of CBOs. Institution development involves the CMRCs, CIDOR, MASS, SSS, and called for radical change in the way the training and agricultural research and and NFTTC reporting to the PO in the entire organization was managed. Until training for both men and women are cen- district. And a third line of hierarchy is then, the flow of funds, information, and tralized in CIDOR and KVK respectively. the CMRC that has the informal base level decisions was top-down from the HO to the These centers generate their own funds by CBOs – SAGs, Watershed Management MPIs and projects. Destructurization initi- providing training to the immediate and Associations (WMAs), and Soukhya Groups ated by the organization began a process extended Myrada organizations as well as (SGs) – under its umbrella. of breaking the hegemony of the HO. It to government officers, and other NGOs. Figure 1 depicts these hierarchical created legally independent, autonomous Figure 2 illustrates that these subunits linkages by vertical bold lines at the three institutions, and gradually linked and coordinate discrete and distinct activities. levels. The interconnectedness of lateral integrated them for interdependence. This CMRCs created in 2004, for example, communication and the linkages among process changed Myrada’s structure from coordinate activities by developing linkages POs, MPIs, and PO and MPIs is depicted a hierarchy to what Marschan (1994) has with Myrada institutions as well as with by broken lines. A close examination of the called “an integrated network of horizon- external organizations to ensure the devel- organizational structure thus shows that tally structured institutions” in which the opment and sustainability of its member Myrada has a heterarchy model similar to flows are multi-directional (as illustrated by CBOs (PC with CIDOR). Specifically, it what Fairtlough (1994) describes as rep- the broken and bold lines in Figure 1). forges internal horizontal linkages among resenting a balance between the need for Myrada’s heterarchical structural form (a) the CBOs; (b) Sanghamitra; (c) CIDOR; some hierarchy, combined with the need recognizes different kinds of “centers” (d) KVK (which promotes the Rosemary Oil for lateral, horizontal links in a network apart from that which has traditionally Farmers Association [ROFA]); (e) Kabini of relations. In essence, it is a structure been referred to as “headquarters.” It Organic Producers (KOP) and garment with a seamless balance of hierarchies and also recognizes that competitive advan- units; and (f) Myrada projects (PC with networks of interconnected organizations tage does not necessarily reside in any HO). CMRCs simultaneously forge exter- sharing a common vision. one center, most often the headquarter nal vertical linkages with (a) banks (private, (Hedlund, 1986). To spread managerial national, grameen,9 and cooperative); (b) Heterarchy: A Structural Marvel for Myrada capabilities throughout the organization, insurance companies; (c) government senior Myrada staff joined the MPIs. departments (revenue and records, ration This section discusses why the new model Each entity/organization makes its own cards, agriculture, horticulture, forestry, is a structural marvel of interrelated hierar- strategic as well as operational deci- and health); (d) local councils or Panchayat chies and networks arranged in such a way sions regarding raising funds, planning, (at the Gram, Taluk, and Zilla10 levels); implementing, accounting, monitoring, (e) private individuals (doctors, advocates) and evaluating. This is evident even at 8. It is a religious tradition in which girls are “­married” and dedicated to a deity or temple. the base level where the SAGs articulate 9. Of or related to village ­Considered religious prostitution, it has been their vision for 3–5 years and develop their 10. Gram and Taluk are the administrative sub banned by law. operational plan. divisions of a district, i.e., Zilla.

48 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Production KOP Units Myrada Local Councils CIDOR KVK

