The Theories of Abbott H. Thayer: Father of Author(s): Roy R. Behrens Source: Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 3 (1988), pp. 291-296 Published by: The MIT Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1578658 Accessed: 22-02-2018 00:30 UTC

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This content downloaded from 130.182.24.113 on Thu, 22 Feb 2018 00:30:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms The Theories of Abbott H. Thayer: Father of Camouflage

Roy R. Behrens

Abstract-Abbott H. Thayer (1849-1921), a prominent U.S. painter, was one of the first to describe in detail the function of protective coloration in nature. In military history, he frequently is credited with the first military applications of and disruptive patterning, so that he was known among friends as 'the father of camouflage'. This essay is a brief review of Thayer's lifelong involvement in the study of both natural and military camouflage.

When people see the camouflaged the seventeenth-century settlers of Brain- years in rural near uniforms forjungle warfare, or elaborate tree, Massachusetts. The son of a country Keene, at the foot of Mount Monadnock, concealments of installations, few doctor, Thayer spent most of his formative a region to which he later would return. realize that the technique for all this was 'pioneered' by a New a _ g- 0- - artist in the woods of Dublin, New Hampshire.

Nancy Douglas Bowditch [1]

I. INTRODUCTION In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Abbott H. Thayer was an important U.S. painter whose portraits and landscapes were frequently praised (Fig. 1) [2]. In addition, he was an exceptional teacher, and among his most prominent students were , Fuertes and the sons of , Alexander and William, Jr. [3]. It is less widely acknowledged that Thayer was both an artist and a scientist. In biology, he most often is remembered as one of the first to describe in detail the function of protective coloration in nature. In military history, many credit him with the first military applications of disruptive patterns or '', so that he was known among friends as 'the father of camouflage'. This essay is a brief review of the lifelong involvement of Thayer in the study of visual concealment in natural and military camouflage.

II. CHRONOLOGY Born in in 1849, was a descendant of

Roy R. Behrens (artist, writer, teacher), Com- munication Design, Art Academy of Cincinnati, Fig. 1. Abbott H. Thayer, Self Portrait, oil on plywood, 28 15/16 X 22 in, 1920. (National Eden Park, Cincinnati, OH 45202, U.S.A. Portrait Gallery, ) During the time that this painting was made, Thayer

Received 10 December 1986. was profoundly depressed, in part because of a lack of acclaim for his abundant ideas about natural and military camouflage. He died of a stroke in the following year.

? 1988 ISAST Pergamon Press pic. Printed in Great Britain. LEONARDO, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 291-296,1988 0024-094X/88 $3.00+0.00 This content downloaded from 130.182.24.113 on Thu, 22 Feb 2018 00:30:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms president of the Society of American Artists and worked with a handful of

