Patterns of Camelid Sacrifice at the Site of Pachacamac, Peruvian

Journal of Archaeological Science 114 (2020) 105065

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Patterns of camelid sacrifice at the site of Pachacamac, Peruvian Central Coast, during the Late Intermediate Period (AD1000–1470): Perspectives from funerary archaeoentomology

Giorgia Giordani a,f, C�eline Erauw b, Peter A. Eeckhout b, Lawrence S. Owens c,d, Stefano Vanin a,e,* a University of Huddersfield, United Kingdom b Universit�e libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium c University of South Africa (UNISA), South Africa d University of London (Birkbeck), United Kingdom e DISTAV, University of Genoa, Italy f DIMES, University of Bologna, Italy

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Funerary archaeoentomology entails the study of insects from archaeological contexts, in order to examine Funerary archaeoentomology funerary practices, thanatology and hygiene/sanitation in ancient populations. However, while insects from Necrophagous insects human mummies have been widely studied, there is a limited literature dealing with archaeoentomology of Pachacamac animal sacrifices. Ychsma Andean camelid sacrifices are common in ritual contexts, as funerary or foundation offerings. The current Peru Mummies paper addresses camelid remains recovered from the archaeological site of Pachacamac, during the 2016 Camelids excavation season. The insect fauna was assessed in order to determine the social context of the remains, and the manner in which the camelids were utilised. The carcasses yielded remains pertaining to Diptera and Coleoptera. The presence of Cochliomyia macellaria (Diptera, Calliphoridae), Sarcophaga sp. (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) and Synthesiomyia nudiseta (Diptera, Muscidae) suggest an initial colonisation in the open, while other species typical of later phases of the colonisation – including Hydrotaea aenescens (Diptera, Muscidae) and members of the family Phoridae – suggest that the carcasses were subsequently buried. Despite the evident importance of camelids to Andean populations, both historically and archaeologically, this is the firsttime that entomology has been used to examine animal sacrifice methods in this area, and comprises a watershed in the development of multidisciplinary approaches to sacrificial rites in ancient Peru.

1. Introduction and funerary archaeoentomology are methodologically allied in their collection and analysis of insect remains from forensically- or 1.1. Entomology in the archaeological context archaeologically-derived bodies (Giordani et al., 2018b). Archaeoentomological approaches provide data not obtainable by Funerary archaeoentomology (as defined by Huchet, 1996) com any other means, which can be allied with archaeothanatology to better prises the formalisation of guidelines concerning insect remains in understand the evolution of burial contexts. These methods have been archaeological funerary contexts, although anecdotal observations on increasingly used during recent years in order to understand burial se the subject date to 1710 when Tommaso Alghisi described and illus quences and funerary practices (Huchet and Greenberg, 2010; Pradelli trated a fly puparium associated with an Egyptian mummy (Vallisneri, et al., 2019). While focusing primarily on mummies and other cadaveric 1733). The discipline has been applied to both human and animal re remains, archaeoentomological methods have also been applied to of mains in order to elucidate funerary practices in the ancient past ferings made during – or after – burial ceremonies, or even in the (Huchet, 1996, 2014). Despite their differing aims, forensic entomology absence of funerary remains (Zaidi and Chen, 2011). In the wider fieldof