MYKAPS OFA Voluntary Organizations, Project Office NGOs, Donors CMRC RTTU

CBOs Banks, Insurance Figure 3. MYKAPS: a Nodal Link CMRC

Sanghamitra-MFI codified in reports, case studies, papers, Government and articles written by the HO. The HO Departments CIDORs compiles explicit knowledge and along with other field staff identifies innovations Private (individuals, emerging from the field, tests them, devel- industries} ops future plans, and influences govern- ment policies. Figure 2. CMRC: a “Center” and Coordinator Besides ICT and knowledge shar- ing platforms, Myrada employs a formal, and marketing institutions; and (f) other because there is not just dyadic interaction standardized accounting and staff remu- nongovernmental (NGOs) and voluntary between HO and other organizations under neration system across all organizations. organizations (Rotary and Lions Club) (PC the same umbrella but inter-organizational Skilled and experienced personnel also play with PO). The CMRCs, as endogenous relationships take place across levels as important roles in supporting the heter- change agents (Singh & Babu, 2012), are shown in Figures 1 and 3. Myrada therefore archical linkages. Selecting the right staff, also part of Myrada’s withdrawal strategy as has a powerful integration mechanism to their continuous training and mentoring they create institution-specific advantages ensure that the entire organization benefits has resulted in commitment, professional- by building the capacity of internal as well from the specialized resources, knowledge, ism, innovation, participatory work, and as external stakeholders of community and expertise developed in these units. Fig- cross-functional competence, all with the development. They provide services, and ure 1, shows this integration at three levels: ability to listen and interact closely with gather and disseminate information to the CMRCs at the lowest supra-community people. Trust, transparency, and feedback community (PC with PO); lobby for the level; the PO at the next level networking are essential features of the organization rights of women, poor and marginalized; with the CMRCs and other MPIs; and the culture that nurtures a leadership style that and monitor other informal institutions overall integration by the HO. Such a multi- can cope with failures, take risks, and try under the Myrada umbrella. CMRCs thus organizational network supports the seam- new approaches. Moreover, senior manag- perform a strategic role in the sustainabil- less exchange of information laterally in a ers deputed across different Myrada orga- ity of the community. heterarchy among hierarchies in Myrada. nizations act more as catalysts, architects, In Figure 1, especially notable are the Though there is a fair use of informa- and mentors. Myrada’s common reporting intricate crisscross and levels of network tion communication technology (ICT) at language also plays an integrating role. relationships. The heterarchy illustrated the HO located in a metropolitan city, it is The regional languages of Kannada, Tamil, by crisscross entails a “many-to-many” not the same in the MPIs and POs in more and Telugu, are used among the staff and relationship between different nodes, while remote districts. As for the knowledge in their work with the members of the the levels of hierarchy imply a “many-to- management (KM) system, trust trumps community. While these languages serve as one” form of structural aggregation (Kon- technology. Facilitated by strong personal glue binding all the stakeholders, they also topoulos, 1993). MPIs such as MYKAPS relationships and trust, knowledge is help to build trust among them, which, in as shown in Figure 3, act as nodal units constantly created, shared, and transferred turn, facilitates the work of Myrada. Across linked to clusters of satellite organizations. formally in weekly and monthly meetings all subunits, however, reporting and docu- In addition to linking with Myrada, from of the MPIs and the projects at the HO, mentation is done in English. This lan- which it is a spin-off, MYKAPS serves as a and informally during discussions among guage standardization facilitates the control (nodal) link to the Organic Farmers Associ- the members and at training sessions. and coordination of different projects and ation (OFA), KOP, and the Rural Technical Case studies and best practices are docu- MPIs spread over three states. Training Unit (RTTU) (PC with HO), and at mented and shared with the HO (PC with The philosophy of building poor the same time coordinates with CIDOR and CIDOR). The environment throughout people’s institutions, the core of which CMRC. Such MPIs are now “centers” and Myrada supports the creation of knowledge is shared by all Myrada units keeps the can no longer be considered peripheral. in all of these specialized subunits and its loosely associated entities together under Upon close examination, Myrada’s application in other units. Tacit knowledge Myrada’s umbrella and facilitates their organization structure presents as a marvel sourced from any of these “centers,” is working to realize a common mission. This

