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The Patterns of Wolf Attacks on Humans /.../ H BALTIC FORESTRY THE PATTERNS OF WOLF ATTACKS ON HUMANS /.../ H. HINDRIKSON ET AL. The Patterns of Wolf Attacks on Humans: an Example from the 19th Century European Russia MARIS HINDRIKSON*, MÄRT MÖLS AND HARRI VALDMANN** *Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Department of Zoology, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu, 51014 Institute of Mathematical Statistics, Chair of Mathematical Statistics University of Tartu, Liivi 2,, Tartu, 50409 ** Corresponding author [email protected] +3725285182 Hindrikson, M., Möls, M. and Valdmann, H. 2017. The patterns of wolf attacks on humans: an example from the 19th century European Russia. Baltic Forestry 23(2): 432-437. Abstract Wolf attacks exhibit distinct patterns in attacks on humans with different consequences. We analyzed 483 wolf attacks recorded during 1841-1861 in European part of Russia to reveal temporal patterns of wolf attacks. According to our results, wolf predatory attacks dominated in summer, whereas attacks of rabid wolves took place predominantly in winter. While the number of rabid attacks correlated with human density taking place usually near settlements, the number of predatory attacks did not. Nearly all victims of predatory attacks (99%) were children under 15 years of age, the age of victims was mostly unknown in rabid attacks. Using a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM), we provide the first evidence for 11 year cycle in rabid wolf attacks on humans. Although the rabies has been virtually eliminated in many European countries, it remains as a major threat to livestock and humans in some European countries and in Russia, providing a potential ground for rabies to return sporadically to currently rabies-free areas, and wolves can be considered as a significant vector for the spread of the disease. Key words: wolf attacks, predatory and rabid attacks, cyclicity. Introduction nowadays and the main source of human rabies are domestic dogs, though the epidemiology of rabies The relationship between wolves and humans has varies according to geographical region (Linnell et al. been close throughout the history. High numbers of 2002, Woldehiwet 2002). However, the wolf-transmit- wolves increases conflict with humans, primarily due ted rabies was relatively frequent in Europe in earlier to predation on livestock, spreading diseases and di- times, when control measures for rabies were less rect attacks. This has caused severe intolerance to- adequate and wolf abundance was higher (Linnell et wards wolf and as a consequence, this carnivore was al. 2002). during the 19th century in many European countries Wolves may attack humans under a number of partly or totally extirpated (Boitani 1995). However, different circumstances. Linnell et al. (2002) defined despite the persecution, wolves remained numerous in several different categories of wolf attack: (1) attacks Russia (Pavlov 1990, Linnell et al. 2002) where the wolf by rabid wolves; (2) predatory attacks, where wolves population (about 50,000 in 2010 http://mnr.gov.ru/reg- regard humans as prey; (3) and defensive attacks, ulatory) is among largest in the world (Cherkasskiy where wolves are provoked or cornered. Predatory 1988, Ovsyanikov et al. 1998). attacks may become more frequent if wolfs typical Wolf is considered as a vector for several impor- prey species are scarce or due to lack of a strong tant zoonotic diseases, such as rabies (caused by ra- human social system (Linnell et al. 2002). In Russia, bies virus; Linnell et al. 2002) and echinococcosis for the 1870s, wolf abundance had increased until lev- (caused by cestodes Echinococcus multilocularis and els to cause significant damage to national economy, E. granulosus, Moks et al. 2006), of which rabies has for example, wolves were destroying annually about 6 been the most feared. Compared with many other wild- million rubles worth domestic cattle (Pavlov 1990). Wolf life species, rabid wolves are generally less common problem was so grave, that in 1846, The Ministry of 2017, Vol. 23, No. 2 (45) ISSN 2029-9230 432 BALTIC FORESTRY THE PATTERNS OF WOLF ATTACKS ON HUMANS /.../ H. HINDRIKSON ET AL. Interior of Czarist Government put into effect a wolf Journal of the Home Office (Æóðíàëü Ìèíèñòåðñòâa control plan, which (1): offered bounties for killing Âíóòðåííèõü Äåëü), published monthly during the wolves; (2) drive hunts were organized for wolves and 19th century by the Russian Home Office. Regular data (3) the hunters were appointed to kill wolves (Graves for wolf attacks was found only for years 1841-1861, 2007). Attack by a rabid wolf is more likely to have and all available editions from this period were exam- severe consequences for the victim than by a non-rabid ined to collect usable data. Altogether, 483 wolf attacks animal. There are 581 records of attacks on humans on humans described during 