* Corresponding author. DISTAV, University of Genoa, Italy. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Vanin). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2019.105065 Received 9 October 2018; Received in revised form 30 October 2019; Accepted 30 November 2019 Available online 19 December 2019 0305-4403/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. G. Giordani et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 114 (2020) 105065 bio/archaeology, there has been a very strong academic focus on burial Coast was carried out at Pachacamac (Peru), where Owens et al. (2015) structure, physical anthropology and – particularly – the grave goods located some puparia of Calliphoridae (Diptera) and some fragments of associated with interments. However, there has been relatively little dermestid beetles (Coleoptera, Dermestidae) in a series of mummified work carried out on archaeoentomological materials connected with human remains. A number of pseudoscorpions were also recovered from ancient animal remains. Notable exceptions include the study of an the same mummy series (Morrow et al., 2017), but to our knowledge Egyptian dog mummy by Huchet et al. (2013) and Otranto et al. (2014), there are no data concerning archaeoentomological analysis of animal and analyses of guinea pig mummies in South America (Dittmar, 2000; remains in the region. The way sacrificial victims were utilised, buried Dittmar et al., 2003). In both of these cases, the central emphasis was on or displayed is key to many Andean groups for whom the dead – usually parasitological aspects of arthropods associated with animal mummies, dead humans – could be manipulated for social, spiritual or divine including the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806), advantage (Eeckhout and Owens, 2015; Korpisaari, 2006; Verano, the louse fly Hippobosca longipennis Fabricius, 1805, and fleas of the 2014). This avenue has never been explored for animals, but is likely to genus Pulex Linnaeus, 1758. In his work on the dog mummy, Huchet prove as informative about ancient lifeways as are human sacrifices.At et al. (2013) also noted the presence of sarcosaprophagous fly puparia the time of writing, there are no published data from anywhere on the belonging to the families Sarcophagidae and Calliphoridae. South American continent concerning insects associated with camelid Several works have been published on South American mummies remains of archaeological interest. We consider this to be a surprising and the costal area represents an important source of findings where omission given both the importance of camelids to ancient Andeans, and Huchet and Greenberg (2010) identifieda series of flypuparia in Moche archaeoentomology’s potential to elucidate the manner in which these tombs, with various implications for North Coast funerary behaviour. evidently valuable resources were exploited and utilised through time The first study of human funerary archaeoentomology on the Central and space. It is our intention to use the B15 camelids as a case study to

0 00 0 00 Fig. 1. Building B15 at Pachacamac (120 15 24 south, 760 54 01 West) (P. Eeckhout).

2 G. Giordani et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 114 (2020) 105065 demonstrate the potential of the entomological approaches in the Andean area, although perhaps the most analysed are humans remains elucidation of camelid sacrificial and depositional habitus in the Late (Rofes, 2004; Swenson, 2003). Sacrifice can be inferred from skeletal Intermediate Period (LIP), with further implications for zooarchaeolo remains, from historical (contact period) sources, ethnohistorical re gical/archaeoentomological studies in the Andean area in general. In cords and iconography. These alternative means of identifying sacrifice particular in this study, using the insects, we aim to test the following help to balance the fact that sacrificial processes do not always leave hypotheses: were the animals sacrificed and exposed or were they unambiguous traces on the remains. Archaeological discoveries attest to immediately interred? the extensive use of camelid sacrifices in ritual contexts, as funerary offerings or foundation offerings (Alaica, 2018; Goepfert, 2011, 2012). 1.2. Geographical context The sacrificialanimal, context and rationale were all socially configured and highly selective (Rowe, 1946). The large majority of camelid sac Pachacamac is situated on the Pacific coast some 40 km south of rifices in Peru are associated with human burials or with contexts modern Lima. It is located directly adjacent to the Lurin River on a dry indicative of human sacrifice (Donnan and Foote, 1978; Dufour et al., promontory overlooking the fertile river plain and the coastline (Fig. 1). 2018; Goepfert, 2008; Goepfert and Prieto, 2016; Kent et al., 2016; The site has various pedological and climatic characteristics that pro Lozada et al., 2009, 2004; Prieto et al., 2014; Rodriguez Loredo, 2001; mote excellent preservation of even the most fragile organic evidence, Rowe, 1946; Wake, 2007), although there are exceptions to this rule such as that discussed here (Eeckhout, 1999). (Strong and Evans, 1952; Wheeler et al., 1995). In the case of Pacha camac, camelid sacrifices are vastly outnumbered by other species, 1.3. Archaeological and historical context notably guinea pigs and dogs. Contextual analysis indicates a strong correlation between sacrificed camelids and group burial contexts, Pachacamac can be divided into three sectors, running from South to although there is at least one additional case of a camelid being used as a North. The firstis the Sacred Precinct, the location of the main temples. foundation offering (Eeckhout, 2004; Franco and Paredes, 2001). The second precinct contains the pyramids with ramps (elite residences), From a historical/religious perspective, the telluric nature of the plazas, streets and other structures of different sizes and functions, while Pachacamac deity may have led the sacrificing group to inter the cam the third precinct is an almost empty (and perhaps residential) space elid remains directly after their sacrifice. Alternatively, the location at currently covered by sand (Uhle, 1903). Site occupation spans from the the oracular site may have been a sufficient state to left the remains Early Intermediate Period (EIP) to the Late Horizon (LH) (Table 1), and above ground for increased social and visual impact before a secondary it was the capital of the local/regional Ychsma polity (Eeckhout, 2013). burial. Only archaeoentomological approaches will be able to determine Pachacamac is architecturally similar to the smaller sites that surround which is correct. it, particularly in the Lurín and neighbouring valleys (Eeckhout, 2003; Lopez-Hurtado Orjeda, 2011). 2. Material and methods

