The Representation of White Antiracism Activism In

Home , Cynthia Stokes Brown, Joseph Gelders, Nathaniel Peabody Rogers, Racial literacy

THE REPRESENTATION OF WHITE ANTIRACISM ACTIVISM

IN CHILDREN'S PICTURE BOOKS

MARI LOUISE STAIR

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Teaching and Learning

MAY 2014

To the Faculty of Washington State University:

The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of MARI LOUISE STAIR find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted.

______Jane E. Kelley, Ed.D., Chair

______Paula Groves Price, Ph.D.

______Leslie D. Hall, Ph.D.

THE REPRESENTATION OF WHITE ANTIRACISM ACTIVISM

IN CHILDREN'S PICTURE BOOKS

Abstract

by Mari Louise Stair, Ph.D. Washington State University May 2014

Chair: Jane E. Kelley

This study looked at how white antiracism activism is portrayed to children through one of the most popular literacy tools, the picture book. Both written text and images in children's literature can contribute to understandings of race, especially in the context of a social justice curriculum. Stories of white allies are often silenced in society, even though they can provide valuable role models for inspiring collaborative resistance to racism. Critical Race Theory and

Anti-Racist Education provided ways to view social structures, institutions, and personal responses to the awareness of social injustice. An initial investigation identified ninety-one books from a ten-year time parameter, which contained two or more representations of a white antiracism activist. Ultimately, only five books which portrayed substantial representations of a white activist as the main character were selected for deep analysis. A Critical Discourse

Analysis of these books' texts located critical factors in the actions and situations of the white activists. These factors included critical incidents as well as other factors within a longer continuum of situations and experiences, which helped orient the character towards antiracism

iii activism. One hundred ninety-eight text entries were reported as frequency counts and percentages within ten critical factor categories and two sub categories. Findings revealed five trends indicating which factors were most significant according to the highest frequency of occurrences within the corpus: (1) critical factors experienced in childhood, (2) critical factors involving cross-racial interactions, (3) personal experiences of injustice, (4) teaching and advocacy as a resistance strategy, and (5) civil disobedience as a resistance strategy. Conversely, two additional trends revealed by the lowest frequencies of occurrences were: (1) learning about injustice in school, and (2) learning about injustice independently. Study limitations and implications for further research are discussed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ...... iii

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Purpose of Study ...... 2

Importance of Study ...... 3

Statement of the Problem and Rationale ...... 4

Overview of Methods ...... 17

Definition of Terms...... 18

Research Question ...... 24

Scope and Delimitations of the Study ...... 24

CHAPTER TWO ...... 26

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 26

Theoretical Frameworks ...... 26

Related Research ...... 67

CHAPTER THREE ...... 82

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 82

Introduction...... 82

Methodological Framework...... 83

Picture Books as Data Source...... 89

The Study...... 90

CHAPTER FOUR ...... 101

DATA AND ANALYSIS ...... 101

CHAPTER FIVE ...... 134

DISCUSSION ...... 134

REFERENCES ...... 158

APPENDICES

Appendix A ...... 183

Appendix B ...... 188

Appendix C ...... 190

Appendix D ...... 194

Appendix E ...... 195

Appendix F ...... 199

Appendix G ...... 215

Appendix H ...... 223

Appendix I ...... 231

Appendix J ...... 234

Appendix K ...... 237

Appendix L ...... 242

Appendix M ...... 243

Appendix N...... 245

vii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The examination of children’s picturebooks for representations of and discourse about white anti-racism activism and interracial collaborations, helps to understand the ways authors choose to present this topic to children. Such representations in children’s picture books, through written text and images, provide children “visible examples of these alliances and coalitions to serve as models” (Manglitz, Johnson-Bailey, & Cervero, 2005, p. 1246).

Additionally it locates resources available for this specific and critical content area. Modeling white antiracist activism can help children understand what it means to be a white ally. All children, both white students and students of color can benefit from these examples (Tatum,

1994). The following study seeks to emphasize the benefit of offering these models to children through the multimodal discourse of picture books.

Exploring racial issues is inherently political, as is education. Consequently, it is important to locate researchers within these contexts, and understand the potential for unintended racial bias or "epistemological racism" (Scheurich & Young, 1997). The following research was conducted by a white middle-aged middle-class woman, with unearned race privilege, who cares about working for racial equity.

Ongoing processes of alliance identity development for anti-racism activism involves risks, failures, successes, reflection, commitment and recommitment. Therefore, both relevant perspectives and limited ones will naturally manifest within these actions and throughout time.

Inspecting such continuums and how they are represented, is after all, the main point.

Purpose of Study

The overarching purpose of this study is to discover how white anti-racism activism and white allies, or white antiracism activists and cross-racial alliance identity models, are being signified to children through the multimodal literacy discourse of picture books. Evaluating the multiple modes, or various forms and patterns of discourse involved in these representations, will offer new understandings of ways for engaging such books in teaching and learning environments. The examination and evaluation of these written and visual discourses, intend to offer new ways of promoting racial literacy in the light of advancing social justice and racial equity. Specifically, considering aspects of Critical Race Theory's (e.g. Bell, 1980; Delgado,

1995; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995) attention to social structures, institutions, and counter storytelling, as interfaced with Anti-Racist Education’s (e.g. Banks, 2003; Derman-Sparks &

Ramsey, 2006; Duarte & Smith) focus upon whiteness, privilege, individual responsibility and collective solidarity. This study applies these lenses within a Critical Discourse Analysis (e.g.

