Father Aubery's Liturgical Linguistics: an Ethnohistorical View NICHOLAS N. SMITH Brunswick, Maine The Jesuits' hundred years of successful experience converting Central American Indians established models for the North American missions that followed. Knowledge of the native language and the translation of the liturgy into the native language were important aspects for their success. In 1611 the Jesuit Enemond Masse spent the winter with the family of Louis Membertou, a son of Chief Membertou of Port Royal, learning the language (Wallis and Wallis 1955:16). The Capuchin brothers Eleazar, Felix of Troyes, and Francis Mary of Paris, teachers at the Port Royal Seminary, a school for Abenaki boys established in 1636, and the Port Royal Seminary for Abenaki Girls founded in 1641, were "quite familiar with the Abenaki language of those parts" (Lenhart 1916:227). Ignace de Paris arrived at the Acadian mission in 1641, benefiting from the linguistic work of his predecessors. He included the Penobscot and the Kennebec in his visitation and in 1646 welcomed Gabriel Druillettes who built a small church at Norridgewock (Comeau 1966). By 1647 there were a total of 12 Capuchin priests and five brothers assigned to Acadia (Morrison 1984:80). In 1646 Wabanaki were being encouraged to move to Sillery, and by 1676 a group of Rhode Island Indians had arrived there; within a year they were followed by Sokoki, Loup, and Pennacook. After the defeat of King Philip most southern New England Indians were forced to move to Indian Towns to become europeanized. Day (1994-95, l:vii) noted that large groups of Sokoki, Pennacook, and Cowassuck migrated to Odanak, many remaining there. Others looking for a new homeland moved further north; missionaries at Sillery noted the difference in language spoken by those Abenaki already there and the newcomers (Sevigny 1973:122-5). Usually young seminarians were selected early in their training not only for the North American Indian missions but for a specific mission area, and were sent to Quebec to complete their training, including learning the language of the group to which they would be assigned. Abenaki candidates were sent to either Sillery or Odanak. In 1677 Father Morain 324 NICHOLAS N. SMITH founded the Mission of the Good Shepherd at Riviere du Loup for Gaspe- sians and Etchemin, who he defined as Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Maliseet. On 20 June 1677 he wrote: Although they have but one language, it nevertheless has some variation in proportion as they live farther away from here; and, as those of Pemp- tegwet [Penobscot] are nearer the Abnakis, their language resembles that of the latter more closely. [Thwaites 1896-1901, 60:263] In 1675 Father Thury was sent to Canada to complete his seminary training; two years later he was ordained and was sent to Acadia where he obtained land for a Mirimichi mission. His work included visitations to the St. John River and Port Royal. Three years later he accepted an invitation from St. Castin to move to Pentagoet (Baudry 1966). Although I have found no references to linguistic manuscripts by Thury, he was said to be fluent in the Penobscot language. In 1683, after the Marchioness de Bauche presented funds to purchase land for a new church, Father James Bigot and his brother Vincent worked at the Wabanaki mission on the Chaudiere River (Shea 1869:392) and at St. Castin's fort on the Penobscot (Cummings 1895:181). They were credited with sending 600 Abenaki to the mission at St. Francis (Shea 1869:393). In 1685, when Bishop St. Valier stopped at Meductic on his way to Port Royal, the Maliseet asked for a missionary; Father Simon was assigned to Meductic in 1686. Soon after Rale arrived at Norridgewock in 1690 a group of "pagan" Maliseet invited him to be their priest. Rale declined, but he remained there, except for one brief assignment elsewhere, until he was murdered in 1724. However, he visited Wabanaki at Becancour and Lake Megantic (Shea 1869). Today Rale is best known for his Abenaki dictionary, preserved in the Harvard library in a strong wooden box. In 1730 Father de Syresme arrived at Norridgewock and built a new church. He died there in 1747. The post was vacant until 1750 when Father Pierre Entrain arrived; he stayed until 1754 when the mission was apparently abandoned (Lapomarda 1977:11) because the people had dis­ persed to other places. Missionaries created a foundation of more than 80 years of Wabanaki Christian liturgical material before Joseph Aubery arrived in New France to continue his seminary education. As a young lad, he had become extremely interested in the North American Indian missions and asked to FATHER AUBERY'S LITURGICAL LINGUISTICS 325 be assigned to New France. His request was granted; after finishing his courses at Laval, he was sent to the Abenaki village of Odanak for