RLG205 INTRODUCTION TO SOUTH ASIAN RELIGIONS FINAL EXAM STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What role did colonialism and Orientalist scholarship play in shaping the modern understanding of as a unified religion? Prior to the advent of the British, how did Islamic conceptions of India contribute to transformations of Hindu identity?

Orientalism is the concept of how westerners viewed the eastern part of the world. Essentially orientalism is a misunderstanding of the east by the west. Colonialism is acquiring the control of another country, occupying it with settlers. The British colonized India. These two factors played a huge role in unifying Hinduism as a religion. Colonialists from British helped make the identity of the Hindu’s as a religion. When the British came to colonize India they encountered the Muslims and the non­Muslims. This where the term Hindu arrived from as it was means of dividing the two ethnic groups for the British. The roles colonialism and Orientalists scholarship played in shaping the modern understanding of Hinduism was they put laws which forced people to choose if they are Hindu or not so basically it forced Hinduism to define itself. It stopped the tradition of widows throwing themselves into fire after their husbands died, it weakened the caste system to some degree and translated that were only in Sanskrit, into local languages giving access to who didn’t know Sanskrit. Warren Hastings back in 1772 enforced a judicial plan, which divided the Muslims and Hindus. The British coming over had to make a distinction between the different groups in India. Cast Disabilities Act in 1850 enforced personal law, which meant different laws for different religions. Thus the Hindus who were Vaishnavas and Saivanas who read similar texts like the were lumped together despite the fact they had different beliefs. That is how orientalism and colonialism shaped India and the unification of Hinduism. Before this outlined in the David Lorenz article he talks about how Muslims are the main reason for Hinduism being a unified religion. Both of these Muslims and non­Muslim groups had conflicts. David Lorenz talks about Muslims and Hindus ridiculed the other’s religion. For example Muslims said how their God was imprisoned. Also they said how thieves stole God’s wife ( from ) and how he needed the help of the monkeys. The Hindu’s also attacked Muslims saying how could one creature kill another creature and go to heaven. They also said how can God only be at Mecca? He is everywhere. They also said you want to convert Hindus into Muslims does that mean God made a mistake in making Hindus? Clearly from these arguments it is clear Hinduism existed and fought back against the Muslims. Showing evidence that the Muslims encounter enforced the unification of Hinduism as a religion. When looking at Muslim sources Abd Al Malik Isami in his work clearly outlines that Hindi means geographical sense and Hindu is related to religion. His text was written in 1350 showing that Hinduism was constructed long before the British got there in the 19th century.

2. What are the two theories of ? What does the relationship between these two theories tell us about the nature of ritual analysis and philosophy in the Upanisads?

One theory of karma includes the practice of sacrifice. The theory of karma in relation to sacrifice was about how one would sacrifice an animal for something in return by the Gods. Although this reward for sacrifice was not received instantly. Most of the time it took time, like entry into heaven. It was not instantaneous, but the results would eventually come. The other theory of Karma that is a more common belief is the cosmic principle­governing rebirth. The cosmic principle is about your good and bad actions. Karma is metaphorically like a bank account, where your good actions helps your account grow, while bad actions take away from it and can result in you being in debt. When you perform something good, you might not receive the results instantly, but you might later on in life. Same with performing a bad action, you might get a payoff in a sense for the bad action you did. Everything has a way of coming back to you. Ultimately the way you act is the way God treats you. If you do well you will go to heaven. It might not affect in your current life and can affect you in your next life. Both of these theories are related to reincarnation. If you behave poorly and perform bad actions you will most likely reincarnate to an unwanted species. Good actions will allow you to reincarnate into something positive. In both situations you might get the results in later lives. The encompasses the last part of the Vedas, which is a Vedic text. The Upanishads is very philosophical and often incorporates themes like rebirth, liberation and asceticism. The theme of rebirth often comes back to karma. Reincarnation, which is rebirth, has ultimate dependence on your karma. If you have good karma, most likely you will be re­born into something positive instead of negative. In the Upanishads karma is expressed as a principle of cause and effect. The Upanishads outline the importance of Karma for Hindus. The purpose of life in Hinduism is thus to minimize bad karma in order to enjoy better fortune in this life and achieve a better rebirth in the next. What the analysis of these two theories tells about the philosophy of the Upanishads is that it shows Hindus how to reach ultimate liberation or as they would call it . The theories tell us that the Upanishads were philosophical and helped Hindus toward the right path in showing them the goals in life. The Upanishads encouraged good karma, as bad karma would be put you in a never­ending cycle. Good karma would allow you to separate from this cycle and be liberated. Which is one of the four main goals in life for Hindus.