Fairclough, 1995; Gee, 2005) of children’s literature, and hopes to contribute ways to plant the

“seeds of potential cross-racial alliance, which if tended carefully, could bear fruit in the future”

(Wise, 2009, p. 20). Learning about the stories of people who have worked together for racial equity and solidarity is important for all children. Stories of anti-racism activism are "a renewable source of energy and courage for the long haul of interrupting oppression. In them we find the turning points, the critical incidents, the ordinary moments that have an extraordinary impact” (Tatum, 1999a, p. 63). This research looks closely at these various critical factors, in the lives of white anti-racism activists, that authors choose to represent and offer to children through picture books.

Importance of Study

Currently, there are no empirical studies about anti-racism activism in children's picturebooks. Consequently, this creates a silence. Therefore, this research will begin a conversation that addresses a gap in children's literature. Although there has been important research about multicultural, multiethnic, racial, civil rights, social justice and diversity content in picturebooks (Botelho & Rudman, 2009; Council on Interracial Books for Children, 1976;

MacCann & Woodard, 1985; Ramirez Jr., & Ramirez, 1994; Yokata & NCTE, 2001), no prior study has specifically focused upon white anti-racism activism. Additionally, this study makes contributions regarding the availability and quality of resources which exist for this specific topic. It offers new perspectives for promoting racial literacy to young students, older students, researchers and educators, by considering the stories of white anti-racism activism and critical factors at work in the lives of activists. Developing racial literacy helps students contemplate democratic public actions as ways to find solutions. Academic achievement today is sharply divided along racial lines, just as health, employment, housing, and criminal justice continue to be (Applebaum, 2010; Wise, 2012). Considering the ongoing inequities of literacy education in schools, and the social-political and economic limitations this creates for people of color, researchers see the need for racial literacy which interprets race structurally, not individually.

Viewing racism as simply an individual or personal issue, blinds people to the ways it actually affects society (Applebaum, 2012; Lopez, 2003; Kivel, 2011; Wise, 2010). Ignoring race within literacy curricula is common and doing so inadvertently perpetuates racial inequity. Therefore, an important need exists to critically explore and analyze literacy, race, and whiteness discourse in the classroom (Applebaum, 2010; Rogers & Mosley, 2006, Wise, 2010). This study looks at these important issues through one of the most widely used literacy materials, the picture book.

It contributes to professional knowledge and practice because it offers a way to discuss and analyze white anti-racism activism in children's literature.

Statement of the Problem and Rationale

Racism continues to exist in social structures and institutions which affects many areas of all peoples' lives, and educational institutions are no exception. Issues of teacher demographics, the ability to engage the topic of race with students, a lack of knowledge about white anti-racism activism, the historic marginalization of white allies and the absence of recommendations in children's literature on this topic, all contribute to the problem. The importance of knowledge and literature about white resistance to racism, with the potential to model positive antiracism identities, and the need to understand how authors of children's picture books contribute content about white anti-racism activism, provide the rationale for this study.

The majority of teachers across the U.S. are white, and they don't really want to talk about it. White teachers tend to avoid the politics of race in their classrooms and materials, yet their students have great needs for racial understandings. When teachers choose to ignore race using a ‘colorblind’ stance, they are actually perpetuating racism (McLaren, 1999, Pollack, 2008,

Wise, 2010). Talking about race is important for realizing the history of damaging stereotypes and the realities of unjust political structures that continue to go unchallenged. Tatum (1994) noted one white teacher's concerns about the topic of race, “This history is a terrible legacy for all of us… if we are all uncomfortable [discussing it], something is wrong in our approach” (p.

41). Racial inequality continues to exist in the United States, and because racial segregation is still significant (O'Brien & Korgen, 2007; Tatum, 2007), these inequities are misunderstood by many people, especially whites. Helping children learn about the social history of racism while simultaneously working towards reducing racism is important. Finding links between

4 developing a white anti-racism identity and building alliances "requires understanding that lessons about race often take years to integrate" (Thompson, 1999, p. 75). Therefore, the topic of racism needs to be taken seriously, and not simply relegated to some future crash course or diversity seminar.

Moreover, few teachers, just as most Americans, know very little about the rich history of white anti-racism activism throughout U.S. history. "Too often the paths to claiming a personal identity as a white ally remain uncharted" (Tatum, 1999a, p. 61). Many scholars speak about the need to address race honestly and productively for young students in our schools today, stressing how literature plays an important part in this process (Applebaum, 2010; Botelho &

Rudman, 2009; Van Ausdale & Feagin, 2001). Children need interesting and relevant literature for understanding these concepts. Therefore it is important to understand how white allies may be presented to young children through their literature. Representations of interracial collaborations for social justice are important to consider, they offer “tangible examples of white resistance to injustice” (Tatum, 1994, p. 42). Such examples offer children ways to understand the process of becoming antiracist. Tatum (1999b) talks about how teachers can convey the value of representing white anti-racism activism and activists to children through picture books.