The Structural Marvel of Heterarchy: Destructurization in a Nonprofit Organization 49 common vision “to promote livelihood (Stephenson, 2009) where synergy and »» Is heterarchy an appropriate model strategies, local governance, environment trust among different subunits makes the for organizations with geographically and natural resource management, health integrated whole structure­ greater than the dispersed subunits across countries? and education systems through institutions sum of its parts. »» What is the optimal role of information designed and managed by the rural poor While White and Poynter (1990) technology in an international heterar- in an equitable and sustainable manner” were convinced that heterarchy is not for chy that wants to facilitate the inter­ (Myrada, 2010, p.8) unites these organiza- every business, this study, suggests this actions of its geographically dispersed tions as a federation. Networked Myrada structure has great potential for nonprofit staff? also fosters vital information generation development organizations. Myrada’s »» Does information technology comple- and diffusion through lateral communica- organizational structure consisting of ment trust? tion and more precisely through personal hierarchies and networks exemplifies »» What are the challenges of international relationships. The resulting trust is an Stephenson’s (2009) ideal heterarchy Human Resource management in important ingredient in building last- as a collection of entities “each with its terms of recruitment, selection, train- ing, collaborative structures. The agency own raison d’être, but which in turn, do ing, compensation, and reward of staff has also developed processes and forums collaborate with each other to accomplish in heterarchical organizations? where staff from different projects and a collective good more complex than any »» How would the cultures and languages MPIs meet frequently, either at the HO one hierarchy can manage on its own” of different countries facilitate or or the PO, to report, plan, assess, interact (Stephenson, 2009, p. 6). This study inhibit coordination and integration in and share, fostering closer personal con- explains how heterarchy can be a loose a heterarchical nonprofit organization? tacts and knowledge creation. Moreover, union of entities that requires a change in training and development programs also managerial perspective on decentraliza- This study was limited in that it was create an environment where staff from tion at all levels; shared philosophy and conducted in a project of one development the subunits, located in different districts vision; skillful human resources, strong organization. The nature of this nonprofit’s and States interact, and build closer ties. personal relationships, and common work and its geographical dispersion made Myrada’s shared philosophy and vision, reporting languages. trust more important than technology in its and personal relationships thus play a cru- In this study, though trust is impor- structure change. This may not be true in cial control and integrating role in making tant, the role of information communica- an organization that is widely dispersed in heterarchy, a structural marvel. tion technology (ICT) cannot be overlooked, different countries. Building trust requires as it “links together people and institutions frequent, often face-to-face meetings. Conclusion to solve a complex task and/or achieve a Building trust across different national and grand design” (Stephenson, 2009, p. 6). organizational boundaries can be an added This inductive study concludes that This is consistent with the findings of challenge. Can ICT help in building trust Myrada’s new and evolved structure is Stephenson (2009), Rocha (2000), and by shrinking time zones and distance? heterarchical. There is now a greater McAfee, Bettiol, and Chiarvesio (2007) Future researchers may find trust and and conscious move to interconnect not who emphasized the need for technology technology are equally important in widely just different projects but also the legally to enable interconnections among different dispersed organizations. independent MPIs that were created subunits of a geographically dispersed orga- Previous discussions of heterarchy earlier ­for the purpose of decentraliza- nization. This makes heterarchy a distinct have tended to deal with theoretical mod- tion. This case study illustrates that organizational structure, which, though els only. This study, on the other hand, heterarchy is not an enormous fishing it has its origins in the for-profit realm, examines an actual organization structure, net-like mechanical organizational struc- can be successfully utilized in nonprofit its destructurization and its evolution ture imposed by headquarters. Used for organizations as well. Finally, consistent into an alternative form that is termed a integrating Myrada’s complex multi-level with previous research by Mars (2013), heterarchy. For Myrada, a heterarchy is not and interconnected heterarchical orga- this study has shown that heterarchy is a a seamless balance of hierarchies and net- nization structure, it allows control to be viable structure which is supple enough to works, characterized by “organizational het- less ­reliant on top-to-bottom hierarchi- enable coordination among multiple levels erogeneity” as Stark (2000) has described, cal mechanisms and more on informal of organizations and external stakehold- but rather a decentralized federation of mechanisms. Previous research (Hedlund ers. Myrada’s successful implementation organizations with a shared philosophy and & Rolander, 1990; Bartlett & Ghoshal, of a heterarchical organizational structure vision; skilled human resources and strong 1993; Marschan, 1997) also observed the helps make a case for its adoption by other personal relationships; and a common vital integrating role played by informal nonprofit organizations. reporting language. This study suggests control mechanisms. Finally, Myrada’s Further study of international non- that changing to a heterarchical organiza- structural marvel, its heterarchy, exempli- profit organizations should answer even tion structure can be time-consuming and fies the finest points of nonsummativity more questions: complex. However, this study demonstrates

