Save Pdf (0.26

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Save Pdf (0.26 Book Reviews amount of information about what commitment to the ancient tradition, and contemporaries felt they knew and what resistance to such a radically new approach. they did in actual practice. The first two- The author's strict historical treatment of thirds of the book covers such topics as his subject would not have allowed him to remedies, diseases, healthy living, surgery speculate that traditional therapy might also and the knowledge, prevention and cure of have withstood change unless there had the plague. And through this Part I, Wear been a strikingly obvious improvement in addresses the similarities, differences, the results, something that did occur at that continuities and changes reflected in the time only in the application of Peruvian ideas and practices of learned physicians, bark to intermittent fevers. But that was empirics, lay people (to whom he pays then a herbal not chemical remedy, to which considerable attention) and those dismissed the Helmontians had no special claim. as quacks and mountebanks. This is a remarkably detailed account of Nor is the account merely descriptive; actual knowledge and practices. Some these views are also interpreted and readers will find it a bit repetitive, and analysed in the context of the political, maybe sometimes telling them more about a institutional, and intellectual circumstances subject than they want to know. But this of later sixteenth- and early seventeenth- was a risk that I believe Wear knowingly century England. But, unlike most recent took in order to furnish us with a subtle works on the medicine of this period, these and very rich account of what was actually larger dimensions of the story are not the going on, and I'm glad he did. focus but simply the framework within which the knowledge claims and practices Don Bates, are to be understood. McGill University Moreover, this provides a detailed background for Part II, which looks at the changes and continuities of the later seventeenth century in the face of the "new Saul Jarcho (trans. and ed.), The clinical science" of mechanics and experimentation, consultations of Francesco Torti, Malabar, accompanied by the decline of Galenism. As FL, published on behalf of the New York he has done before, Wear shows how these Academy of Medicine by Krieger, 2000, pp. changes had some minor impact on xxx, 911, illus., $125.00 (hardback 1-57524- practical medicine that was, in the main, 144-7). more rhetorical than actual. In the course of this transition, the Until his recent death, Saul Jarcho, "Helmontians" tried to bring about a more although for many years a practising radical change, not only in the discourse of physician, was a dedicated student of disease and treatment, but in actual medical history, particularly of matters practices. In place of the centuries-old Italian in the early modern period. His tradition of an "image of the body as translations of the letters of Morgagni and composed of a series of channels through other Italian doctors, remain invaluable which humours and morbific, putrid, ill scholarly tools. This translation of the matter travelled" (p. 407), and which had to consultation letters of Francesco Torti is be eradicated through bloodletting and assured of an equally warm and grateful purgation, they promoted more gentle, more reception. purified chemical medicines aimed at the Torti was born in Modena in 1658 and diseases themselves. However, by the end of studied medicine in Bologna. He became a the century this revolution had failed, professor in his native city alongside mostly, Wear argues, because of patient Bernardino Ramazzini. The 303 cases 131 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 28 Sep 2021 at 06:31:54, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300068988 Book Reviews collected here were written in Italian by Hippocrate, Epidemies V et VII, vol. 4, amanuenses and seem to have been pt 3, trans. Jacques Jouanna, annotations intended for publication. A further 26 by Jacques Jouanna and Mirko D Grmek, consultation letters are also included but Collection des Universites de France, Paris, these were seemingly confidential and not Les Belles Lettres, 2000, pp. cxlviii, 349, for publication. Most, but not all, of the FFr 460 (hardback 2-251-00490-4). cases begin with a letter of petition, a request for advice from a physician who The Bude Hippocrates continues to