In the Upanisads the philosophy of karma as a sacrifice/ritual evolved to more abstract functions with the ultimate questions. At first the rituals were to appease the Gods to give you what you want: a son, heaven or rain etc. it may even seem short­termed and materialistic. There is an offering to the Gods – hymns etc. they would sacrifice a goat or a cow in a very specific alter. There is a reciprocal relationship between their sacrifice and the God. They would memorize the vedas and recite the appropriate hymns to appease to a certain God. The two types of karma are the same process because they both have that unseen aspect and both offer rewards eventually. The Upanisads made it all more ethical because it redesigned karma as not just an instant procedure but instilled it in everything one does. The texts talk more about the absolute, ultimate questions like the metaphysical relationship between the universal spirit and me. It appointed karma as the law of nature, which would decide a person’s rebirth. Ritual analysis: rituals brought good karma, if done properly at the appropriate alter. Philosophical: Karma became more than a reward of a sacrifice, it became a daily practice that brings you closer to God.

3. How does the relationship between the householder ideal and the renouncer ideal (as developed in traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism) represent a basic tension in South Asian religions? In what ways does the (life­stages) system and classification of four goals of life domesticate renunciation within Vedic society?

The relationship between the householder ideal and the renouncer ideal is complicated. The relationship represents a basic tension in South Asian religions. In Buddhism and Jainism, renunciation is the ultimate goal in life when it comes to being liberated. Renunciation is key if wanting ultimate liberation. A renouncer is someone who gives up all attachments and has nothing to their name. They live on the streets and beg. In contrast in Vedic society the householder like the name indicates has possessions. The householder often has a house, a family, a fire and participates in sacrifice. These conflicts with the renouncer as renouncers don’t participate in sacrifice, have no house, must remain celibate and just meditate. In Vedic society marriage is encouraged and in Buddhism and Jainism celibacy is. Ultimately Buddhism and Jainism reject Vedic ideals. The concept of having a home and having attachments is the total opposite of what a renouncer is. The ashrama system accepts renunciation in Vedic society. The four stages of life include the student, the householder, forest dwellers, and the renouncer. In Vedic society the renouncer is the final stage of life. The student’s main goal is memorize the Vedas. Next the householder is married and owns a house. Next the forest dweller stage involves meditation in the forest and a watered down version of a renouncer. The forest dweller still owns a house and still lives with his wife. The final stage is the renouncer where it is like retirement. You live separate of your family and perform no rituals. This accommodates renunciation as you live with non attachment. The difference is it is not the goal in life like in Buddhism and Jainism. When looking at the four goals in life: wealth, sexual desire, moral duty and liberation, this is direct conflict of what renunciation is depicted as in Buddhism and Jainism. Renouncers do not have anything to their name so wealth is irrelevant. Renouncers are celibate to sexual desire is also irrelevant. Moral duty of a Buddhist is renunciation. Finally liberation. These four aspects encompass the goal in life, which contradict the renouncer lifestyle. Although Vedic society does incorporate renunciation, it is the not the goal in life like in Buddhism and Jainism.