50 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Anita R Singh is an Assistant Pro- fessor, teaching Human Resource in M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Man- that a heterarchy can successfully evolve Y. Doz, & G. Hedlund (Eds.), Managing from a hierarchy. It paves the way not only the global firm (pp. 15–46). London, UK: agement, Bangalore, India. Her for further research into the efficacy of het- Routledge. research interests are Appreciative erarchies but for other nonprofits seeking Hellingrath, B., & Küppers, P. (2011). Inquiry, social capital, knowledge alternative, decentralized ways of delivering Multi-agent based collaborative demand management, organization stud- their goods and services. and capacity network planning in heter- ies, and mixed methods research. archical supply chains. Association for She also teaches French language, the Advancement of Artificial Intelli- References gence Proceedings. Retrieved from: and conducts work­shops on http://www.sfbtr8. spatial-cognition.de/ soft skills and Appreciative Aime, F., Humphrey, S., DeRue, D. S., & ailog-2011/ailog-downloads/2011/paper_15. Inquiry. She can be reached at Paul, J. B. (2014). The riddle of heter- pdf. [email protected]. archy: Power transitions in cross-func- Kontopoulos, K. (1993). The logics of social tional teams. Academy of Management structure. New York, NY: Cambridge Journal, 57(2), 327–352. University Press. Singh, A., & Babu, T. (2012, Oct–Dec). Allee, V. (2002). The future of knowl- Mars, D. (2013). Heterarchy: An inter- Myrada’s capacity building intervention: edge: Increasing prosperity through organizational approach to securing Creating social capital in the communi- value networks. Woburn, MA: the United States against a pandemic ties in southern India. Journal of Rural Butterworth-Heinemann. threat. Policy Perspectives, 20. Retrieved Development, 31(4), 373–392, NIRD, Anheier, H. K. (2000). Managing non-profit from: http://www.policy-perspectives.org/ Hyderabad. organisations: Towards a new approach. article/viewFile/11788/7946 Singh, A., Rajachary, Patkar, S., Bel- Civil Society Working paper no. 1, LSE, Marschan, R. (1997). Dimensions of legowda, Ramesh. R, & Babu, T. (2011). London. less-hierarchical structures in multina- Social capital and Myrada’s pioneering Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal. S. (1993, winter). tionals. In I. Bjorkman & M. Forsgren approach: The power of women in com- Beyond the M-form: Toward a manage- (Eds.), The nature of the international munity based organizations in southern rial theory of the firm. Strategic Manage- firm (pp. 433–450). Copenhagen, DK: India. AI Practitioner, the International ment Journal, 14, 23-46. Handelshojskolans forlag. Journal of Appreciative Inquiry, 13(3), Crumley, C.L. (1979). Three locational McAfee, A., Bettiol, M., & Chiarvesio, M. 16–23. models: An epistemological assess- (2007). Electronic hierarchies and elec- Stark, D. (2000, October). For a sociology of ment for anthropology and archaeology. tronic heterarchies: Relationship-specific worth. Working Paper Series, Centeron Advances in Archaeological Method and assets and the governance of interfirm IT. Organizational Innovation, Columbia Theory, 2, 141–73. Working paper 07-046. University. Retrieved from http://www. Crumley, C.L. (1995). Heterarchy and the Myrada (2010, January). MYRADA an coi.columbia.edu/pdf/stark_fsw.pdf analysis of complex societies. Archaeo- agency profile past, present and future. Stark, D. (2001). Heterarchy: Exploiting logical Papers of the American Anthropo- Bangalore, IN. ambiguity and organizing diversity. logical Association, 6, 1–5. Rocha, L.M. (2000). Adaptive webs for Brazilian Journal of Political Economy, Fairtlough, G. (1994). Creative compart- heterarchies with diverse communities of 21(1), 81. Retrieved from http://www.rep. ments: a design for future organization. users. 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The Structural Marvel of Heterarchy: Destructurization in a Nonprofit Organization 51 “The skills, techniques, and strategies that serve you well at home rarely make it through airport customs. You arrive at your first client meeting with the wrinkles ironed out of your suit, but completely underdressed in terms of language, business etiquette, and cultural norms.”