students. .__.. Two of the Thayers' children died in the early 1880s. This may have been one of the causes for the subsequent illness of Mrs. Thayer, who underwent mental and 4aZ < )' physical deterioration and died in a hospital in 1891. Thayer was shattered by his wife's illness, although he was somehow productive throughout. After her death, Fig. 2. In 1896, Thayer he married theirdescribed loyal and capable friend, the Fig. principle4. involves a deceptiveof resemblance countershading (or Emmeline Thayer's Buckingham Beach, Law), and betweenby twowhich kinds of unrelated he organisms. For example, the walking leaf (Phyllium siccifolium), accounted for "the white undersides of animals". returned to southwestern New Hampshire an orthodopterous from Australia, has an to live [5]. uncanny resemblance to leaves. As a young man, he was an avid naturalist For the remainder of his life, although and a skilled hunter and trapper. He he actively painted and taught, Thayer Thayer's first formal description of experimented with taxidermy, and he was largely preoccupied with the study of countershading was published in the showed his interest in art initially in protective coloration, of which the most American journal of ornithology The making watercolor sketches of and notable consequence was the publication Auk in 1886 and, 2 years later, was other animals [4]. of an ambitious and controversial volume reprinted in the yearbook of the Smith- Thayer moved to in 1867, on Concealing Coloration in the Animal sonian Institution. In November 1896, he where he studied painting at the Brooklyn Kingdom, first published in 1909 [6]. appeared at a meeting of the American Art School and the National Academy of Thayer died in New Hampshire in Ornithologists Union, where he used Design. In 1875, having married Kate 1921. He was profoundly depressed at the models of camouflaged ducks to demon- Bloede, he moved to Paris with his wife, time, apparently because of the lack of strate countershading. In 1898, he lectured where he was a student for 4 years in the acceptance of his abundant ideas regarding on the same subject at major universities atelier of Jean-Leon Ger6me at the Ecole protective coloration and military camou- and museums in England, Norway and des Beaux-Arts. Thereafter, the Thayers flage [7]. Italy, installing in each of those places returned to New York, where he "permanent apparatus demonstrating the established his own studio, served as invisibility of a countershaded object" [11]. III. COUNTERSHADING - Later, in hopes of financing his book, Abbott Thayer's interest in protective he experimented with the theatrical coloration in nature may have begun applications in of countershading, for the 1892, at which time he realized that purpose there of which he invented (and is a functional reason for the white displayed in the town hall of Dublin, New undersides of animals [8]. As an artist, Hampshire) "a large wooden box wired Thayer had long been aware of the for fact operating two sets of electric lights to that two-dimensional renderings are made demonstrate the disappearing act of a to look three-dimensional by the technique small countershaded Venus de Milo. It of shading, in which highlights are was the delight of the school children to painted at the top of a figure, because press of the buttons and make her come and the overhead light of the sun. In a large go" [12]. number of animals, a system of inverted Among zoologists, the principle of shading occurs, in which the white-bellied countershading was not controversial, it body looks less round and less solid and, in fact, as Thayer eventually found, because the effects of the sunlight have his discovery had been anticipated in been canceled out or counteracted (Fig. 1886 by a British entomologist, Edward 2) [9]. B. Poulton, with whom he established a Today this is commonly known as friendship [13]. But certain corollaries of Thayer's Law or the principle of countershading were highly controversial, countershading. In the words of Hugh B.as was the combative and arrogant tone Cott, a British zoologist, "in counter- of virtually all of Thayer's proposals [14]. shading we have a system of coloration It was a contention of Thayer that the the exact opposite of that upon which an coloration of all animals has evolved in artist depends when painting a picture. such a way as to contribute to their low The artist, by skilful use of light and visibility. He did not agree with the common belief that some animal color------~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ shade, creates upon a flat surface the illusionary appearance of solidity: Nature, ation is designed to be seen quickly and Fig. 3. In countershading, the shading on an on the other hand, by the precise use ofeasily to assist in the process of finding a animal's body that normally would result from countershading, creates upon a rounded mate, fooling quarry or intimidating a the illumination of the overhead sun (top surface the illusionary appearance of predator. Whenever a species is seen diagram) is canceled out or counteracted by the flatness. The one makes something unreal readily, said Thayer, it is because it is animal's white undersides (center), so that the two effects combine to create the appearance of recognizable: the other makes something being observed 'out of context' (outside flatness (bottom). real unrecognizable" (Fig. 3) [10]. of its customary environment) or, within

292 Behrens, Abbott H. Thayer This content downloaded from 130.182.24.113 on Thu, 22 Feb 2018 00:30:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Blending is largely dependent upon a relationship of extreme similarity (between -< :~"f~' the figure and its ground), while disruption is based on the opposite tack, that of an .' ...... ";-...... -'.: the figure itself). Both have been used '-X ^wFi, ? / . ~,- b i/ widely throughout military history, and

the colors and patterns of natural forms 1_ twigs [18].