4. Summarize the central narrative of the .

Sage ’s Ramayana is one of the two most important religious epics of Hinduism, the other being . In addition to illustrating ideal roles and relationships of characters in the story, Ramayana essentially stresses on the significance of , or duty and virtuous conduct, in an individual’s life. The Ramayana is a story about Rama who is the son of the king of Ayodhya, and who is claimed to be a reincarnation of Lord . Rama is not an ordinary human as he is a divine being. Rama is the heir to the throne. Rama’s father Dasarantha at first could not have a son, so his wives eat porridge and engage in coitus with the Gods. Then Rama is born. Rama and his half­brother Lakshama become heroes while only in their teenage by fighting off various demons. In his adulthood, Rama marries Sita by winning a competition that required demonstration of immense power, thus displaying qualities of an ideal husband who is well­capable of protecting his wife. Later he portrays himself as the ideal son by renouncing the throne of Ayodhya for the sake of his father’s dignity, ignoring the injustice set forth by his step­mother. Here, Rama’s father too represents an ideal king by not going back on his word to his wife, even though he had to be unfair towards his eldest son. Sita is presented as the ideal wife by her way of renouncing all luxuries of the palace and following her husband Rama into exile for fourteen years, while Laxmana shows himself as the ideal brother by choosing to renounce with his brother. Hence, the illustration of humbleness and respect is a key characteristic of the Ramayana. Moreover, it emphasises on the fundamental principle of dharma – working for the benefit of humanity in order to sustain a peaceful and harmonious world; by depicting the choice of renunciation made my Rama, Sita & Laxmana. While in the forest, Sita is abducted by a powerful and dangerous demon , but is later rescued by her husband and brother­in­law with the help of a clever monkey . Rama at this point clearly displays mortal human emotions such as doubt, when he puts his wife through a fire­test in order to prove her purity after rescuing her from the demon Ravana. Thus, in the Ramayana, Valmiki does not portray Rama as a supernatural being, rather as a human who encounters various shortcomings and moral dilemmas, and overcomes them by adhering to the righteous ways of dharma, inspite of struggling with moral flaws and prejudices. Ramayana therefore illustrates and emphasises on respect for others, selflessness, and virtuousness.

5. What are the principal arguments used by Krishna in the second chapter of the to convince Arjuna of the propriety of fighting against the Kauravas? How are these arguments both contextually situated within the Mahabharata and yet of broader philosophical significance?

King Shantanu falls in love with a fisher girl and has two sons. Shantanu promises to his father in law that his grandchildren will be kings. Bhisma hears this and leaves renouncing everything. Shantanu has two sons Pandu and Dhritarashtra. Pandu is white and Dhritarashtra is blind. Dhritarashtra has 100 Kavravas and Pandu has 5 Pandavas. Pandu is cursed and then killed because he has sex. Dhritarashtra is blind and cannot be king, so the kingship is divided in half between the cousins. Pandavas are successful with the throne, but the Kavravas try to kill them, as they are jealous. Then in a game of dice Yuddhistra loses his kingdom and his family. The 5 brothers are sent to the forest to live for 13 years. Then the Pandavas engage in war with Kavaravas. Before they start Arjuna sees all his cousins and sees Bhisma and is overwhelmed. He renounces the world and does not want to fight anymore. Krishna, a God on Earth sides with the Pandavas. Krishna then tries to convince Arjuna to fight. Krishna makes three arguments: First he says the war will not destroy Arjuna’s family, they will continue to live because their souls are eternal and to not associate body with soul. Souls are eternal as the body dies the soul does and they are reborn, so not to worry about killing them. Secondly he argues that it is Arjuna’s duty, to fight, as he is a warrior not a renouncer. Krishna explains that one should always act with the intention of keeping the order of the world, if one is acting to simply maintain social order they are acting correctly, regardless if it goes against the ideas of renunciation. Lastly he says that Arjuna must not to dwell on the consequences of fighting the war, but instead to concentrate on the action. He claims it is his duty to fight. These arguments are situated with the Mahabharata as the Mahabharata stresses action with nonattachment just how Krishna is stressing to Arjuna to act. The Mahabharata represents the four goals of life, and an important goal in life for Arjuna is moral duty. Krishna tries to convince Arjuna that is his moral duty to fight. A renouncer in Vedic society is for someone who is old and retired, and he is not at that stage yet. Krishna tells him that he is a warrior and not a renouncer. He tells him that it is his duty to fight. One of the goals of the four includes dharma, which is moral duty. These arguments stress the same themes that the Mahabharata is. Krishna’s arguments emphasize the importance of the Mahabharata and its teachings, which include the four life goals.

6. How do Hindu traditions reconcile the apparent contradiction between a multiplicity of gods (e.g., 350 million) and the omnipotence and transcendence of Vishnu or Siva as paramount deities?