describes the case. Torti, of course, had not inform and enlighten students of ancient seen most of the sufferers. The patients medicine and of Greek. The latest volume, included many from the nobility, the clergy continuing an edition, translation, and and a number of nuns. A wide range of commentary on Epidemics 5 and 7, breaks illnesses was discussed: asthma, hysterical new ground in many ways. It is the first convulsions, palpitations, difficulty in edition to contain a full report of the swallowing and uterine sickness to name readings of all the major manuscripts, but the first five. although the gain for the text is less than in Torti was prolix but eschewed great previous volumes, since Wesley Smith's 1994 displays of learning. Hippocrates and Galen Loeb edition had already introduced many are called on occasionally, but interestingly necessary changes from the standard vulgate much more often Sydenham and Willis. of Littre. Jouanna offers a more disciplined There is plenty of evidence here that, when text and a more careful and more extensive the case seemed to merit it, Italian description of the manuscripts, as well as of physicians had no hesitation in palpating the complicated history of these notes as we their patients' abdomens. For example a have them. physician to a countess reported she had Epidemics 5 is a composite work, of at "obstructions in her pancreatic and least two authors. Cases 1-50 are by one mesenteric glands and vessels, which at physician, cases 51-106 by a second man, present can still be felt on palpation" writing between 358 and 348 BC. The latter (p. 427). Torti proclaimed he had little time block is repeated, with some, generally for theory. But of course all the theoretical slight, variations in Epidemics 7: language assumptions of the early modern physician and doctrine suggest that the author of are here: the importance of the constitution, these notes also wrote the notes in of temperament, humoral balance, regular Epidemics 7 that are not in Epidemics 5, evacuation and the centrality of diet for although, Jouanna argues, one cannot example. Torti was not afraid of drugs and conclude that the compiler of Epidemics 5 exotic polypharmacy. One recipe for copied directly from Epidemics 7 as we have arthritis required, amongst other things, them. Rather, in his view, both authors oats, China root, sarsaparilla, lobster tails copied the same set of case notes, produced and frog thighs boiled in a pullet's stomach by one of them, into their own collections (p. 293). Jarcho has provided a helpful at different times. Hence, rather than co- introduction to a valuable window into ordinate both collections, as Ermerins did, early modern social and medical life in to produce in both the exact wording of the Italy. It will remain as a longstanding original notes, Jouanna prefers to edit each monument to his memory. separately to give an idea of the state of the text of each collection. This is probably a sensible procedure, although it leads to Christopher Lawrence, considerable duplication. The Wellcome Trust Centre for the The second feature of importance is the History of Medicine at UCL discussion of the cases from a medical 132 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 28 Sep 2021 at 06:31:54, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300068988.
Recommended publications
  • Bernardino Ramazzini's De Morbis Artificum Diatriba Or
    ©krobonja A, KontoπiÊ I. RAMAZZINI - 300 YEARS OF OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2002;53:31-36 31 Review BERNARDINO RAMAZZINI’S DE MORBIS ARTIFICUM DIATRIBA OR THREE HUNDRED YEARS FROM THE BEGINNING OF MODERN OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE Ante ©KROBONJA and Ivica KONTO©I∆ Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia Received December 2001 This review opens with the most important examples from the history of medicine until the end of the 17th century, which anticipated the affirmation of occupational medicine as separate medical discipline. The article remembers the famous Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714) and his book De morbis artificum diatriba (Diseases of Workers) published in Modena in 1700 in which he described the effects of work on health for some fifty professions. By doing that, Ramazzini had laid scientific foundation to modern industrial hygiene, that is, today’s occupational medicine. The authors conclude that even 300 years after the first publication