While it is necessary to be honest about the racism of our past and present, it is also

necessary to provide children (and adults) with a vision that change is possible. Where

can we find this vision? We can look for it in our history, we can create it with our

colleagues, and we can demonstrate it in our classrooms. The Africans who were brought

here as slaves were not just passive victims. They found ways to resist their victimization.

All whites were not bad, and some black resisters found white allies. Concrete examples

are critical. For young children, examples can be found in picture books. Let students

see themselves as agents of change and healing (p. 29).

Although many sources today do provide recommendations of picture books with social justice, civil rights, racial or multicultural themes categorized according to separate cultures (for example African American, Native American, etc.), resources recommending picture books for teaching with a specific focus on white anti-racism activism or cross-racial alliances, do not.

Therefore, this weakness in the field of children's literature and education in general, supports the need for study. The following review looks at aspects of the key racial problems in society and education that provide rationale for this research: (a) racial inequalities, specifically racial profiling, and colorblindness, (b) identity formation, and (c) the marginalization of white anti- racism activists.

Racial Inequity. Despite an ongoing surface of noticeable improvements and milestones in the United States, electing a Black president for instance, research continues to reveal that the country is still entrenched with racism. Huge racial disparities in health, wealth, education, employment, housing and criminal justice continue to exist. Really, aren’t these the same issues civil rights legislation sought to remedy half a century ago? For instance, the net worth of white families that have comparable incomes to black families is seven times higher (Shapiro, 2004).

Typical white families have eleven times the net worth of typical black families because of the long history of sedimented institutional racism, in other words, historic layer upon layer of unequal access to capital (Wise, 2009). Whites hold eighty percent of management positions in the private sector, as contrasted to Blacks or Latinos who each maintain seven percent (U.S.

Bureau of the Census, 2007). Job applicants with the same basic qualifications face discrimination if even the sound of their name implies they are African American (Bertrand &

Mullainathan, 2004), in fact, when a person's name sounds white, they are fifty percent “more likely to be called back for a job interview" (Wise, 2009, p. 40). The fact that most jobs are filled by networking, means preference is given to whites; “the privileges that flow from [this] arrangement are substantial” (p. 43). When federal, state or local governments contract with private employers in the U.S., almost all contracts (ninety-two percent) go to white companies

(Pincus, 2003). Even in online property rentals, digital discrimination favors white landlords by a twelve percent margin (Edleman & Luca, 2014).

Educational disparities align with race and extend beyond economic ones. “Policies, practices, and procedures within schools often perpetuate those racial inequities and even make them worse" (Wise, 2009, p. 49). Because schools are funded by property tax revenues, impoverished communities end up with poor schools. Yet, even black families with higher incomes than white families, have children attending poorer schools (Massey & Denton, 1993).

Racist stereotypes affect teachers’ expectations, leading to disparities in teacher behaviors, student outcomes, discipline, expulsion and dropout rates. Levels of frustration and resentment for students of color often correlate with academic failure, poverty, and crime. The “nation’s educators literally create a school-to-prison pipeline, by virtue of marking certain kids as ‘bad’ before they are even in high school in many cases” (Wise, 2009, p. 55).

Living with the structural and personal injustices of racism, contributes to health consequences related to stress, such as heart disease and hypertension. Racial stereotypes also influence the health professionals who people depend upon for care. Schwartz, Woloshin, and

Welch (1999) conducted a study using actors who approached doctors to present identical medical information and symptoms. Black ‘patients’ were referred for less aggressive treatment than white patients. The doctors from this study, claimed to perceive black patients as “less

7 intelligent, less likely to follow doctor’s recommendations, and thus fail to cooperate with a treatment regime, and more likely to miss appointments” (Wise, 2009, p. 63). Poverty alone contributes to lack of medical and dental care. Poor communities also often correlate with excessive environmental toxicity, such as hazardous wastes, industrial pollution, lead contamination, and poor water quality, which create higher risks for diseases such as asthma and cancer (Kozol, 1991; Wise, 2009).

Profiling. Racial profiling by police departments and the justice system leads to disproportionate incarceration for people of color. Since 1964 incarceration statistics have reversed themselves; once the ratio of whites in prison was twice the number for people of color, whereas today whites only represent one third. Currently, the U.S. has over two million people in prison, which is more than any other nation, and this system incarcerates the highest percentage of minorities in all the world (Alexander, 2010). One of the main reasons for such drastic statistics has been the racially biased ways that drug laws are enforced. For instance, even though white women are twice as likely to possess illegal drugs upon airport security checks, black women are searched nine times as often (Wise, 2009). And, although police stop white motorists at the same rate as African American motorists, whites are three times less likely to be searched (Mauer, 2010). Furthermore, prosecution and sentencing decisions are frequently racially biased. "Numerous studies have shown that prosecutors interpret and respond to identical criminal activity differently based on the race of the offender" (Alexander, 2010, p.

115). Although these biases may not occur in all police departments and court systems, national statistics reveal that "black youth are forty-eight times more likely than whites to be incarcerated for a first-time offense, even when all factors surrounding the crime are the same” (p. 58).