1841-1861 were included by rabid wolves between 1847 and 1978 in Russia (Pav- in the analysis: 168 cases of predatory attacks and 315 lov 1990). Considering the size of Russia and the cases of rabid attacks, all reported from 51 (ca. 1.5 number of wolves, the actual number of rabid wolf million km2) provinces in the European part of Russia. attacks was probably considerably higher. Another Correlation analysis was performed with Statisti- estimate for the number of rabid attacks was provid- ca 7.1 (StatSoft, Inc. 2001). To analyze the temporal ed by the Russian Central Committee of Statistics, dynamics of attacks by rabid wolves, a generalized according to which 1445 people were attacked during linear mixed model (GLMM) was developed using SAS 1870-1887 in the 49 provinces comprising the Europe- 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc. 2006). GLMM is an extension an part of the former Russian Empire, while around to the generalized linear model, in which the linear 3000 people were hospitalized in Pasteur Institutes predictor contains random effects in addition to the throughout this area (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Khark- usual fixed effects. Our model included the number of ov, Odessa, Warsaw, Samara and Tbilisi) following attacks as a response variable, and year and province attacks by rabid wolves during 1886-1890 (Brochaus as random effects (normally-distributed random vari- and Effron 1899). Nowadays, rabid wolf attacks in ables). The number of rabid attacks during the year k Russia still occur but are rare compared to the frequen- years previously in the same province was considered cy of attacks in the past: eight cases were document- as a fixed explanatory variable. Therefore, the expect- ed during 19801998 (Kuzmin et al. 2004). Although ed number of rabid attacks (EY) was modelled as: rabies has been virtually eliminated in many Europe- an countries following effective anti-rabies vaccina- Log (EY) = µ +l +t + c × u +c ×A , e i j 1,k k 2,k k tion programs, it still remains as a major threat to live- stock and humans in some European countries and in where Y putative number of victims; l effect of i Russia, where such programs have not been implement- year; t effect of province; c , c - coefficients; u j 1,k 2,k k ed. This situation provides potential ground for rabies variable indicating whether or not a rabid wolf was killed to return sporadically to currently rabies-free areas, k years ago in the corresponding province, A number k and wolves are one of possible vectors for the spread of rabid attacks k years ago. Therefore, the significance of the disease. of coefficient c can be indicative of whether or not 2,k It is crucial to understand whether wolf attacks the number of rabid attacks k years ago is a useful pre- on humans by rabid or non-rabid wolves exhibit a tem- dictor for the number of rabid attacks in the current year poral pattern, and which factors influence such attacks. and thus of a cyclical effect (with k equal to the cycle These may include human density and behavior, wolf length). Such models were fitted for different values of numbers, rabies prevalence and alternative prey avail- k and Bonferroni correction used to eliminate inflation ability. It has been suggested that wolf numbers in of Type I error due to multiple testing. Russia depend not only on biological, socio-econom- ical and anthropological factors, but ultimately also on periodic climatic factors, leading to cycles of abun- Results dance (Mihhailov and Kljukin 1997). The aims of this study were: (1) to analyze spa- Predatory attacks tial and temporal patterns of attacks by rabid and non- Predatory attacks were most numerous in years rabid wolves on humans, and (2) investigate evidence 1844 (28 attacks), 1850 (20) and 1846 (19) (Figure 1), for cyclicity in wolf attacks, based on data published and the mean number of attacks per year was 8.1. The in Russia during 1841-1861. numbers of rabid and predatory attacks per month differed substantially (Figure 2). Predatory attacks were Materials and Methods most numerous in summer (53 attacks in July and 49 in August throughout the study period), comprising The data for this study were collected from the 60 % of all attacks (95 % confidence interval (CI): Estonian Historical Archives and Estonian Academic 52 %-67 %). The mean number of attacks per month Library archive materials. The main source was the across the whole study period was 14.3. 2017, Vol. 23, No. 2 (45) ISSN 2029-9230 433 BALTIC FORESTRY THE PATTERNS OF WOLF ATTACKS ON HUMANS /.../ H. HINDRIKSON ET AL. Of 143 victims of predatory attack, only two were mean number of attacks per year was 15.8. The number adults (i.e. over 18 years old): a 40-year old woman of rabid attacks per month (Figure 2) was highest in and a 30-year man. Most victims (99 %) were under winter (January - April), constituting about half of all 15 years of age.
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