The camelids were located, excavated and recorded using standard 1.4. Archaeological context: Temple B15 archaeological procedures, which have been described elsewhere (Eeckhout and Lujan Davila, 2016). Tweezers and paintbrushes were The camelids were discovered during the excavations of building used to manually collect the entomological samples from the camelid B15. This ritual structure covers an area of approximately 1400 m2 (35 remains. The sediments surrounding the animals were also picked � 40 m), is roughly trapezoidal in shape, and is limited by a wall. Test through manually, and were then sieved at three resolutions (2 mm, 1 excavations were carried out in several units within the complex, mm and 355 μm) to recover all elements of entomological interest. The exposing around 300 m2 of the central structure (Fig. 2). The building finds were identified and sorted using a stereomicroscope Leica M60 comprises a series of orthogonal rooms and narrow corridors, separated (Leica, Germany). The puparia were carefully washed with a small, wet by walls around 1.5 m tall. It is probable that the structure was originally paintbrush, individually sonicated for 30 s using a sonicator bath (QH. covered with a roof made of organic materials, as evidenced by a series Kerry Ultrasonic Limited, f ¼ 50 Hz) then air-dried. Preliminary treat of associated postholes. The building is unusual in being generally ment with a heated 20% NaOH solution did not improved the clarity of labyrinthine, with reduced internal spaces and extensive polychrome the observations. Coleoptera samples were photographed before clean decoration, unlike the majority of other buildings at the site (large, ing. The specimens analysed and here reported are stored in the visually impactive structures, usually based around the pyramids with archaeological collection of the Ychsma project (Pachacamac). ramps format) (Eeckhout, 2003, 2013). Excavations from 2014 to 2018 All samples were photographed using a Keyence VHX-S90BE digital have shed light on construction sequencing and occupation within the microscope, equipped with Keyence VH-Z250R and VH-Z20R lens and complex. This sequence is summarised in Table 2. VHX-2000 Ver. 2.2.3.2 software (Keyence, Japan). The diagnostic fea The current paper focus upon the phases 3A and 3B of this sequence, tures were photographed as described in Giordani et al. (2018a). Iden with particular emphasis on the fill of the main room of B15’s central tification was performed using specific identification keys and compound; this area is denoted Unit 124/Room 4. descriptions (Domínguez and Pont, 2014; Grzywacz et al., 2017; Lyne borg, 1970; McAlpine, 1977; Skidmore, 1985; Szpila, 2010) and by 1.5. Camelid sacrifice in the Andean area comparison with a reference collection of previously identifiedmodern samples (belonging to SV). Archaeological evidence indicates a long history of sacrifice of camelids, guinea pigs, birds, carnivores and cultural artefacts in the 3. Results

Table 1 The carcasses of three camelids, that were identified and analysed Cultural sequence at Pachacamac. during the excavation of the main room (Unit 124/Room 4) of the Culture Lima Wari Ychsma Inca Temple B15, originated from two different contexts. Context 29 yielded ’ Period Early Middle Late Late Horizon remains of two juvenile individuals; based on the bones fusion stage Intermediate Horizon Intermediate (LH) (Wheeler et al., 1995; Miller, 2003), the estimated age was less than one (EIP) (MH) (LIP) year for one individual and 1–2 years for the second. The remains, from Approximate 200 BC-650 650–1000 1000–1470 1470–1533 this context, were incomplete, although the body parts recovered – front Dates AD AD AD AD leg, ribs and vertebrae – were articulated. Organic preservation was

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Fig. 2. Sacrificed camelids under excavation in Building B15 (photos P. Eeckhout).