Of Fists and Flowers

Imagery and Symbolism in Cross-Cultural Consulting

By Rebecca Slocum Being a consultant on foreign soil can frame characterizes organizations as arenas be a bewildering experience. The skills, for decision-making, conflict, bargaining, techniques, and strategies that serve you and negotiation. In this sense, navigating well at home rarely make it through airport power dynamics and patterns of alliance customs. You arrive at your first client and authority brings about the best results. meeting with the wrinkles ironed out of From the final frame, the symbolic, organi- your suit, but completely underdressed in zations exist as meaning-making systems. terms of language, business etiquette, and To understand a client’s challenges and cultural norms. bring about change, consultants must look This is how I felt when I arrived in into the organization’s culture, narratives, Johannesburg, South Africa to be a part symbolism, and soul. of a consulting team working with a local For me, the structural, human Christian school. I was there with the resource, and political frames were as tried American University Master of Science in and true as my favorite black suit jacket. Organization Development program. My I used them frequently and to great effect time in Johannesburg was part of an inter- in my work. The symbolic frame, however, national residency, an experience designed was not my favorite travel item. I rarely to strengthen cross-cultural consulting used it and frankly did not understand skills. In my luggage I had carefully packed how it could work in a meaningful way the tools that served me well in Washing- with clients. ton, DC, where I had been working with a government agency for the past three years. Consulting in a High Context Culture One of those tools was Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame approach to ­looking Once in Johannesburg, I began working at organizations. Using this approach, with two classmates on an action research consultants analyze clients from the project in a private Christian school. Our structural, human resource, political, and mandate was simply to meet with the prin- symbolic frames. cipal, scope a purpose for our work, and The structural frame focuses on develop a clear plan for how to help her in organizations as goal-achieving systems; it a meaningful way in just a few short weeks. emphasizes the scaffolding of rules, roles, From my consulting work in the United and policies and the appropriate differen- States, I was expecting a fairly straight­ tiation and integration between these parts. forward client entry meeting. Usually, The human resource frame considers within an hour the client and I clearly iden- organizations as systems that support and tify what we will focus on and sketch out interface with human needs. This frame an initial timeframe for our work. Given emphasizes employees’ skills, sense of this standard of comparison, after our first fulfillment, and alignment with the broader meeting with the principal (which lasted system for business success. The political over two hours) I felt we had completely

52 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No. 1 2015 failed. Instead of using the time to scope to expose an open palm, she posed the began to peel back the layers, we found that the work, we spent our time listening to question: “how do we get to this?” At the beneath the scarcity and brokenness was the principal’s stories and biblical refer- time none of us realized how powerful this resilience, connectedness, and hope. The ences. My notes were cluttered with images image would become. more we sunk into it, the more we realized of rotten fruit, financial shortage, broken these images – the play, the friendship, and children, dilapidated buildings, and the Surfacing a New Image for our Client the possibility – outweighed the present- looming specter of a Bishop. None of those ing image of disrepair. How could we images fit into my framework of the politi- After the initial meeting, my team and I show this to our client? This was when we cal, structural, or human resource frames. brainstormed our approach to data collec- remembered the fist. In our initial meet- In high context cultures, such as tion, relying primarily on the structural, ing the principal had focused on the closed many parts of Africa, little in communi- political, and human resource frames. fist of the world around her, the scarcity cation is explicit (Hall, 1976) and infor- We designed questions to interview the of resources, and the absence of transpar- mation is conveyed in a relational and school’s teachers, parents, board members, ency and communication. We decided to associative manner (Weaver, 2000). In low and students in order to surface data on the package our recommendations around a context cultures, such as the United States, communication is often direct, logical, and After we completed our interviews, my teammates and I sat linear (Hall, 1976). What I was experienc- ing illustrates some of the differences down to find ourselves in a sea of symbolism. This was the between high and low context cultures. moment when we forsook the frames we had brought in our Through the lens of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, this explains the suitcases and tried on a new way of thinking. We decided predominance of the structural, political, to join with the client’s use of imagery and seek meaning in and human resource frames in my work in Washington, DC. Many clients in the the metaphor. As we began to peel back the layers, we found United States clothe their challenges in the that beneath the scarcity and brokenness was resilience, language of structural dysfunctions (i.e., unmet goals, inefficient processes, broken connectedness, and hope. The more we sunk into it, the more communication), political dysfunctions we realized these images – the play, the friendship, and the (i.e., power distance, coercive decision- making, “in” groups, and “out” groups), possibility – outweighed the presenting image of disrepair. How or human resource issues (i.e., employees could we show this to our client? without adequate skills, misalignment to organization outcomes). The principal, in school’s hierarchy, power dynamics, and transformation in imagery. We would invite contrast, was speaking out of the symbolic relationship patterns. When conducting her to see the fist as a flower instead, a frame. Instead of stating forthrightly her the interviews, however, we heard images flower that – when nurtured – could blos- struggle to build trust and collaboration in again. Many of the images were similar som and open. the school, she told the story of a woman to those painted by the principal: broken In our final meeting with the prin- picking fruit who was unable to discern windows, worn equipment, shards of glass, cipal we presented our findings around what was bruised from what was rotten. drugs, and violence. These were the same this image transformation. We introduced She was using symbolism and narrative to themes of shortage, brokenness, dilapida- the flower as a symbol of positive possibil- describe her world to us. tion, and conflict. However, this time the ity. Each petal represented an opportunity Although I struggled to follow the questions we used also surfaced strong identified by the school’s teachers, par- conversation in our first meeting, my col- images and metaphors of beauty and ents, board members, or students to build leagues’ careful attention to the principal’s wealth: a growing library, student paint- collaboration, unity, and resources. There use of symbolism led to the realization ings, close friendships, play in sunshine, were short-term maintenance projects, the of an image whose transformation would and flowers in a garden. beginnings of an expansion plan, fund- become the heart of our work: a fist. While After we completed our interviews, raising activities led by teachers, sporting describing her relationship with the Board my teammates and I sat down to find events organized by students, and concrete of the school, the principal stuck out her ourselves in a sea of symbolism. This was ideas for a resource and growth strategy. clenched fist – a non-verbal illustration the moment when we forsook the frames The people we had interviewed saw the of conflict and closed communication we had brought in our suitcases and tried scarcity and brokenness too, of course, but (­Givens, 2010). One of my colleagues on a new way of thinking. We decided to they also saw potential. And they wanted quickly mirrored the gesture and held out join with the client’s use of imagery and the principal to know it was there and she her own fist. Slowly unfurling her fingers seek meaning in the metaphor. As we was not alone.