7ii V. MIMICRY AND BACKGROUND

In mimicry, a subcategory of blending, there is a deceptive resemblance between .~~l?~~~~~is~~~~~ -~~Ji~~~two kinds of unrelated organisms. Some ? ...... ':"e animals, for example, have an almost ':'~. _ ~~~~ ,, s ~'. ;}~i' ,--~.x. '-~ . .-~.unbelievable similarity to dead leaves, twigs or tree bark (Fig. 4) [19]. Fig. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~5.; ~~ Gerald?~ H.Thayer was skeptical of some types of 20142 1/4~ :in.~ (he" Metroplt"anL Museummimicry. He was especially dubious of r r lthose kinds of mimicry in which it had Kingom(l09n p , te valcs an anims ct been claimed that "harmless buttefflies or other had through natural selection acquired similar patterning and coloring to those of bad tasting Fig. 5. Gerald H. Thayer, Male Ruffled Grouse in the Forest, watercolor on cardboard, for their protection" [20]. In order to 20 1/4 x 20 1/4 in. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1916. [16.167] All rights challenge that theory, he traveled to the reserved.) Abbott Thayer's extraordinary concept of "background picturing" is exemplified by this painting of a grouse, reproduced in the Thayers' book, Concealing Coloration in the Animal West Indies in 1903, where he syste- Kingdom(1909, 1918). In background picturing, the visual characteristics of an animal's coat are matically tasted both harmless and an epitomized emblem of its customary natural surroundings. that context, because it is seen from the viewpoint of a human observer, instead ? A,,, of through the of its natural foes [15]. pc I._i

IV. BLENDING AND DISRUPTION As a visual artist, Thayer was fully- aware of the fact that concealment is largely a consequence of a figure-groundi, relationship. An object is easy to see to the extent that the object and its back- ground are observably different in one or more ways (so that the figure contrasts E with the ground) and to the degree that the object itself is made up of similar aspects (so that it looks like a unified 1'l* ^j . whole). In order for things to be perceived clearly, both of these requisites have to be i i w t hU met; camouflage is the subversion of ones or the other of these or, frequently, both [16]. Thayer was one of the first to insist that _ there are two kinds of camouflage: b u ttefli e blending, in which the figure so closely resembles the background that one cannot e m lie tell them apart readily, and disruption, in ste -,. which the figure is broken apart by "the employment of strong arbitrary patterns Fig. 6. In 'dazzle camouflage', an object's visibility is lessened by disrupting its surface with of color [which] tend to conceal the contrasting erratic shapes. In this case, a World War II cannon and several soldiers have been dazzled by the use of overhanging nets into which strips of osnaburg fabric have been interwoven. wearer by destroying his apparent In bright sunlight, the shape of anything beneath the net is visually disrupted by the shadows of the continuity of surface" [17]. strips. From a U.S. Army r- II- DhotograDh.---J r--- - r 1943.I

Behrens, Abbott H. Thayer 293 This content downloaded from 130.182.24.113 on Thu, 22 Feb 2018 00:30:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Fig. 7. Burnell Poole, A Distorted Target for U-Boats, oil painting, 1924. (Photo: U.S. Department of the Navy) In American accounts of the development of military camouflage, Thayer often is credited with the use of disruptive patterns in ship camouflage. Such 'dazzle painting' was intended to confuse German gunners in their critical estimates of the speed, direction and anticipated location of ships.