of Diatriba, Ramazzini is still relevant, and that it deserves much greater attention than it is given on occasions such as this year’s anniversary. KEY WORDS: classification of work-related disorders, history of occupational diseases, industrial hygiene It is difficult to determine the exact beginning and Galen came to a similar conclusion (1). of occupational medicine as an intentional activity Medieval city statutes keep records regulating with the aim to protect the health of workers from the work of different manufacturers (bakers, the harmful effects of work. The first records go millers, butchers, innkeepers, and tanners), as far back as old Egypt where miners tried to primarily from the viewpoint of public health.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Modern Women an Interdisciplinary Journal
    Early Modern Women an interdisciplinary journal Volume III, 2008 Editors Jane Donawerth Adele Seeff Diane Wolfthal Book Review Editor Editorial Assistant Artistic Director Karen L. Nelson Margaret Rice Richard Chapman Center for Renaissance & Baroque Studies University of Maryland, College Park Arizona Center for Medieval & Renaissance Studies Volume III Editorial Board, 2007–2008 Jane Couchman Karen L. Nelson Jane Donawerth Adele Seeff Nancy Gutierrez Mihoko Suzuki Amy Leonard Diane Wolfthal Katherine McIver Susanne Woods Margaret Mikesell Editorial Advisors, 2002–2008 Julia Marciari Alexander, Susan Dwyer Amussen, Linda Austern, Cristelle Baskins, Judith Bennett, Pamela J. Benson, Sheila Cavanagh, Elizabeth Cohen, Nicola Courtwright, Margaret Ezell, Susan Dinan, Valeria Finucci, Carole Collier Frick, Amy Froide, Mary Garrard, Elizabeth Hageman, Margaret Hannay, Joan E. Hartman, Wendy Heller, Margaret Hunt, Ann Rosalind Jones, Gwynne Kennedy, Andrea Knox, Natasha Korda, Thomasin K. LaMay, Mary Ellen Lamb, Elizabeth Lehfeldt, Carole Levin, Pamela O. Long, Phyllis Mack, Muriel McClendon, Sara H. Mendelson, Naomi J. Miller, Jacqueline Marie Musacchio, Lori Humphrey Newcomb, Lena Cowen Orlin, Mary Elizabeth Perry, Patricia Phillippy, Anne Lake Prescott, Albert Rabil, Jr., Phyllis Rackin, Magdalena S. Sanchez, Deanna Shemek, Bruce Smith, Hilda Smith, Sara Jayne Steen, Betty S. Travitsky, Retha Warnicke, Elspeth Whitney, Naomi Yavneh, Abby Zanger, Georgianna Ziegler Acknowledgements arly Modern Women: An Interdisciplinary Journal (EMWJ) is co- sponsored by the Center for Renaissance & Baroque Studies (CRBS) atE the University of Maryland and the Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. For their continued support of EMWJ, our warm- est thanks go to the Dean of the College of Arts and Humanities at the University of Maryland, James F.
    [Show full text]
  • Medicinay Seguridaddel Trabajo
    2014 Med Segur Trab (Internet) 2014; Suplemento Extraordinario n.º 2: 79-87 MEDICINA y SEGURIDAD del trabajo Some interesting facts about the life and work of Bernardino Ramazzini, as an Epilogue Algunas curiosidades sobre la vida y obra de Bernardino Ramazzini, a modo de Epílogo Jorge Veiga de Cabo Head of Divulgation, Research and Services Area National School of Occupational Medicine Carlos III Institute of Health. Madrid. Spain Correspondencia Jorge Veiga de Cabo Jefe de Área de Divulgación, Investigación y Servicios Escuela Nacional de Medicina del Trabajo Instituto de Salud Carlos III C/ Melchor Fernández Almagro 3 28029 Madrid - España [email protected] Abstract In commemoration of the III Centenary of the death of Ramazzini, it is intended to provide a global view about some peculiarities, many of them better known than others, related to facts as his date of birth, date of death, the inspiration moment that led him to write Diseases of Workers including its main Spanish translations and his complementary work titled The health of Princes, among others. Key Words: Bernardino Rammazzini, Teatrise, Dissertation, Artisans, Diseases, Occupational Health. About the Diseases of Workers (De Morbis artificum diatriba). Resumen Con motivo de la conmemoración del III Centenario de la muerte de Ramazzini, se pretende dar una visión general sobre algunas curiosidades, algunas más conocidas que otras, sobre determinados aspectos relacionados con su fecha de nacimiento y fallecimiento, el momento de inspiración para escribir el Tratado de las enfermedades de los artesanos y sus principales traducciones al español, así como de su obra complementaria titulada Del Cuidado de la salud de los príncipes, entre otras.