Hindus worship 330 million gods meaning they are polytheistic. The Bhagavad Gita outlines that there is only god who is known as Visnu. The Gita also mentions Krishna as a God. The Krishna­Visnu relationship is analgous to the relationship between Jesus and God. One is the descendent of the other. In the Bhagavad Gita there is a hierarchy between the Gods. Although they’re many Gods, there is one God that is above all other Gods and is a God of the Gods. Visnu is portrayed as the one God that is above everyone and everything else. Although different villages might worship a God, that God is the form of Visnu. Ultimately Visnu is God. The smaller Gods get lumped with God and are often a reason to why one would think that Hinduism is polytheistic. Some also believe that Siva is God. These people are known as , and people who believe Visnu is God are known as Vaishnavas.

7. Compare and contrast Saivism with Vaisnavism, with respect to the characterization of Siva and Visnu as paramount deities, as well as the respective canonical texts, rituals, and theology of these communities.

Saivism are a community who believe that Siva is the main diety. Vaisnavism are a community who think Visnu is the main diety. In Vaisnavism they have any Gods, but believe that one God is above all and that is Visnu. In Vaisnavism they perform certain ritulals for their diety. They perform Vaisnava . This type of ritual is performed in temples and at home. They welcome the diety by bathing the statue representation, adorning it with jewelry, decorating the figure with flowers and by offering a meal. The people then often eat the leftovers. Another key aspect to this ritual is Darsana. Darsana is “seeing” an image where the devotee sees God and God sees the devotee so they have an intimate and personal relationship. Also Prasada, which is the transferring of substance of deity to devotee. Grace from God. Prasada is blessed by God and is eaten by the devotee, creating an intimate relationship. Siva is a deity worshipped by Saivism people. Siva is a mendicant who is an ideal renouncer. Body is smeared with ashes, has tiger skin, crescent moon in hair. Has a trident and rides on a bull. Siva is a renouncer but represents fertility. Saivism has 2 categories. Puranic and Tantric. Puranic is more mainstream and upholds to the caste system. Siva and the world is separate representing dualism. Tantric Saivism rejects the caste system and is non­dualist. Also Kaplikas imitated Siva the deity, and used a part of the skull as a bowl to beg. Renunciation was a key aspect. In this tantric tradition they propitiated God with impure substances like meat and alcohol. The renouncers slept on the ground as a closer connection with God after death and offered impure substances like blood, menstrual fluid as that’s all they had. 8. How can be compared to possession? What are the primary themes of bhakti literature?

Bhakti, a devotional service to Lord Krishna, is the most powerful, pure, and exalted of all activities; it is the dynamic, variegated activity of the soul. Bhakti is compared to possession. Not ecstasy (out of body experiences) like a dream. Not enstasy (withdrawal, but partaking of God). Essentially you possess God and God possesses you. In the Srimad­Bhagavatam Maharaja lists nine kinds of devotional service: hearing about Krishna, chanting His names or speaking about Him, remembering Him, serving His lotus feet, worshiping Him, offering Him prayers, becoming His servant, becoming His friend, and surrendering everything to Him. When we do one or more of these activities with the intent to please Krishna, He comes closer to us and we come closer to Him. Each of these processes of devotional service is spiritually potent, and by performing one or more of them purely one can attain love of God, life’s highest goal. For example, let’s consider the service of remembering Krishna.The vast Vedic literature encompasses the four original Vedas (Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda) and their corollaries. The essence of the knowledge contained in this immense canon is the Bhagavad­gita. The potency of pure thoughts of Krishna is so great that simply by the power of remembering Him, Prahlada Maharaja, the emblem of one who always thinks of Krishna, was able to evoke the personal presence of the Lord (Krishna as Nrisimhadeva). The Lord then defeated the most formidable demon in the universe, Prahlada’s father, Hiranyakashipu. Because Prahlada was only five years old, his example shows that age is no impediment to performing devotional service. As long as one has the power to think, one can choose to think of Krishna. Frequent use of the term veri, in tamil traditions which means craziness or frenzy. Representing that you are in frenzy when it comes to loving God. Concepts in Bhakti literature include mutuality and grace, which is a loving relationship between God and Devotee. God is not distant but close to the world. Imagining God as a lover, and significance of congregation, guru. God is responsible for liberation. Metaphorically speaking it is like a cat holding onto its kitten, God holds onto us, and as the kitten we must hold onto the Cat, so the devotee must hold onto God. It is an intimate relationship and ultimately bhakti outlines that you possess God and God possesses you. In the article afterword, the author outlines that the Devotee does not simply want to worship or adore the God; he invokes the God by representing him. The article states it is not an ecstasy or enstasy but an embodiment. A bhakta is not content to worship a God in word and ritual nor is he content to grasp him in a theology; he needs to possess him and be possessed by him. The Bhakta tries to embody the God in every single way possible. He does so through singing, dancing, poetry, painting and sculpture. The author points out that that from possession to incarnation is a key step.