distasteful species of butterflies. According "Because of the lack of model and test In the early stages of to his daughter Gladys, who witnessed facilities, however, nothing came of the (prior to official U.S. involvement), this highly unusual feast, Thayer "could idea" [23]. Thayer and Gerome Brush, the painter's find no difference in the flavor" [21]. According to U.S. Navy records, Brush son, again approached the U.S. Navy On the other hand, Thayer also held again submitted plans for ship camouflage with ship camouflage proposals. Their the view that all occurrences of natural in 1908, but, "through his attorneys, efforts were largely successful this time. disruption are examples of a type ofimposed such stringent conditions as to Thayer and the younger Brush officially mimicry in which the shapes on an secrecy that the Bureau dropped the were granted a patent for the application animal's coat are an epitomized emblem matter. When these conditions were later of countershading to ship camouflage, of its customary surroundings-"a modified, the monetary consideration after which Brush was assigned to generalization or distillation of the features demanded was so high that in August of those physical settings in which the 1911, the matter was definitely the supervision of the painting of animal commonly was found, a surface abandoned" [24]. merchant ships all along the eastern seaboard. He worked at Norfolk, that would be absorbed into a greater In 1912, Thayer's concern with ocean Virginia, Boston Harbor, New York variety of specific backdrops" [22]. He visibility was renewed when the Titanic Harbor, and many other places. He referred to this extraordinary concept as crashed into an iceberg. Regarding that trained men to do the painting according "background picturing" (Fig. 5). disaster, Thayer published an article in to Mr. Thayer's theory [of counter- the United States Hydrographic Bulletin in shading]. The color scheme for the ships was taken from the general which he explained it was wrong to coloring of a seagull, worked in two VI. MILITARY COUNTERSHADING assume that white objects in the sea (such shades of gray and pure white, the Throughout Thayer's adult life, asone icebergs) of are more visible at night than underpart of everything being painted his closest associates was the U.S. darkpainter objects. Rather, Thayer insisted, "it white [27]. George de Forest Brush. It was iswith precisely when they are purest white Brush's help that Thayer first thatbecame they are at night invisible" [25]. VII. DAZZLE CAMOUFLAGE involved in military camouflage. InThus, 1898, when World War I began, he during the Spanish-American War, arguedThayer that all Allied warships should be Thayer frequently is credited with the and Brush were invited to present adorned to the in brilliant white, and that such first military applications of "ruptive" U.S. Department of the Navy vesselstheir should purposely "wait for the (his term) or , which recommendations for the application dark parts of of the day to do their fighting became commonly known as 'dazzle protective coloration to ship camouflage. in" [26]. camouflage' (Fig. 6) [28].