    [Show full text]
  • Bernardino Ramazzini’S Preventive View in Health Protection
    Special Session Work-relatedness of health problems: University of Modena and Reggio Emilia a Blind Spot in curative care? Modena, Italy Ramazzini revisited: Have doctors learnt the lesson? G Franco School of medicine – University of Modena University of Modena and Reggio Emilia and Reggio Emilia - Teaching hospital, Modena - Italy Modena, Italy Culture and society in XVII century Italy Claudio Monteverdi Giordano Bruno Tommaso Campanella Guercino Galileo Galilei Pierluigi da Palestrina University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Giorgio Vasari Modena, Italy Biological Advances in XVII century Herman Boerhaave “dissection of human bodies” Francesco Redi “every living thing comes from an egg” William Harvey “circulation of blood” Antoine van Leeuwenhoek “observation of blood circulating in capillaries” University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena, Italy Health problems in the XVII century It was rather odd for clinicians of that time to devote themselves to the investigation of the relation between health and work In fact, the majority of population faced health problems much more basic than work-related ones and doctors’ attention was attracted mainly by the richest people illnesses University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena, Italy Ramazzini’s interest in workers’ health At the beginning • His attention was drawn to workers in foundries and tanneries during his student years The idea for the treatise • It came when his attention was attracted by the speed with which a sewage worker emptied the sewer at Ramazzini’s house • The man answered
    [Show full text]
  • Dr Ramazzini (1633-1714) and the Occupational Diseases of Midwives and Wet Nurses
    Archives ofDisease in Childhood 1993; 68: 337-339 337 Arch Dis Child: first published as 10.1136/adc.68.3_Spec_No.337 on 1 March 1993. Downloaded from PERINATAL LESSONS FROM THE PAST Dr Ramazzini (1633-1714) and the occupational diseases of midwives and wet nurses Peter M Dunn Bernardino Ramazzini was born in Carpi near Modina in Italy in 1633. He studied medicine in Parma and took his doctorate in 1659. After a year with Dr Rossi in Rome, he prac- tised for some years in the province of Viterbo until a severe bout of malaria caused him to return to his home town. On recovering he married Francesca Righi. They had a son who died in infancy and two daughters. Carpi served as a summer resort for many of the leading families of Modina. Impressing them with his learning and charm, Ramazzini was invited in 1671 to move to the city where he quickly gained the patronage of the ruling d'Este family. In 1678 Duke Francesco II founded a university in Modina and Ramazzini was appointed Professor of the Theory of Medicine, a post that he held for the next 22 years. We are told that Ramazzini was a lean man of sallow complexion with black hair that became prematurely white and was concealed by an elegant wig. He dressed ...:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..X ..: ^,' t... well and walked so fast that his students had Dr Bernardino Ramazi.A -(1V in difficulty keeping up with him. Games he Dr Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714). avoided but he thoroughly enjoyed playing http://adc.bmj.com/ chess.
    [Show full text]
  • A Pioneer of Public Health, Bernardino Ramazziniann Ig 2013; 25: 273-280 Doi:10.7416/Ai.2013.1929273 a Pioneer of Public Health, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714) G
    A pioneer of public health, Bernardino RamazziniAnn Ig 2013; 25: 273-280 doi:10.7416/ai.2013.1929273 A pioneer of public health, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714) G. Franco Key words: History of medicine, History of public health, Bernardino Ramazzini Parole chiave: Storia della medicina, Storia della sanità pubblica, Bernardino Ramazzini Abstract 2014 marks the tercentenary of the death of Bernardino Ramazzini, an academic who lived in the Duchy of Modena in the second half of the seventeenth century. This event represents an occasion to remember his thinking, which is remarkably anticipatory of some concepts and trends of modern public health. Although the main merit of Bernardino Ramazzini lies in his contribution to the knowledge of occupational diseases, which granted him the title of father of Occupational Medicine, his work deserves a more detailed and complete consideration. In fact, the systematic approach to the clinical presentation of diseases and their relationship to work, gathered in the famed treatise De Morbis Artificum Diatriba, resulted in little attention being paid to the preventive aspects of his thinking. The free spirit, the tension for searching, the love for the discussion characterize his scientific attitude, which spans from the anticipation of an epidemiologic approach to studies on the impact of air and climate, from workplace surveillance to suggestions for the protection of health, from proposals of primary prevention tools to recommendations of lifestyle behaviour, from educational issues to health promotion. His scientific, cultural and humanitarian stature is evidenced by his overall scientific works revealing the modernity of his thinking in the light of the present trend of public health focusing on the needs of people and promoting occupational health as an integral component of the health concept.