9. In what ways were the ideas and social institutions associated with bhakti similar to or different from earlier forms of Hindu thought and practice? Compare the innovations of bhakti with Islamic sufi traditions.

Earlier forms of Hinduism in India included and Saivism. These two included the worship of a deity, Vishnu and respectively. These usually incorporated things like karma and dharma. Texts used were the Vedas, Upanishads, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, and . This was what Hinduism was usually associated with. Then came along the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement was one’s personal expression of their devotion to God, and with this you become one with God, as you and God possessed each other. Bhakti was associated with Rama and Krishna who were incarnations of Vishnu. Bhakti poets like Guru Nanak and tried for Hindus and Muslims unity. Like Bhakti, Sufism also put emphasis on the love and devotion of God. The bond between one’s soul and God was key. Both of Sufism and Bhakti base themselves on singing, and meditation to become closer with God. Both Sufism and Bhakti try to establish an intimate relationship with God. Bhakti and Sufism influenced each other and came together. 10. Compare the models of syncretism versus translation as ways of describing the encounter between Muslim and Hindu cultures in late medieval Bengal.

Syncretism is the mixture of two different religions/cultures into a new one, almost like two different species producing a hybrid offspring. In this situation saying that Hinduism and Islam together formed a new religion. The problem with syncretism is that first off it inappropriately combines two distinct and mutually exclusive things. For example the article search for equivalence states that Bengali Sufism and yogic meditation do not belong together because they have been defined as such. Second the article argues that the hybrid that is formed is unstable, as we do not see the process of two different forms coming together. Four aspects challenge the mode of syncretism. First off borrowing and influence challenges syncretism. This concept says that members of one group, Sufis in this situation are not creative enough or independent to come up with their own ideas so they take ideas or rituals from the Hindus. For example taking the Vaishnavas theology and . Another factor challenging syncretism is cultural veneer or overlay. This is the overlay of one culture onto another, for example the Muslims overlaid into Bengal, which was predominantly Hindu. Another factor is alchemy. Alchemy in a chemistry sense is when two compounds come together but eventually separate not combining fully. Just like like in religion how Muslims and Hindus came together, but they retain their own unique identities. The two religions coming together have a contrasting effect. The fourth metaphor of syncretism is the biological model. For example if a half­breed, or a hybrid species is produced, in later generations they will not be able to reproduce. Just like how in religion if two religions combine over generations it will break down. When looking at the model of translation it says like languages when religions encounter one another they translate and when they do it strengthens both participants. It does not make for a new creation all together, but enriches both entities. Four models characterize translation model. First formal literary equivalence which is the assumption that each idea or concept can be literally translated from the source language to the target language without subtraction or addition of meaning. Second is refraction and mirroring where literalness is not the main concern. It’s a way of establishing equivalent grounds of meaning between Muslims and Hindus like Allah and Vishnu. Although not exact translation there is a similar context. Third is dynamic equivalence is about how one concept might not be directly related between the source and target language, but has a strong resemblance. The fourth and final model is shared metaphoric worlds. Where not phrases or words are translated but ideas are translated. These two models are prevalent in the interactions between the Muslims and Hindus. They lived in close proximity and populations were multi­religious. These two models eliminate any stereotypes of Muslim and Hindu interactions. The Islamic literature in Bengal used Hindu concepts when talking about Allah. Core Muslim concepts were translated to Bengal. Translating the language as said above can change the meaning.