294 Behrens, Abbott H. Thayer This content downloaded from 130.182.24.113 on Thu, 22 Feb 2018 00:30:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms By one account, Thayer was looking at early as 1914 [34]. On a cold winter York. At his hotel, he had left a models of ships in 1915 when evening in that year, and note for Sargent and a suitcase of the three of his friends (his mistress, Eve, props he had made to demonstrate the he noticed that a partly painted model and Alice B. Toklas) were uniform. Inside were a number of appeared to be headed in the wrong strolling and talking on the Boulevard drawings and an old brown Norfolk direction. His further experimentation Raspail in Paris. Suddenly, they were jacket with scraps of irregular fabric led to a system of course- and type- painting which used mis- surprised to be passed on the street by a attached. It was William James's hunting leading painted-patterns to falsify real convoy of camouflaged cannons, the jacket [41]. perspective and natural lines of con- barrels of which had been painted with struction. Such strong contrasting multicolored zigzags. Picasso was spell- deception patterns, when carefully REFERENCES AND NOTES bound. "C'est nous qui avons fait qa", he designed by good artists, could make a ship appear to be headed on any course said. We originated this! This is 1. Nancy Douglas Bowditch, George de desired, regardless of the ship's actual [35]. The crazy-quilt shapes on the Forest Brush (Peterborough, NH: William course [29]. camouflaged guns may have reminded L. Bauhan, 1970) p. 187. 2. Regarding Thayer's life and art, see Picasso of the diamond designs on a There is, however, considerable doubt Nelson C. White, Abbott H. Thayer: harlequin's suit, a recurrent motif in his Painter and Naturalist (Hartford, CT: about who first suggested that Allied paintings. Later, he jokingly said to a Connecticut Printers, 1951); Ross ships, artillery and even field service friend (the poet Jean Cocteau) that the Anderson, Abbott Handerson Thayer uniforms should be 'dazzle painted'. For (Syracuse, NY: Everson Museum, 1982); French army should issue harlequin example, Sir John Graham Kerr, a highly Susan Hobbs, "Nature Into Art: The costumes to the infantry, since the zigzags respected British statesman and zoologist, Landscapes of Abbott Handerson would make them confusing to see [36]. Thayer", The American Art Journal 14, stated that he had come up with a plan of 5-55 (Summer 1982); and Bowditch [1]. "parti-coloring" in 1895 as he was 3. Regarding Thayer's teaching, see Rockwell observing a convoy of ships painted in Kent, It's Me, 0 Lord (New York: Dodd, uniform gray. "The effect of VIII. EPILOGUE Mead, 1955); , Sketches From An Artist's Life (Dublin, NH: the grey coloration" (which was intended A distant relative of Abbott Thayer William L. Bauhan, 1973); and White [2]. to reduce the ship's visibility), recalled was Nathaniel Thayer of Boston, who 4. See in entry regarding Thayer in National Kerr, Cyclopaedia ofAmerican Biography (New 1865 financed a zoological expedition to York: J. T. White, 1892-). was obviously interfered with by the jungles of Brazil, an adventure 5. that Circumstances surrounding the illness differences in light and shade, which was undertaken by Louis Agassiz, his and death of Mrs. Thayer, and Thayer's detracted from the obliterative effect wife and six assistants, among them subsequent a remarriage, are described in not merely of the ship as a whole but young medical student named William detail in White [2] pp. 53-57. still more so in the case of those details 6. The book was listed officially as Gerald which on one hand betray the character James, a person who later was prominent H. Thayer [Abbott Thayer's son], of the ship and on the other hand, in the life of Abbott Thayer [37]. Concealing Coloration in the Animal through their perspective, play an Thayer was the painting teacher of two Kingdom, An Exposition of the Laws of important part in showing how the ship of William James's sons, Alexander andDisguise Through Colour and Pattern: is heading [30]. Being a Summary of Abbott H. Thayer's William, Jr. When William James died in Disclosures (New York: Macmillan, 1909; Thereafter, it was Kerr's advice "that war 1910, some of his clothing was given 2nd to Ed., 1918). camouflage, so far as camouflage by "Uncle Abbott", including a favorite 7. For details of Thayer's death, see White means of paint is concerned, must, to duck-hunting jacket, a brown Norfolk [2] pp. 170-172. [38]. 8. White [2] p. 256. secure full effectiveness, be in accord with 9. Abbott H. Thayer, "The Law Which those principles, (1) counter-shading and Five years later, Thayer was scheduled Underlies Protective Coloration", The (2) 'dazzle', to which is due the effective- to meet with a group of British staff Auk (April 1896) pp. 124-129; and Edward B. Poulton and Abbott H. ness of camouflage in the larger animals" officers in London, a meeting that had Thayer, "The Meaning of the White [31]. been arranged by John Singer Sargent, at Undersides of Animals", Nature (24 Thayer's imploring, persistent request. In addition, there is the autobiography April 1902) pp. 596-597. of Norman Wilkinson, a British marine Thayer had traveled to London "to plead 10. Hugh B. Cott, "Camouflage in Nature painter who was the authorized strategist for changes in the British field service and War", Royal Engineers Journal of more than 3000 dazzled ship designs uniform which should make it less (December 1938) p. 506. 11. White [2] p. 256. conspicuous" [39]. He intended to advise (no two were identical) for England, and, 12. White [2] p. 112. the British that khaki-colored uniforms, after his loan to the U.S., more than a 13. Poulton and Thayer [9]. thousand additional ships (Fig. 7) [32]. In although they readily blended with 14.sand, See, for example, P. R. Cutright, Theodore 1917, according to Wilkinson, he was were insufficient camouflage. A mono- Roosevelt, The Naturalist (New York: Harper, 1956), especially the chapter returning from a trip in a cold carriage, chrome shape is too easy to see. Thayer entitled "The Concealing Coloration when intended to demonstrate a new kind of Controversy". field service uniform, one in which a15. See "Abbott Thayer's Theories of Natural I suddenly got the idea that since it was soldier's shape would be disrupted by an Camouflage", in Anderson [2] pp. impossible to paint a ship so that she irregular patchwork of blatantly con- 113-125. could not be seen by a submarine, the trasting fragments-like the camouflaged 16. See discussions of artworks as figure- extreme opposite was the answer-in ground phenomena in Roy R. Behrens, other words, to paint her, not for low cannons that passed on the street, like the Art and Camouflage: Concealment and visibility, but in such a way as to break diamond designs on the harlequin's Deception in Nature, Art and War (Cedar up her form and thus confuse a clothes [40]. Falls, IA: North American Review, submarine officer as to the course on But Thayer was not in attendance. In University of Northern Iowa, 1981); which she was heading [33]. Design in the Visual Arts (Englewood anticipation of the meeting, he had grown Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984); and Finally, we know that disruptive designs horribly anxious. He had simply slipped Illustration as an Art (Englewood Cliffs, were employed by the French infantry asaway and boarded a ship to return to New NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986) pp. 18-23.