Of Fists and Flowers: Imagery and Symbolism in Cross-Cultural Consulting 53 We delivered our presentation to the and lead to innovation. For example, The Consultant’s Suitcase principal with an outstretched palm. It was questions such as: “What is your dream a success. The principal readily stepped for the future of this organization?” or In search of imagery, there are many ways into our imagery and soon began to mirror “Imagine that what is most special about consultants can attune themselves to a our gesture of the opening flower. this organization is flourishing, what does client’s use and demonstration of symbols. Given the nature and time constraints that look like?” can inspire images of a As Bolman and Deal (2008) describe, look of the residency, I do not know if and desired future and mobilize energy toward and listen for a client’s myths, legends, how the ideas and recommendations we that goal. displayed images, and rituals or ceremo- surfaced were implemented or changed Marshak and Heracleous (2005) paral- nies. How do these symbols resolve or anything. But I do know the hope and lel this point by describing how attention spread confusion? How do they provide positivity I saw on her face – and felt in the to metaphor and symbolic meaning in dis- direction or mislead action? How do they entire school – represented a rebirth of the course can lead to organizational change. perpetuate identity? Through exploring hope, possi­bility, and energy that can ignite From a social constructionist perspective, questions such as these, consultants can change. And it was only in using the sym- discourse creates reality and, as a result, surface new opportunities to shift a client bolic frame that we were able to do this. I now notice language patterns – such as the repeated use of Attending to Symbolism in Client Systems metaphors related to hunger and running – and extrapolate them into a bigger change context – a system that is “under­ From my work with the school in Johan- nesburg, I now have a new understanding nourished” in its capacity to take on a project and struggling to of and appreciation for using the symbolic keep up with demands and deadlines. In response, I now join frame in client systems. While attending to symbolism and narrative carries special the client’s use of metaphor ask questions such as: “Imagine a weight in high context cultures, the power day of work felt like a good, hearty meal – what would that be of imagery translates across many differ- ent traditions (Slocum, 2013) and can be like?” or “What would need to change for you to feel like you used by consultants in countless cross- are running at a comfortable pace?” In using this approach, I cultural settings. Reflecting on his study of theology, Robert Slocum describes how have found an immediate metaphor recognition and resonance. images can bring about transformation and expanded awareness: “new images encourages life-giving conversations that toward appreciative imagery and grow life- are needed for living truth that transforms can liberate and transform a client system. giving forces. faith, and changes us” (p. 3). He continues Upon my return to Washington, DC, Similar to what I have incorporated to describe how new images can: “provide this new orientation to imagery enabled me into my practice in Washington DC, new awareness for the whole of our lives, to attune myself to a world rich in meta- consultants can also find predominant and the world surrounding us . . . new eyes phor and full of meaning to which I was imagery by attuning themselves to hear to see” (p. 4). Bringing this mindset into previously unaware. I now notice language conversation patterns. These patterns often client systems expands the use of Bolman patterns – such as the repeated use of point directly to inherent organizational and Deal’s (2008) symbolic frame and metaphors related to hunger and running – mindsets (Ford & Ford, 2008; Marshak & uncovers a new mandate for the consul- and extrapolate them into a bigger change Heracleous, 2005). For example, I often tant: to seek out a rebirth in image. By context – a system that is “undernour- see metaphor patterns that illuminate surfacing and nurturing new images, the ished” in its capacity to take on a project mindsets of either scarcity or abundance, consultant and client can work together to and struggling to keep up with demands mistrust or partnership, and isolation or find and transform truth. and deadlines. In response, I now join the community. Even the specific words (and This perspective aligns with current client’s use of metaphor and ask ques- the tone and delivery of those words) can discussions in the field of organization tions such as: “Imagine a day of work felt reveal organization culture and symbolism development related to appreciative inquiry like a good, hearty meal – what would that (Kegan & Lahey, 2001). And, of course the and organizational discourse. Drawing on be like?” or “What would need to change world of non-verbal communication is also David Cooperrider’s foundational work on for you to feel like you are running at a rich and filled with data (Givens, 2010). By appreciative inquiry, Watkins, Mohr, and comfortable pace?” In using this approach, looking for gestures, micro-expressions, Kelly (2011) describe how bold imaginings I have found an immediate metaphor rec- and movement, a consultant can notice into the positive can transform mindsets ognition and resonance. new meaning and possibility.