11. Compare the interaction between modern religious traditions in India and Pakistan represented in the film Had­Anhad.

The film starts off with Hindus talking about how Babur built a mosque above their temple, and how they tore it down because it was disrespectful and the Muslims we’re building a mosque on top of where the Hindus prayed. They thought that the Muslims came to India to strip them of their culture. Kabir was a 15th century mystic poet of north India who defied the boundaries between Hindus and Muslims. He had a Muslim name and upbringing, but his poetry repeatedly invokes the widely revered Hindu name for God – Ram. This film journeys through song and poem into the politics of religion, and finds a myriad of answers on both sides of the hostile border between India and Pakistan. Hindus and Muslims both have different views about Kabir the Sufi poet. Muslims do not accept him as he did not fast like Muslims and did not pray to Allah. On the other hand Hindus accept him more. Both in India and Pakistan people sing about Kabir is a nirguna poet who sings about a formless God and how he is a divine being. There are many different birth stories of Kabir. One birth story says he was born in a family of Muslim weavers. The second birth story is that Kabir was born a Hindu, as his mom was a widow, and left him at lake lehertara, where a Muslim raised him. He was born Hindu, but raised as a Muslim. The third birth story claims he was born in a blaze of light on a lotus in Lehertara Lake. The fourth birth story is that Kabir is the incarnation of Vishnu. Also it is said Kabir drew a lot of his knowledge from many Muslim and Hindu sources. From the Upanishads, Vaishnavas, from the Sufis, from Islam, the , Kapaliks, and Tantriks. Then in the clip there is a ceremony of the closing of the gate between the borders. Both countries inhabitants are cheering for their country to live long. After this ceremony some Indians are upset that the Pakistani Muslims were dancing and singing in front of the gate, saying that was wrong and disrespectful. They say everything they do is arrogant and opposite of us. Still some tension between the two countries and religions. They then go to Pakistan where they meet a man who claims to be an expert of Kabir. He worships him and sings songs about him saying he is divine. In both India and Pakistan some highly worship Kabir. People in Pakistan of the Sufi tradition usually sings about Kabir, but rejected by non­sufi Muslims. Kabir also sings about Ram that is within each of us.

12. Chart the shift in Sikh identity that occurred through the institution of the Khalsa order in the late seventeenth century.

There was a lot of political and military conflict after the death of Guru Arjun by the Mughals. Within Panth, each succession to the Guruship triggered the succession of claimants between Sikhs and the Mughals which ended up with execution in Delhi on imperial orders of ninth gurutegh Bahadur. Gobind became the tenth guru and instituted a major reorganization of the Panth through his foundation of the Khalsa in 1699. Dedication to the guru was made through baptism (amrit) and internal equality was symbolized by the addition of Rajput titles Singh (Lion) and Kaur (Princess) to male and female names. The Main principles in Sikhism include the emphasis on the pursuit of liberation through meditation and remembrance of the divine one. Following the teachings of the 10 gurus and the scripture of the Adi Granth. The Guru Granth sahib declared by Guru Govind Singh as the final guru. God is called vahiguru and is without form, omnipresent and infinite. The most sacred shrine is the harmandir Sahib, famously known as the Golden Temple. Guru Arjun who was the sixth guru assembled the Adi Granth. The major historical shift in Sikh identity includes the execution of Guru Arjun in 1606. The establishment of Khalsa order in the last decade of the 17th century by Guru Govind Singh. The 5 K’s: kes (uncut hair), Kangha (small comb), kara (circular iron bracelet), kirpan (dagger), and kacca (special undergarment). Finally prohibitions against social cultural or religious contact with Muslims.

Figure 3.3 Formative phases of Sikhism NANAK PANTH KHALSA NANAK PANTH KHALSA

authority gurbani Guru Granth living gurus Khalsa and Guru Panth

community loosely defined adherence baptismal admission Khatri prominence Jat dominance

self permeable boundaries with Hindu society emergence of separate definition by five Ks and rahit

gender relatively equalized status powerfully masculine emphasis