Behrens, Abbott H. Thayer 295 This content downloaded from 130.182.24.113 on Thu, 22 Feb 2018 00:30:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 17. Thayer [9] p. 127. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968). and Sumrall [23]. 18. Regarding military camouflage, see Eric 20. White [2] p. 109. 29. D. R. E. Brown, Ships Concealment Sloane, Camouflage Simplified(New York: 21. White [2] p. 109. Camouflage Instructions (Washington, Devin-Adair, 1942); Seymour Reit, 22. Anderson [2] p. 116. DC: Bureau of Ships, U.S. Navy Masquerade: The Amazing Camouflage 23. Robert Sumrall, "Ship Camouflage Department, June 1963) p. 2. of World War II (New York: (WWI): Deceptive Art", United States 30. John Graham Kerr, "Camouflage in Hawthorn Books, 1978); Guy Hartcup, Naval Institute Proceedings 97, 58 (July Warfare", Nature 147, 758-760 (21 June Camouflage: A History of Concealment 1971). See also Bowditch [1] p. 151. For 1941). andDeception in War (New York: Charles some reason, in the U.S. Navy records, 31. Kerr [30]. Scribner's Sons, 1980); Elizabeth Louise George de Forest Brush is referred to as 32. Norman Wilkinson, A Brush with Life Kahn, The Neglected Majority: "Les Robert de Forest Brush. (London: Seeley Service, 1969). Camoufleurs," Art History, and World 24. Robert Sumrall, Comment and Discussion 33. Wilkinson [32] p. 79. War I(Lanham, MD: University Press of regarding "Ship Camouflage (WWI): 34. See Kahn [18]. America, 1984); and Behrens, Art and Deceptive Art", United States Naval 35. , Picasso: His Life and Camouflage [16]. About natural camou- Institute Proceedings 99,90-91 (February Work (New York: Harper and Row, flage, see Hugh B. Cott, Adaptive 1973). 1973) p. 205. Coloration in Nature (London: Methuen, 25. A. H. Thayer, quoted in R. Cortissoz, 36. Penrose [35]. 1940); Lancelot Law Whyte, ed., Aspects American Artists (New York: Charles 37. For an excellent essay on Agassiz, see of Form (Bloomington: Indiana University Scribner's Sons, 1923) pp. 40-41. Guy Davenport, The Geography of the Press, 1951); and Adolf Portmann, Animal 26. Thayer [25] pp. 40-41. Imagination (San Francisco: North Point, Forms andPatterns (New York: Schocken, 27. Bowditch [1] p. 151. 1981) pp. 230-249. 1967), and Animal Camouflage (Ann 28. Regarding dazzle ship camouflage, see 38. White [2] p. 190. Arbor: University of Michigan Press, Paul Atterbury, "Dazzle Painting in the 39. White [2] p. 190. 1959). First World War", Antique Collector 46, 40. White [2] p. 190. 19. For an overview of mimicry, see Wolfgang 25-28 (April 1975); Encyclopaedia 41. White [2] p. 190. Wickler, Mimicry in Plants and Animals Britannica, 12th Ed., s.v. "camouflage",

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