54 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 47 No.1 2015 Rebecca Slocum, organiza- tion development consultant at ChangeFusion, works with organi- So, to return to my own metaphor of Givens, D. (2010). Your body at work: A the traveling consultant, what does this guide to sight-reading the body language zations to help them understand, mean the cross-cultural consultant should of business, bosses, and boardrooms. New realize, sustain, and commit to pack differently in his or her suitcase? I York, NY: St. Martin’s. change. Prior to joining Change­ still advocate for luggage full of the tools Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. New York, Fusion, She worked internationally and tactics that serve us well in our home NY: Anchor Books. and traveled frequently to conduct environments. That said, I now also rec- Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. L. (2001). How the consultations and stakeholder ommend bringing an extra empty bag to way we talk can change the way we work. safeguard space for the client’s image and San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass. engagement processes, all toward metaphor culture. In doing so, you will Marshak, R., & Heracleous, L. (2005). A the end goal of supporting mean- almost always find an opportunity to trans- discursive approach to organization ingful projects and change. form a closed fist into a blooming flower. development. Action Research, 3(1), Slocum holds a master’s degree 69–88. in Organization Development References Slocum, R. B. (2013). Seeing and believing: from American University and a Reflections and faith.Cincinnati, OH: Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Forward Movement. bachelor’s degree in International Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice Watkins, J., Mohr, B., & Kelly, R. (2011). Relations from Boston University. and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, Appreciative inquiry: Change at the speed She can be reached at rebecca. CA: Jossey-Bass. of imagination. San Francisco, CA: [email protected]. Ford, J.D., & Ford, L.W. (2008). Conversa- Pfeiffer. tional profiles: A tool for altering the Weaver, G. (2000). Culture, communication, conversational patterns of change man- and conflict: Readings in intercultural agers. The Journal of Applied Behavioral relations. Boston, MA: Pearson. Science, 44(4), 445–467.

Of Fists and Flowers: Imagery and Symbolism in Cross-Cultural Consulting 55 Guidelines for Authors Journal of the Organization Development Network

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OD PRACTITIONER is the quarterly journal of the Organization A compendium of the best thinking on the subject, Handbook for Strategic HR includes 78 articles Development Network, an from the renowned OD Practitioner. It introduces readers to core organization development strategies international association whose and skills, giving them creative approaches, practical tips, and proven methods to help them: members are committed to practicing • See the big picture, think systemically, and strategically identify where best to foster change in their organization development as an applied behavioral science. organization The Handbook for Strategic HR is • Team up with consultants and senior-level staff in leading a change project edited by: John Vogelsang, Maya • Put employee engagement to practical use and involve “minds, hearts, and hands” in the important Townsend, Matt Minahan, David work of the organization Jamieson, Judy Vogel, Annie Viets, Cathy Royal, and Lynne Valek • Operate effectively in cross-cultural and virtual working situations Comprehensive and practical, this forward-thinking book enables readers to become key partners in leading their organizations forward. ISBN: 978-0-8144-3249-5 Hardcover, $60.00 US

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