excellent with a large amount of brown hair still covering the bones. Table 2 Context 30 contained an almost complete skeletonised camelid carcass, Building and occupation sequence of the central area U124 in B15. lying on its left side with the legs folded inwards. All the bones except for Phase Description Date AD the head, the cervical vertebrae and some bones from the right side were 1 Late Lima; low walls and an intrusive child burial 800–1000 well preserved and in articulation, along with extensive beige/red hair 2 Sacred wooden pole and related offerings in Room 2 900-1000/ covering the legs and the left side. The age at death was estimated be 1150? tween 2 and 3 years. A review of the animal size and proportions 3A Foundation of Room 4 1150/1200 “ ” 3B Transformation of Room 4 and stone ancestor cult in 1410–1500 allowed to identify it as a large camelid : Lama glama Linnaeus, Room 2 1758/Lama guanicoe Statius Müller, 1776 (Miller, 2003; Izeta et al., 4 Inca remodelling of the entire building 1500–1534 2009). Further observations refine this definition to that of a llama: 5 Major abandonment ceremony during the Transition 1533–1561 Lama glama (Erauw et al., 2017). Period Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating performed on both 6 Looting and definitive abandonment 1561- present contexts gave the results reported in Table 3. The dating evidence suggests that there were two distinct phases in

4 G. Giordani et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 114 (2020) 105065 the construction and infilling of B15/Room4. Both events potentially included the deposition of fill and ‘special’ offerings – including cam elids – separated by a period of at least two centuries. The first deposi tion/sacrifice(Cx29) took place around AD1200 (i.e. when Pachacamac was under the control of the Early-Middle Ychsma polity), while the deposition process that led to the formation of Cx30 took place under Late Ychsma or even Inca rule.

3.1. Entomological findings

More than one hundred entomological fragments were recovered directly from the camelid carcasses themselves, and hundreds more from sieving the associated sediments. The sample was primarily comprised Fig. 3. Fragments of puparia collected from the camelids excavated at the of insects and scorpions, Coleoptera and Diptera being the most abun archaeological site of Pachacamac. The well-preserved posterior spiracles and dant taxa. Summaries of these findings are presented below. anal regions allowed a good species identification.A: Synthesiomyia nudiseta; B: Cochliomyia macellaria; C: Hydrotaea aenescens; D: Fannia sp.; E: Sarcophaga sp.; 3.1.1. Diptera F: Piophilidae Gen. sp.; G: Phoridae, Gen. sp.; H: TBC (scale bar: 1 mm). The Diptera sample set is composed by fragments of puparia, the resistant pupal cage left over from the flyeclosion. These are particularly taphonomically resistant owing to their chemical and mechanical Table 4 makeup, and regularly survive in archaeological contexts dating back List of Diptera puparia collected from the camelid carcasses. (Fragment count: * ¼ – – > centuries or millennia (Vanin and Huchet, 2017). The dry conditions at 1 10, ** 10 100, *** 100). Pachacamac seem to have assisted in this regard. Diptera species CX29 CX30 Taxa were identified and differentiated by observation of the pos family carcass soil carcass soil terior spiracles and the anal plate. This allowed the positive identifica Calliphoridae Cochliomyia macellaria * * tion of specimens belonging to six different families: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga sp. * Sarcophagidae, Muscidae, Fanniidae, Piophilidae and Phoridae (Fig. 3, Muscidae Hydrotaea aenescens * ** * ** Table 4). The most abundant taxon was Phoridae, with hundreds of tiny Muscidae Synthesiomyia nudiseta * * * ** puparia present between the fur and the bones of the two carcasses. Due Fanniidae Fannia sp. * Phoridae *** ** *** ** to the lack of identification keys and descriptions of Phoridae puparia, Piophilidae * further taxonomic identification (i.e. at the species level) was not attempted on these remains. A single as-yet unidentified puparium fragment was also recovered (Fig. 3H) and is currently under the remains collected from the carcasses and the soil. Samples belonging investigation. to Dermestidae were identified as belonging to the genus Dermestes Muscidae belonging to Hydrotaea aenescens (Wiedemann, 1830) and Linnaeus, 1758. One elytron had a distal spine that permitted the Synthesiomyia nudiseta (Van der Wulp, 1883) were recovered from both identification of Dermestes maculatus De Geer, 1774, a species with a the carcasses and the surrounding sediments. The highest concentration larva that specialises on feeding on carcasses and stored meat. The sole of the puparia of both these species was found in the soil under and representative of the Ptinidae (Anobiidae) – a specimen of Trigonogenius around the carcasses, although specimens were also recovered from both globulus Solier, 1849 – was collected from the carcasses. Two elytra the fur and the skeletal remains. belonging to a species in the family Bostrichidae were also recovered. Only one species of Calliphoridae – identified as Cochliomyia macel Adults and larvae of this family are principally hardwood borers. A few laria (Fabricius, 1775) – was recovered from both carcasses. Interest fragments of Histeridae and Carabidae adults were also identified ingly, while puparia were recovered from the sediments under and around the carcasses, none were found on the fur or the bones. A similar finding was made in the identification of Sarcophagidae remains. Identified only at the genus level as Sarcophaga Meigen, 1826, several specimens were collected from the soil surrounding only one carcass, yet none were found on the remains themselves. Single puparia of Piophi lidae and Fanniidae were collected from a single carcass (Table 4).