According to "data generated by the U.S. Department of Justice that project that if current trends

8 continue, one of every three black males born today will go to prison in his lifetime, as will one of every six Latino males" (Mauer, 2010, p. 14). Further exacerbating these situations, is the tendency for civil rights advocates to purposely overlook criminal justice system injustices, in the search for morally respectable individuals to support, in other words, not criminals. Such a phenomenon correlates to choices made half a century ago which placed NAACP support behind

Rosa Parks, and not Claudette Colvin or Mary Louise Smith, the two younger women who had also been arrested for refusing to give up their Montgomery bus seats. Rosa Parks was considered to have had a more morally upright lifestyle, and therefore more effective politically for the bus boycott (Alexander, 2010). What will the consequences of ignoring such long standing racial injustices in the U.S. criminal justice system be?

Racial profiling statistics and institutional trends play out in people's individual lives.

"Regardless of what one views as the causes of this situation, it should be deeply disturbing to all

Americans that these figures represent the future for a generation of children growing up today"

(Mauer, 2010, p. 14). Yet social structures which racially profile people of color are less visible to white Americans than the overt structural racism of the past, such as slavery and Jim Crow laws (Alexander, 2010).

Colorblindness. Today, many people think that colorblindness is a remedy for racism, but, ironically, it's actually a malady indicating people have lost sight of “the reality that in contemporary America, color has consequences for a person’s status and well-being” (Brown,

Carnoy, Currie, Duster, Oppenheimer, Shultz, & Wellman, 2003, p. 64). "Colorblindness, though widely touted as the solution, is actually the problem" (Alexander, 2010, p. 227).

In classroom settings, teachers are trained to think it is an insult to acknowledge a student’s color. If educators claim to see only the child and not his or her color, they are sending

9 the message that something is wrong (Delpit, 2006; Thompson, 2004). When educational leaders think a colorblind stance is ethical, they are just constructing ideologies “to avoid the issue of racial inequality while simultaneously benefiting from it” (McLaren, 1999, p. 31).

Child-centered theories of care which avoid social political discussions of race and racism, are not caring, they are colorblind. These theories neither affirm identities nor promote social equity, which is sad, because they have the potential to do so (Siddle Walker & Snarey, 2004;

Thompson, 2004). A pervasive awkwardness addressing issues of race in schools exists, and both educators and administrators tailor their discourse depending on racial factors. A closer look must be taken at the consequences of race-talk (Pollack, 2004). "In educators' everyday life is where the massive dilemmas of dealing with a racially unequal nation touchdown… generic advice to be colorblind or to celebrate diversity [is worrisome] because it's not that usable by the teacher” (Pollack, as cited in Viadero, 2008, p. 1). Many well-meaning people choose to downplay the importance of race. Yet creating an equitable society where skin color will matter less than character, as Brown (2003) suggests, will require

forthrightly acknowledging the role that race still plays in American life… facing up to

the consequences, and… moving forward with a new seriousness to address the historical

and contemporary sources of racial inequalities (p. 247).

Colorblind perspectives prevent teachers from being able to understand how institutions maintain racial inequality, including their own complicity in such processes within the classroom.

Identity Formation. Here, white identity formation models and their importance will be discussed, as well as the ways these impact students in the classroom, including a call for teachers to offer the white antiracism activist model. Models of white identity formation inform researchers and educators how white students perceive their own race. Several exist, but one of

10 the most popular is Helms' (1990) six stage model of white identity development, though presented in stages, it is not necessarily intended to follow a linear progression. These stages are: (1) contact /colorblindness; (2) disintegration /guilty shame; (3) reintegration /blaming victims; (4) pseudo-independent /anti-racist aspirations and confusion; (5) immersion/emersion,

/clear anti-racist identity efforts; and (6) autonomy /an active anti-racism identity. Helms was concerned that for whites, developing healthy identities would mean: (a) eliminating personal prejudice, recognizing and actively opposing institutional racism, (b) developing an awareness of their own Whiteness, (c) accepting their race as an important part of themselves, and (d)

“internalizing a realistically positive view of what it means to be White” (p. 55).

According to Howard (1999) White identity developmental theorists based their work on

Black identity development research which emphasized the inherent relationship to racism and the process of personally rejecting it. Later works including Helms' added the new aspect of developing a sense of pride in white identity though anti-racism. In order to accomplish this, three important tasks are required: (1) acknowledge white racism’s many forms; (2) abandon racism and actively resist it; and( 3) develop “a positive, nonracist, and authentic connection to

White racial and cultural identity” (p. 88). Howard looks at white identity development in three basic orientations that reflect the way whites grow in their awareness: "fundamentalist, integrationist, and/or transformationist" (p. 99). In essence, these involve:

(1) how whites think relative to the constructs of truth, Whiteness, and dominance; (2)

how whites feel relative to self-awareness, racial differences, and discussions of racism;

and (3) how whites act relative to teaching, management, and cross-cultural interactions

(p. 99).

Yet despite the variety of concepts and understandings about these orientations, White identity construction is often overlooked because whiteness is considered the norm. So much so that usually whites don’t even think of themselves as raced. But there are important reasons to understand these processes. The stress to confront one’s white identity often progresses through stages including guilt and shame, especially in the classroom. Representations of white allies engaging in anti-racism activism can provide examples of pride for white students. Tatum

(1997), a teacher educator, promotes the use of these examples for her students.

