CORAL REEF DEGRADATION IN THE INDIAN OCEAN Status Report 2005 Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean Status Report 2005 EDITORS: DAVID SOUTER & OLOF LINDÉN Finland Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean Status Report 2005 © 2005 CORDIO and the authors ISBN 9-973959-4-3 Published by CORDIO Department of Biology and Environmental Science University of Kalmar SE-39 80 KALMAR Sweden Maps Tommy Holmberg Production Bo Heurling AB Printed in Italy 2005 by Eurolitho, Milan, through Italgraf, Stockholm, Sweden Foreword Coastal ecosystems in tropical regions are rich in bio- more effective and destructive techniques now than ever diversity and highly productive. They form the basis for before. the marine food web that ultimately results in fish catches Vulnerability in the coastal zone has increased – con- that support the coastal human population. Coral reefs sider e.g. the effects of the tsunami in December 2004. together with sea grass beds and mangrove forests are And the environmental situation has become even more some of the most productive ecosystems in the Indian strained due to global change. The temperature increase Ocean Region. The productivity of these systems is stag- of the atmosphere as a result of the greenhouse effect is gering, often yearly production figures in the range of 20 increasing the water temperatures to lethal levels for cor- tones of fish per km2 have been found. However, if the als and bleaching – the sign of dying coral reefs – now environment is abused the productivity is likely to drop occurs almost every year in the Indian Ocean. dramatically. Since 999, Sida, through its research department, Unfortunately decreasing productivity of coastal SAREC, has supported the CORDIO program. COR- waters is now the norm throughout much of the Indian DIO was originally a research program to assess the Ocean. The catch per effort is steadily going down affect- background and consequences of the 998 El Niño and ing the livelihoods of coastal communities. The reasons of other local phenomena which resulted in the degrada- for the decreasing productivity can be attributed both to tion of the coral reefs of the Indian Ocean countries. The local and regional/global phenomena. The coastal zones program which is driven by local scientists in countries over most of the planet are becoming overpopulated – of the Indian Ocean has now evolved into a comprehen- often the population density is in the range of several sive program in areas such as ecological monitoring, thousand people per km2 – also in rural areas. As a conse- management and policy advice, targeted research on dif- quence, during the past decades the coastal zone has be- ferent alternative livelihoods, education and awareness come urbanized in many countries surrounding the In- building, and networking and communication. Hence dian Ocean. As a result pollution, sedimentation, and the research program has become an integrated part of a erosion are increasing problems along most populated larger management-oriented program. This program coasts. In addition the fishing has long ago exceeded the aims to provide useful information to managers, as well carrying capacity of the coastal waters, and fishermen use as the public and local stakeholders. In addition the pro- 5 gram tries to develop sustainable income generating ac- ple who depend on them in the Indian Ocean region. tivities to communities affected by the decreasing pro- CORDIO’s activities contribute directly to resolving ductivity of the coastal zone. several areas of global concern such as food security, pov- It is my hope that the activities conducted so far with- erty alleviation, and particularly the impacts of global in the CORDIO program will continue to produce tan- climate change and conservation of biodiversity – all gible on-the-ground benefits to coral reefs and the peo- necessary components of a sustainable future. Mats Segnestam Head, Sida’s Environmental Policy Division 6 Contents Foreword 5 Arjan Rajasuriya Executive Summary 9 The Status of Coral Reefsin Sri Lanka in the Aftermath of the 998 Section . Status Reports Coral Bleaching Event and the 2004 Tsunami 83 David Obura Arjan Rajasuriya, Nishan Perera & Malik Fernando East Africa – Summary 25 Status of Coral Reefs in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka 97 Malek A. Abdulaziz, John Turner & Lyndon DeVantier Meena Dharmaretnam & Riyas Ahamed Coral Communities of the Socotra Islands, Yemen: A Preliminary Baseline Survey Status and Recovery Following of the Coral Reefs of Passikuda, Batticaloa 04 the 998 Bleaching Event 32 Hussein Zahir, Ismael Abid, Ajla Rasheed David O. Obura Status of Coral Reefs of the Maldives: Kenya – Coral Reef Resilience Studies 35 Recovery Since the 998 Mass Bleaching and the Impacts of Mohammed