3.1.2. Coleoptera Adult beetles are fairly common in most archaeological contexts, and the material collected in the current case showed excellent preservation. Few complete specimens were found, and most of the sample comprised Fig. 4. Fragments of beetles collected from the camelids at Pachacamac. A: individual elytron (Fig. 4, Table 5). Beetle remains were particularly Trigonogenius globulus; B: Bostrichidae Gen. sp.; C: Dermestes sp.; D: Dermestes maculatus; E: Tenebrionidae Gen. sp; F: Histeridae Gen. sp. (scale bar: 1 mm, concentrated in the soil surrounding the carcasses. scale bar detail D ¼ 100 μm). Dermestidae and Tenebrionidae were the most common taxa among

Table 3 AMS dating of samples associated with the camelids identified during the excavation of the Temple B15 in the archaeological area of Pachacamac (Peru)a.

Lab Code Field Code Sample Date Cal. 2 sigma Arch. Phase note

RICH-24038 Ych16-Cx29 Assd. plant remains 896 � 28BP AD1140–1270 (95.4%) Phase 3A RICH-24044 Ych16-Cx30 Skin & hair 422 � 30BP AD1440–1520 (62.0%) Phase 3B Cal. 1 most probable AD1540–1630 (33.4%)

a (SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE NEMEN\oxcal\shcal13.14COxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:20 sd:12 prob usp[chron]).

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Table 5 Sarcophaga species and by the synantropic Synthesiomyia nudiseta. Con List of Coleoptera fragments collected from the camelid carcasses. Fragment troversy surrounds this species, which was believed to be a 2nd phase count: * ¼ 1–10, ** 10–100, ***>100). coloniser but is now proposed to be a primary coloniser, especially in Coleoptera species CX29 CX30 indoor environments (Huchet and Greenberg, 2010; Lo Pinto et al.,

family carcass soil carcass soil 2017; Ivorra et al., 2018). The other species as Hydrotaea aenescens, Fannia sp. and the Piophilidae and Phoridae ones are typical of later Dermestidae Dermestes spp. * * * ** phases of the colonisation and possibly able to reach buried bodies Ptinidae Trigonogenius globulus * * * (¼Anobiidae) Solier, 1849 (Disney, 1994; Giordani et al., 2018a, 2018b; Smith, 1986). Piophilidae Histeridae * * flies are not a typical component of the entomofauna associated with Tenebrionidae * * * ** buried bodies; however, Gaudry’s review of burial remains mentions six Bostrichidae * studies where species in the genera Piophila, and Stearibia were collected Carabidae * (Gaudry, 2010). In all cases, these species were possibly concurrent with Dermestes beetles, which are considered to be saprophagous, and colo among the material. Species in these two families are mainly predators nise bodies when dry tissues are present (Charabidze et al., 2014). of other invertebrates, and often appear in and around decomposing Based on the previous observations, the entomofauna collected from cadavers. the two camelids permits the following hypothetical sequential scenario: I. Initial colonisation of the two carcasses (when still exposed) by 3.1.3. Scorpiones Cochliomyia macellaria followed by Sarcophaga sp. and Synthesiomyia Several fragments of scorpion exoskeletons were recovered from the nudiseta. sediments surrounding both the carcasses, but more precise identifica II. Secondary burial of the carcasses, later colonised by other species. tions were not possible. These arthropods do not have any relationship However, if the sacrifice and interment took place in a covered with the carcasses per se but they can be predators of other insects, environment such as the temple in which they were found – and/or including necrophagous larvae, and are very common in the Pachaca perhaps at a warm time of year – then it is not impossible that all the mac area (Fig. 5). colonisations took place simultaneously.