    [Show full text]
  • Historic Developments in Epidemiology
    66221_CH02_5398.qxd 6/19/09 11:45 AM Page 23 © Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER 2 Historic Developments in Epidemiology OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■ Describe important historic events in the field of epidemiology. ■ List and describe the contribution made by several key individuals to the field of epidemiology. ■ Recognize the development and use of certain study designs in the advancement of epidemiology. The history of epidemiology has involved many key players who sought to understand and explain illness, injury, and death from an observational scientific perspective. These indi- viduals also sought to provide information for the prevention and control of health-related states and events. They advanced the study of disease from a supernatural viewpoint to a viewpoint based on a scientific foundation; from no approach for assessment to systematic methods for summarizing and describing public health problems; from no clear under- standing of the natural course of disease to a knowledge of the probable causes, modes of transmission, and health outcomes; and from no means for preventing and controlling dis- ease to effective approaches for solving public health problems. Initially, epidemiologic knowledge advanced slowly, with large segments in time where little or no advancement in the field occurred. The time from Hippocrates (460–377 BC), who attempted to explain disease occurrence from a rational viewpoint, to John Graunt (1620–1674 AD), who described disease occurrence and death with the use of systematic methods and who developed and calculated life tables and life expectancy, and Thomas Sydenham (1624–1689), who approached the study of disease from an observational angle 66221_CH02_5398.qxd 6/19/09 11:45 AM Page 24 © Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC.
    [Show full text]
  • Medical Biographies and Their Historical Significance. the Figure and the Work of Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714)
    2014 Med Segur Trab (Internet) 2014; Suplemento Extraordinario n.º 2: 34-41 MEDICINA y SEGURIDAD del trabajo Medical biographies and their historical significance. The figure and the work of Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714) Las biografías médicas y su significado histórico. La figura y la obra de Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714)* Rosa Ballester Añón History of Science Unit. Faculty of Medicine. Miguel Hernández University. Correspondence Rosa Ballester Añón. History of Science Unit. Faculty of Medicine. Miguel Hernández University. Campus of Sant Joan d´Alacant. Ctra. Alicante- Valencia km. 8.7. Sant Joan d´Alacant 03550. Spain. Phone:+34. 965919508. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract The figure of Bernardino Ramazzini has been the subject of much research in a wide range of fields. The literature varies in its level of interest and in general leans towards a hagiographical approach. Written from the perspective of new currents in historiographical research on the biographies of scientists in general and doctors in particular, the aims of this work are twofold: on the one hand, to review some of the studies made of Ramazzini from different history of science and medicine perspectives, and on the other, to reconstruct the significance and most relevant features of his contributions to the genesis and development of Occupational Medicine. Key words: Ramazzini, Bernardino; Eighteenth Century; Occupational Medicine, History, Medical biographies. Resumen La figura de Bernardino Ramazzini ha sido objeto de abundantes acercamientos desde
    [Show full text]
  • Bernardino Ramazzini Rests in Padua, Vesalius, X I , I, 15-20, 2005
    Bernardino Ramazzini Rests in Padua, Vesalius, X I , I, 15-20, 2005 Bernardino Ramazzini Rests in Padua Giorgio Zanchin, Mariantonia Capitanio, Monica Panetto, Guido Visentin.Vito Terribile Wiel Marin Summary The founder of occupational medicine, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714) was buried, according to contemporary sources, in the church of Beata Elena Enselmini in Padua. In 1914 Arnaldo Maggiora, Professor of Public Health, examined the remains buried in that tomb, but failed to confirm the presence of the corpse of Ramazzini. The current study aims to clarify the issue. Our investigations included an anthropological examination and radiocarbon dating of the exhumed remains, along with a careful review of written sources. The discrepancies between the identification of 1914 and our own findings; the historical research; the burial site within a convent of nuns, for whom we know Ramazzini to have been the doctor; the age of the bones and the rarity of an octogenarian at that time and the radiocarbon results, confirm the traditional belief that the mortal remains of the great physician from Carpi rest "sine titulo" in the ancient setting of Beata Elena Enselmini. Résumé Selon des sources contemporaines, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714), le fondateur de la médicine du travail, fut enterré en l'église de Beata Elena Enselmini, à Padoue. En 1914 Arnaldo Maggiora, professeur de Santé Publique, examina les restes de ce tombeau, mais sa recherche fut incapable de prouver la présence du corps de Ramazzini. Cette étude a pour but d'expliquer un tel résultat. Nos propres recherches o n t inclus un examen anthropologique, une datation par radiocarbone des restes exhumés ainsi qu'une révision attentive des documents écrits.