Suleiman, Christopher Muhando, the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 09 Haji Machano, Carol Daniels, Elizabeth Tyler, Nariman Jiddawi & Saleh Yahya J. K. Patterson Edward, Jamila Patterson, Status of Coral Reefs in Tanzania 47 G. Mathews & Dan Wilhelmsson Status of Coral Reefs of the Tuticorin Coast, Alice Costa, Marcos A.M. Pereira, Helena Motta Gulf of Mannar, Southeast Coast of India 9 & Michael Schleyer Status of Coral Reefs of Mozambique: 2004 54 Rolph Payet Indian Ocean Islands – Summary 28 Michael H. Schleyer, Louis Celliers, Alke Kruger, Angus Macdonald & David Glassom: Rolph Payet, Jude Bijoux & Pierre-Andre Adam Coral Reef Research in Northern KwaZulu-Natal, Status and Recovery of Carbonate and South Africa 6 Granitic Reefs in the Seychelles Inner Islands and Implications for Management 32 Dan Wilhelmsson, J. K. Patterson Edward, Arjan Rajasuriya, Jerker Tamelander David Souter, David Obura, Dan Wilhelmsson, & Nishanthi Perera Charles Sheppard, Matt Richmond, Olof Lindén, Assessing the Status and Improving Management Rolph Payet & Jude Bijoux of Coral Reef Resources: Experiences and Status of Cosmoledo Atoll, Southern Seychelles, Achievements in South Asia 66 Four Years after Bleaching-Related Mass Coral Mortality 46 Section 2. Thematic Reports P. B. Terney Pradeep Kumara, David Obura, Juliet Furaha & Jelvas Mwaura P. R. T. Cumaranathunga & Olof Lindén Coral Settlement Patterns in Bandaramulla Reef of Southern Sri-Lanka: the Mombasa Marine National Park 67 Present Status and Impacts of Coral Mining 233 Hussein M. Alidina J. K. Patterson Edward, Jamila Patterson, Local Level Coral-Reef Fisheries Management G. Mathews & Dan Wilhelmsson in Diani-Chale, Southern Kenya: Awareness Raising and Feasibility Current Status and Future Directions 74 of Reef Restoration through Marcos A. M. Pereira & Michael H. Schleyer Coral Transplantation A Diver and Diving Survey in Tuticorin, Gulf of Mannar, India 243 in Southern Mozambique 84 Jamila Patterson, V. Deepak Samuel, Shakil Visram J. K. Patterson Edward & Dan Wilhelmsson Resilience of Zooxanthellae to Bleaching Stressors: Improving Living Conditions for An Experimental Study 93 Reef Dependent Fisher Families in Tuticorin, Gulf of Mannar, Southeast coast of India 252 Vineeta Hoon & Jerker Tamelander Community-Based Monitoring of Coral Reef Ole Vestergaard& Ben Cattermoul Resource Use in Agatti Island, Building an Integrated Coral Reef Union Territory of Lakshadweep, India 205 Monitoring Network – Lessons from the GCRMN South Asia 263 Nishanthi Perera, Dan Wilhelmsson & Jerker Tamelander Appendix Alternative Livelihoods as a Tool for Sustainable Adresses to Authors 28 Coral Reef Management in Sri Lanka 29 Executive Summary SYNOPSIS th ● The impacts of the tsunami of 26 December 2004 The assessments of 50 contributing authors focusing on on coral reefs was highly variable and ranged from coral reefs and related coastal ecosystems, and dependent negligible (Gulf of Mannar, India, Maldives, East communities in 9 countries in South Asia and the central Africa) to moderate (parts of Andaman and Nicobar and western Indian Ocean report that: Islands) to extreme (parts of Sri Lanka, Nicobar Is- lands). Status of Coral Reefs ● The primary factors determining the severity of dam- ● The bio-physical condition of many reefs continues age caused by the tsunami were: to decline. ❏ How exposed a reef was to the direct force of the ● Recovery from bleaching associated coral mortality is wave; generally slow and patchy with widespread changes in ❏ The local bathymetry surrounding a reef; species composition of adult and juvenile coral com- ❏ The geological composition of a reef; munities. ❏ The condition of the reef; reefs that had sufferred ● Recovery is more rapid on reefs that are situated with- extensive coral mortality as a result of the 998 El in managed areas or are remote from the influence of Niño were more vulnerable to the force of the tsu- other human disturbances. nami. ● Recovery in areas subject to human influences has been retarded. ● The reasons for continued coral reef degradation are: ● The primary causes of coral reef degradation are: ❏ High dependence on coral reef resources as a result ❏ Bleaching, which is occuring more frequently and of few alternative sources of food and income; has accelerated the degradation caused by: ❏ Open access; fishing and exploitation of other ❏ Overexploitation of fish and of other organisms coastal resources are unregulated in many coun- on reefs throughout the region; tries; as a result, unemployment and a lack of ❏ Destructive fishing, which become an increasing opportunities elsewhere in society are directly problem as fish stocks decline; due to lack of en- linked with coastal degradation; forcement destructive fishing has destroyed reefs ❏ Low awareness of the importance