Teaching about racism needs to shift from the experience of victims and victimizers to

that of empowered people of color and their white allies, creating the possibility of

working together as partners in the establishment of a more just society (p. 474).

Because society and the media still promote stereotypes of whiteness as normal and superior which perpetuates racism, white children clearly need to see positive anti-racism examples of whiteness for their own racial identity development.

Probably of greater practical value for understanding what teachers typically experience when discussing race, regarding the reactions of white students in the classroom, is Tatum’s

(1994) simple three stage model of white identity development: (1) the ‘white supremacist’ model; (2) the ‘what white?’ model; and (3) the ‘guilty white’ model. None of these stages are comfortable for students who may feel like giving up or retreating to earlier stages.

Leonardo (2004) notes that when white students feel guilty and feel that they are being blamed, this hinders their ability to critically reflect on racism. "In fact, they become over concerned with whether or not they ‘look racist’ and forsake the more central project of understanding the contours of structural racism" (p. 40). For white students stuck in the guilt, shame, and resentment about the history of racism, new strategies and pedagogies are needed yet

12 few have been attempted (Giroux, 1999; Hall, 1996a; hooks, 1992; Keating, 1995). Offering students information about the antiracist model of the white ally, “whites who have protested racism…resisted the role of oppressor, and have been allies to people of color, can help prevent students from getting stuck in the inertia of white guilt" (Tatum, 1994, p. 473). Moreover, it is important to work with preschool children to give them examples of white allies, so that they won’t be left wondering, as a little white boy who loved his storybook about Rosa Parks was, by asking his mother “are all white people bad?” (p. 41). In other words, it's important to “begin talking more about what white people have done to oppose injustice…[and] emphasize both black resistance to victimization and white resistance to the role of victimizer” (pp. 41-42). It is important to move help move white students beyond the guilty stage when teaching about injustice. Wise (2010) stresses the importance of how race is taught within classrooms, and warns that unless done holistically teachers may inadvertently contribute to divisions between white and non-white students.

Fortunately, if the material is taught accurately (which would mean, for instance, also

discussing the white allies who have stood in solidarity with people of color in every era

to fight racism), that guilt response can be diminished, while making the empathy and

solidarity connections among white children stronger (p. 172).

In other words, Wise supports Tatum's call for teaching these important counter stories to children. Understanding the ways white identity is constructed, clearly supports promoting racial literacy to young children by the use of materials and curricula which include stories of white anti-racism activism. Therefore, it is important to look at the ways children's literature authors portray these stories. This provides the primary motivation for this research.

Marginalization. The topic of white anti-racism has not been typically included in children’s literature or the curricula. Part of this challenge can be locating examples and materials to use. In reality, the history of anti-racism is actually extensive, accounts of this activism have been suppressed, as "one of the consequences of racism in our society is that those who oppose it are often marginalized, and as a result, their stories are not readily accessed"

(Tatum, 1994, p. 473). The history of the United States is actually full of white antiracist activists. Yet because of this minimalization and marginalization their truths are seldom taught.

For instance, examples of the names of historic and contemporary white antiracism activists are included as a chart (Appendix A). "Many Americans are completely unaware of the activity of whites in the cause for black freedom" (Lee, 1990, p. 17). Tatum (1994), a clinical psychologist, often challenges college students (pre-service teachers) to “think of a nationally known white person whom you would describe as a racist” (p. 462). Students can often recall one or two people such as white supremacist leaders or politicians. Then students are asked to “think now of a nationally known white person you would consider to be an antiracist activist” (p. 462).

Usually, the second question is much harder to answer. Most will typically think of Abraham

Lincoln and perhaps one contemporary person such as Morris Dees. This example reveals how students need to better understand not only the history of racism in society, but also the ways people have worked together in the past and continue working together to resist it. Anti-racist whites “are often invisible to us, their names are unknown or unrecognized” (Tatum, 1999a, p.

61). Aptheker (1993) illustrates this invisibility with the story of having given a lesson about

John Brown (a white abolitionist who organized slave revolts) to a group of young black students. One boy asked him, “…did I hear you right? Did you say that John Brown was white?”.... “God,” the child exclaimed, “that blows my mind!” (p. xiv). The tendency to

14 overlook and omit interracial collaborations for resisting racism in textbooks and school curricula, is common. Wise (2012) calls for white Americans to contemplate this marginalization.

I know that for every Andrew Jackson- land stealing, Indian killing bastard that he was-

there's a Jeremiah Evarts standing up against him and saying no. For every John

Calhoun, defending the system of enslavement, there's a John Fee, challenging it,

refusing to even provide communion to parishioners in his church so long as they owned

other human beings and willing to be defrocked for his insolence. For every Bull Connor

there's a Virginia Durr; for every George Wallace a Bob or Dottie Zellner. And yes, I

know that for most of you, these names I mention in praise and contrast to the others

won't even be recognizable. And, I also know that there's a reason for that, and it's one

you ought to ask yourself about from time to time (p. 53).