    [Show full text]
  • Thesis Reference
    Thesis Medicina teorica e medicina pratica nel primo Settecento: Francesco Torti (1658-1741) e il dibattito sull'uso terapeutico della china-china contro le febbri intermittenti LOPICCOLI, Fiorella Abstract Le traité de Francesco Torti, Therapeutice specialis, est publié au début du XVII siècle, alors que plusieurs théories ont été proposées et mises en pratique dans le domaine de la guérison des fièvres et que l’effet bénéfique du Cortex, limité aux fièvres intermittentes, a été prouvé. Ainsi, dans son traité, Torti se mesure avec la tradition théorique et pratique précédente, en élaborant un classement des fièvres qui se base sur la réponse positive ou négative de la prise du remède péruvien. L’importance de l’observation est démontrée par l’analyse de nombreux cas cliniques, les historiae, relatifs à des situations pathologiques suivies directement par Torti, ou bien à des rapports envoyés par d’autres médecins. D’un point de vue théorique, le médecin de Modène prend le parti des moderni contre la médecine des humeurs, en ce qui concerne les Sistemi della Medicina, tout en relevant quand même le caractère hypothétique des règlements théoriques dans le domaine de la médecine. Reference LOPICCOLI, Fiorella. Medicina teorica e medicina pratica nel primo Settecento: Francesco Torti (1658-1741) e il dibattito sull’uso terapeutico della china-china contro le febbri intermittenti. Thèse de doctorat : Univ. Genève, 2019, no. L. 776 DOI : 10.13097/archive-ouverte/unige:128387 URN : urn:nbn:ch:unige-1283873 Available at: http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:128387 Disclaimer: layout of this document may differ from the published version.
    [Show full text]
  • Ramazzini and Workers' Health
    Department of medical history Ramazzini and workers’ health G Franco Introduction Occupational illnesses and injuries have long been a preventable blight to health.1 WHO estimates that 217 million cases of occupational illness and 250 million cases of injuries at work occur each year worldwide, including 33 0 000 deaths.2 Observation of the relation between occupational hazards and poor health dates back several centuries, but a systemic description of diseases according to occupational causes was made only in the final years of the 17th century3, 4 by Ramazzini, the acknowledged father of occupational medicine.5, 6 Bernardino Ramazzini was born in Carpi, a small town near Modena, on Oct 4, 1633. After graduating in philosophy and medicine, he spent several years practising in Italy and, at the end of 1676, he moved to Modena, where a renowned university had been founded in 1175. On invitation from Duke Francesco d’Este, Ramazzini was appointed to the Chair of the Theory of Medicine in 1682. Even though he began his university career at the age of 49, Ramazzini then taught for 32 years, during which time his scholarly interest was attracted by several topics, focussing attention on occupational health. In addition to his teaching, Ramazzini also wrote several works including his famed treatise of workers’ health De Morbis Artificum Diatriba. In 1700, Ramazzini was invited to the University of Padua, where he taught until his death, on Nov 5, 1714, of an “apoplectic fit”.7, 8 The link between occupation and health Figure 1: Bernardino Ramazzini (Anonymous, Carpi School) By kind permission of the Museo Civico, Carpi.
    [Show full text]