practical training. Several months later, on 21 September 1699, he was ordained and said his first mass there (Thwaites 1896-1901, 69:71). Soon he gained much admiration from the Abenaki elders for his eloquent oratory in the Wabanaki language (Johnson 1974:23). In 1701 he was assigned to the Maliseet at Meductic, replacing Father Simon who had died at his post (Raymond 1950:82). Aubery was accompanied to Meductic by Father Vincent Bigot who then continued on to the Penobscot mission. Missionaries given a brief introduction to the Wabanaki language were sent anywhere in the Wabanaki mission. They were frequently assigned to different villages and apparently encountered no major linguistic problems. John Elliot and Roger Williams were aware of /- and r-dialects. Father Antoine Silvy, who compiled a Montagnais dictionary near the end of the 17th century (Silvy 1974), deplored the fact that speakers of an /-dialect from south of the St. Lawrence were beginning to move into the Monta­ gnais area north of the St. Lawrence. There is no indication that Aubery had any problem using the Odanak language on the St. John River. Certainly this avid linguist would have detected a difference in the dialect, if there was one. In 1709, after seven years at Meductic, Aubery was reassigned to Odanak. His successor, Father Jean-Baptist Loyard, had received his linguistic training at Odanak (Leger 1929:106). We do not know when Aubery began compiling his Abenaki dictio­ nary, but his earliest known manuscript is thought to date from 1710. It is logical to assume that the compilation of more than 500 pages began soon after he was first assigned to Odanak, was continued at Meductic, and concluded at Odanak. He must have known that Rale was also compiling an Abenaki dictionary at Norridgewock, yet no record of correspondence or meetings between the two neighboring lexicographers exists. There are a number of Aubery manuscript dictionaries known, the last bearing the date 1750. Copies can be found in the Odanak museum, the Canadian Museum of Civilization, l'Archeveche de Quebec, and the Maine Histori­ cal Society. Copies of Aubery's manuscripts signed by the Indians Peter Louis, Theresa Takoubaque, Louis Phillippe Obasawin, and Joseph Laurent were rescued by A. I. Hallowell from a fire at the home of Chief Joseph Laurent (a descendent of the manuscript signer); they are now preserved in the Wabanaki Collection at the Huntington Free Library in Bronx, N.Y. 326 NICHOLAS N. SMITH An unknown number of Aubery's manuscripts were lost when Rogers' Rangers attacked Odanak on 4 October 1759. In 1711 Etienne Laverjat, a new missionary, was sent to Aubery to receive instruction in the Wabanaki language. In his 50 years as a missionary, Laverjet served in seven different Indian villages within the Abenaki mission (Charland 1974); I have found nothing to indicate that he used anything but the Aubery liturgy. Father Germain, in his report on the Acadian mission for 1711, noted that the three missionaries of the Acadian mission (Rale of Norridgewock, Loyard of Meductic, and La Chasse of Pentagoet) are careful to visit one another and to assemble from time to time for the purpose both of confessing one another, and of conferring together respecting doubts that might arise in their minds, and the means that must be adopted for then own spiritual advancement and for the guidance of their flocks. [Thwaites 1896-1901, 66:207] One wonders why Aubery did not join them. The group would have benefited from his ten years of experience in the field. A related problem concerns Aubery's and Rale's linguistic abilities. Contemporary linguists agree that Rale was superior to Aubery, yet more copies of Aubery's liturgical manuscripts are known than those of Rale. Perhaps the answer is that Odanak had developed into a European church centered community faster than other areas. Odanak, so close to Quebec City, had become dependent on the city for economic opportunities, resulting in the beginning of the breakdown of the hunting lifestyle. Many Odanak new­ comers had been influenced by town life to some degree before migrating to Odanak. Aubery had had health problems in his youth that were taken into consideration before he was sent to the rigorous North American mission­ ary life. Apparently, he did not accompany members of his flock to their winter hunting camps as Druillettes and Rale did, but supervised the development of Odanak into a centralized community dominated by the church. Immigrants from the south accustomed to a village atmosphere must have found the village most welcome. Norridgewock and the other groups still maintained a much more traditional life style: there was little purpose to remaining in the village during the winter. Although Druillettes built a small church at Norridge­ wock, he adapted to the Wabanaki migratory lifestyle.