In essence, Wise's words call for people to acknowledge a white supremacist dynamic at work here. One that suppresses the stories that are not included in our histories in order to maintain racism and discourage interracial collaborations for social justice. "Indeed, invisibility is a powerful statement of value" (Alexander, 1983, p. 212). "This missing part of White history and culture must be found and taught to future generations... to cope and come to terms with the historical atrocities committed by so many of their ancestral heroes and heroines" (Smith, 1999, p. 177). For it is representation which forms identities, and those who have the power in society use it to normalize themselves, such as white power in the U.S. Hall (1997) explains how discourse and representation can be considered forms of power.

Power it seems, has to be understood here, not only in terms of economic exploitation

and physical coercion, but also in broader cultural or symbolic terms, including the power

to represent someone or something in a certain way - within a certain 'regime of

representation'. It includes the exercise of symbolic power through representational

practices. Stereotyping is a key element in this exercise of symbolic violence (p. 259).

Therefore, realizing what is missing, is just as important as looking to see what can be found in literature, especially children's (Botelho & Rudman, 2009). Students need to have more white anti-racism role models, as they learn about resistance to racial injustice, and educators need ways to provide them. Moreover, the problems of racist social structures in society as well as a reluctance for discussing race in the classroom continue to exist. Yet so do opportunities for using picture books as a way to learn about and inspire interracial collaborations for resisting racism.

Children’s literature can offers children windows into the world, and doors for engaging with critical concepts of culture and social factors. Because dominant ideologies are often part of the way authors offer children views of the world, or windows, some authors may intentionally direct children to engage with critical issues of society, thereby opening a door, or opportunity to connect with culture and society more critically. Windows and especially doors help children expand their perspectives (Botelho & Rudman, 2009). Critically engaging discourses "will lead us to more equitable ways of being in the world. The door opens a space that permits us to consider movements of people in complicated ways" (p. 128). Understanding how white anti- racism activism is represented in literature for children, and locating examples of white resistance to structural racism can provide new ideas for sharing these important role models with students.

Comprehending the social structures that continue to maintain racial injustice in society such as housing, employment, healthcare, criminal justice, and especially those affecting

16 education, is difficult for white Americans (Alexander, 2010; Wise, 2010). The realities of teacher demographics, de-facto segregation, colorblindness on the part educators, longstanding biases in materials and curricula, the silencing and marginalization of white anti-racism activism and its impact on white identity development, provide an understanding of the complicated and deeply intersectional nature of the problem. Considering the recommendations of multiple scholars explaining the value, and calling for the teaching of stories of white allies to all children

(Aptheker, 1992; Howard, 1999a; Smith, 1999; Tatum, 1997; Wise, 2010), and realizing the potential power of picture books to do so, provides the rationale for this study.

Overview of Methods

This study looks at a decade of picture books with social justice themes, that contain at least two or more representations of white anti-racism activism. Each book is coded for the quantity of these representations, and creates the first corpus of ninety-one books. From this initial corpus, a filter selects for books that have a white antiracism activist as the main character, for looking more deeply at life experiences and situations in the processes of allyship. This creates the second corpus of fourteen books, to which two filters are applied. The first filter selects books having the highest quantities of additional white activists, and a second filter selects for books in picture storybook format. This comprises the third and final corpus of five books. Each of these five books is deeply analyzed by applying two theoretical lenses, Critical

Race Theory (e.g. Bell, 1980; Delgado, 1995; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995) and Anti-racist

Education (e.g. Banks, 2003; Derman-Sparks & Ramsey, 2006; Duarte & Smith), within a

Critical Discourse Analysis (e.g. Fairclough, 1995; Gee, 2005).

Multiple modalities are considered in the framing of this analysis. Critical Discourse

Analysis incorporates the semiotics of both written and visual texts as meaning making modes to

17 interpret discourse about white anti-racism activism. Combining Critical Race Theory with

Anti-Racist Education, allows this analysis to focus on discourse features which relate to the institutional structures of racism, the identity of white activists, and the forms of power at work in their situations. Each third corpus book is coded for the variety of critical factors at work in the story of the white activist main character, and a frequency analysis of these critical factors helps reveal the ways authors have portrayed white anti-racism activism, and the stories of white allies.

Definition of Terms

1. Ally. "A member of an oppressor group who works to end a form of oppression which gives

her or him privilege. For example, a white person who works to end racism or a man who

works to end sexism" (Bishop, 2002, p. 152).

2. Allyship. "Allyship is a process, and everyone has more to learn. Allyship involves a lot of

listening. Sometimes, people say 'doing ally work' or 'acting in solidarity with' to reference

the fact that 'ally' is not an identity, it is an ongoing and lifelong process that involves a lot of

work" (Roseberry-Polier, 2013, p. 1).

3. Anti-Racist Education. “...helping willing individuals to explore ‘power’ and ‘ideology’ as

factors that tie individuals to systematic arrangements that promote inequality” (Gresson III,

2008, p. 109).