4. Discussion 5. Conclusion

While there are various historical and ethnographic data concerning The archaeological and chronometric evidence indicates a multi sacrificial methods, the preservation of these particular remains is phase deposition process, with two main events that took place at the imperfect and it is thus inadvisable to postulate on exactly what end of 12th and 15th centuries AD. Each event comprised the partial happened to the living animals prior to their deposition. While both of construction and destruction of temple B15. Despite the temporal lapse the heads were missing, this is insufficient to claim decapitation as a between the events, they are strikingly similar in as far as can be cause of death, as taphonomy and bioturbation may have moved the determined from the current evidence. Three successive stages can be remains following their interment; certainly, there are no cutmarks or hypothesised: similar data to illustrate the sacrificing populations’ modus operandi. It therefore behoves us to review the insect remains, and thus ascertain 1) Sacrifice of the animals what can be learned from species representation and development data. 2) Exposure of the bodies or body parts for several days The arthropodo-fauna associated with the carcasses is primarily 3) Burial of the bodies in the construction fill comprised of sarco-saprophagous insects belonging to Diptera and Coleoptera, and in direct association with plentiful local species within It appears that what is currently known about human burial practice Coleoptera and Scorpiones. There are at least seven species of Diptera, at Pachacamac also applies – in part at least – to camelid sacrifice and belonging to six families that are characterised by both early and late burial. Entomological evidence indicates a certain delay between death colonisation of decaying bodies. Primary colonisers are represented by and burial, resulting in significantdecomposition of the carcasses. It is of Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae and one Muscidae species whereas late course impossible to make any assumption if such a result was the aim of colonisers consist in a second Muscidae species, Fanniidae, Phoridae and exposure, or only a tolerated consequence of it. In the case of human Piophilidae species. burials, a mythical scenario involving flying insects metaphorically Diptera remains are comparatively rare archaeologically, especially identified as the “soul” of the deceased was well described and sum when compared with the usually high Coleoptera prevalence (Pan marised for the Moche (ca. 100–900AD) on the basis of ethno-historical agiotakopulu, 2004); however, when recovered, they can be informative data and entomological findings by Huchet and Greenberg (2010), and about past animal handling and burying methods. The Calliphoridae as suggested for the Ychsma by Owens et al. (2015). Whether the ani species C. macellaria is known for being a primary coloniser of carcasses mals were thus considered remains unclear, although the recovery of in synantropic environments, and there is no evidence that this species is such findingsdoes permit us to investigate how animals were considered able to colonise buried remains (Huchet and Greenberg, 2010). by the Ychsma, a topic that has not been addressed to date. The camelid data summarised here also suggest that the Calliphorid There is not a great deal of information concerning this point among C. macellaria was accompanied – or followed shortly after – by the other polities in the Andean region, although Alaica (2018) has sug gested that the Moche perceived:

“… taxonomic differentiation of wild and domestic species … in both animal use and representation and in different contexts of ceremonial practice. Moreover, domestic animals were interred as special offerings, comparable to human sacrifices,while wild species were deposited only as partial and distributed offerings …”.

This seems to fit quite well with our observations in this case, and with fragmented data concerning wild animals in Ychsma contexts at the Fig. 5. Fragments of scorpions collected from the camelids at Pachacamac. A: site. Such a practice implies that constructive fillof Room 4 and related metasoma segment; B: Telson with the characteristic aculeus (scale bar: 1 mm).

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(Eds.), Moche Archaeology: New – This article is the results of a long-term research project at Pacha Approaches. IFEA, PUCP, Lima, pp. 231 244. Goepfert, N., 2011. Frayer la route d’un monde inverse.� Sacrifice et offrandes animales camac funded by the National Fund for Scientific Research (Belgium), dans la culture Mochica (100–800 apr. J.-C.), cote nord du Perou.� BAR Int. S. 2278, the Universit�e libre de Bruxelles, the ULB Foundation, the Agence Uni 244–248. versitaire de la Francophonie (Belgium) and the Engie Foundation. The Goepfert, N., 2012. New zooarchaeological and funerary perspectives on Mochica culture (AD 100–800), Peru. J. Field Archaeol. 37, 104–120. work of G. Giordani was funded by the Leverhulme Trust Doctoral Goepfert, N., Prieto, G., 2016. Offering llamas to the sea: the economic and ideological Scholarship program. We would like to thank the staff, workers and importance of camelids in the Chimú society, North Coast of Peru. 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