4. Colorblindness. 1) "...a refusal to see racism as anything more than prejudice" (Thompson,

1997, p. 14); 2) The maintenance of white privilege via “…a misunderstanding of racial

justice and harmony that implies that race does not matter” (Siddle Walker & Snarney, 2004,

p. 21; Thompson, 1999); 3) Believing that "one should treat all persons equally, without

regard to their race" (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001, p. 44); 4) "Color-blindness is not actually

the 'inability to see race' and is therefore an imperfect term. In the USA, color-blind people

cannot fail to see race, but they choose to see it in a particular way. In asserting that race

should not matter in either social policy or transactions, color-blind people - especially

Whites...[attempt] to avoid race as an explanatory framework" (Leonardo, 2004, p. 188).

5. Critical Discourse Analysis. 1) Looking at the “ways in which texts of different kinds

reproduce power and inequalities in society” (Perӓkylӓ, 2005, p. 871); 2) "CDA consists of

three dimensions simultaneously: language text (spoken or written or visual messages),

discourse practices, and sociocultural practices" (Willis et al., 2008, p. 53).

6. Critical factor. The "experiences that facilitate social justice orientation development"

(Caldwell, 2008). These can be either: (a) critical incidents causing "a more immediate

cognitive dissonance and shift in awareness" (Harro, 1997, p. 464); or (b) part of a long slow

evolutionary process contributing to liberation from oppression (Harro, 1997).

7. Critical incident. Any "...observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to

permit inferences and predictions to be made about the person performing the act... [which

must] occur in a situation where the purpose or intent of the act seems fairly clear to the

observer and where its consequences are sufficiently defined to leave little doubt concerning

its effects" (Flanagan, 1954, p. 327).

8. Critical Race Theory. 1) "The critical race theory (CRT) movement is a collection of

activists and scholars interested in studying and transforming the relationship among race,

racism, and power" (Delgado & Stephanic, 2012, p. 2); 2) it "foregrounds race as the central

construct for analyzing inequality, and it offers educators and students alike with an

alternative perspective in identifying more effective solutions to the challenges students of

color face in school" (Zamudio, Russell, Rios, & Bridgeman, 2011, p. 2).

9. Discourse. 1) "a group of statements which provide language for talking about a topic and a

way of producing a particular kind of knowledge about a topic. Thus, the term refers both to

the production of knowledge through language and representations and the way that

knowledge is institutionalized, shaping social practices and setting new practices into play"

(du Gay, 1996, 43); 2) A way of “knowing or thinking based on, for example, scientific,

legal, religious, sociological, economic, political, [and] psychological, orientations" (Beach

& Kalnin, 2005, p. 213); 3) “Discourse is inherently imbued with ideology: Ideology is

inseparable from discourse and discourse is constituted from ideology” (Botelho & Rudman,

2009, p. 110); 4) "Discourse as an ideological practice constitutes, naturalizes, sustains and

changes signification of the world from diverse positions in power relations" (Fairclough,

1992, p. 67).

10. Identity. "Identities are the sets of meanings people hold for themselves that define 'what it

means' to be who they are as persons, as role occupants, and as group members... identities

are tied to positions in the social structure; these positions in turn are defined by our culture"

(Burke, 2004, p. 5).

11. Institutions. 1) The social structures in societies of which there are two types: "a complex of

basic institutions, values, beliefs, etc."; 2) "specific institutions (political parties, interest

groups, bureaucratic administrations) which exist to conduct the business of that system"

(Carmichael & Hamilton, 1967, pp. 41-42).

12. Institutional racism. 1) “A kind of racism that is perpetuated within structural settings,

even without deliberate and bigoted intent, due to the normal workings of long-entrenched

policies, practices, and procedures” (Wise, 2009, p. 43); 2) "...it is less overt, far more subtle,

less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts [than individual racism].

But it is no less destructive of human life. ...It originates in the operation of established and

respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation..."

(Carmichael & Hamilton, 1967, p. 4).

13. Multiculturalism. 1) An educational perspective that is concerned that “everyone gets some

recognition in the curriculum, attitudes of prejudice due to ignorance must be replaced with

tolerance" (Gresson III, 2008, p. 102); 2) a difficult term to define, which "has something to

do with promoting an understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity" (Duarte & Smith,

2000, p. 2).

14. Picture books. 1) "The picture book is a format of children's literature rather than a genre.

Picture books may be of any genre, including poetry. They are unique because illustrations

and text share the job of telling the story or teaching content. No other type of literature

works in the same manner" (Tunnel & Jacobs, 2008, p. 61); 2) picture books are “clearly

designed for both small children and sophisticated adults, communicating to the dual

audience at a variety of levels” (Nikolajeva & Scott, 2006, p. 21); 3) "Any book with a

picturebook format can be included under the umbrella term picturebook" (Kiefer, Tyson, &

Huck, 2010, p. 59).

15. Race. 1) A concept which is “socially and historically constructed… full of ambiguity…

[and] the product of the justification of the economic exploitation of one group by another

group” (Spring, 2000, pp. 132-133); 2) “Given the changing meaning of race throughout U.S.

history…citizenship laws and court decisions provide a concrete understanding for the

constantly changing meaning of race in the United States” (Spring, 2007, p. 6); 3) "As

scientific evidence for race as a biological concept has been shown to be lacking and that the

meaning of race not only varies geographically but also changes over time within particular

societies, research became focused on the ways in which the meaning of race is constructed

and reproduced via social institutions such as law, media and education" (Applebaum, 2010,

p. 8); 4) "Not objective, inherent, or fixed, they correspond to no biological or genetic reality;

rather, races are categories that society invents, manipulates, or retires when convenient"

(Delgado & Stefancic, 2001, p. 7).

16. Racial literacy. The "ability to understand, discuss, and write about race and racism - how it

works and its material and psychological effects - or how to challenge it" (Annerud, 2007, p.

22).

17. Racism. 1) "a system of privilege and oppression, a network of traditions, legitimating

standards, material and institutional arrangements, and ideological apparatuses that, together,

serve to perpetuate hierarchical social relations based on race" (Thompson, 1997, p. 8); 2)

“Another, more specific, term for racism is ‘white supremacy’… the way in which white

people have created entire social, political, economic, and cultural systems that assign people

of color to the bottom rungs of the ladder of privilege" (Brown, 2002, p. 3); 3) "Not

individual prejudice (that is only a symptom of racism), but ‘the institutionalization of social

injustice based on skin color, other physical characteristics, and cultural and religious

difference…a system in which people of color as a group are exploited and oppressed by

white people as a group” (Kivel, 1996, p. 2); 4) "Racism can mean culturally sanctioned

beliefs which, regardless of intentions involved defend the advantages whites have because

of the subordinated positions of racial minorities... racism is much more subtle, elusive, and

widespread than sociologists have acknowledged" (Wellman, 1993, p. xviii).

18. Social justice. The "full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually

shaped to meet their needs... in which the distribution of resources is equitable and all

members are physically and psychologically safe and secure" (Bell, 1997, p. 3).

19. Social structures. 1) “Social structures are very abstract entities. One can think of a social

structure (such as an economic structure, a social class or kinship system, or a language) as

defining a potential, a set of possibilities" (Fairclough, 2004, p. 225); 2) "an intersecting web

of oppression... a constellation of organized practices in employment, government, education,

law, business, and housing that work to maintain an unequal and unjust distribution of social

resources" (Collins, 2000, p. 301; as cited in Willis et.al., 2008, p. 65), the structural domain

of power involves "an organization's laws, policies, and practices... [it] organizes

oppression" (Collins, 2000, p. 276; as cited in Willis et.al., 2008, p.14).

20. Visual literacy. “Visual literacy is the ability to find meaning in imagery. It involves a set

of skills ranging from simple identification – naming what one sees – to complex

interpretation on contextual, metaphoric, and philosophical levels” (Yenawine, 1997, p. 845).

21. White ally. 1) “An antiracist activist, a white man or woman who is clearly identifiable as

an ally to people of color in the struggle against racism” (Tatum, 1994, p. 462); 2) "Ally is

not an identity, it is a practice. An ally is someone who not only shows up, but one who

stays around for the long term. Acting as a [white] ally means living each day in alliance

with people of color in the struggle for racial justice because we recognize that we are

interdependent" (Kivel, 2011, p. 116); 3) "someone who does engage in what Freire calls

'true generosity' by joining in solidarity with people of color to struggle collaboratively

against those institutions that maintain oppression" (Cammarota, 2011, p. 244).

22. White savior. "...a white person [who] may provide help to people of color yet help comes

in the form of a saving action that tends to help a single individual or group. The focus in

"saving" instead of "transforming" fails to address oppressive structures and thus the

privileges that maintain white supremacy" (Cammarota, 2011, p. 244).

23. Whiteness studies. 1) Looking at the ways common social concepts of whiteness are forms

of racism, and to “examine the material effects of whiteness… white identity, and the impact

internalized dominance and white privilege has on white people” (Rogers and Mosley, 2006,

p. 466); 2) Critical White Studies, which grew out of the Critical Legal Studies movement,

can "open a way for whites to talk about race and racial problems acceptably and

nondefensively" (Delgado & Stefanic, 1997, p.1).

Research Question

This qualitative study analyzes the representations of and discourse about white anti- racism activism in children’s picture books in a variety of contexts via three theoretic frameworks: 1) Critical Race Theory, 2) Anti-Racist Education, and 3) Critical Discourse

Analysis. Given that both written text and images will be examined and the fact that these are both types of languages (indexical and iconic), each is capable of representing discourse events.

Drawing from the strengths of each theoretic and analytic framework, the following overarching research question shall guide this examination of the data source.

 How are white anti-racism activism and the lives of white anti-racism activists portrayed

by children's literature authors as representations in picture books?

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

Details of the parameters of this study are described as follows. It shall include picturebooks with representations of white allies in some form, within the written text, visual

24 text, or both. Representations of interracial friendships and cross-racial inter-exchanges will be counted, as these are common denominators for the social justice orientation development of white allies and the alliance identity.

Historic parameters will extend from the first European-American colonies of the 1600s to present era in what is now the United States. Included in this study are picturebooks, both picture storybooks and informational picturebooks, with a theme of social justice involving race, and written in one of the following genres: fiction, including realistic fiction, either contemporary fiction or historical fiction; or nonfiction, including either biographical nonfiction or informational nonfiction.

Excluded from this study is the fantasy genre, therefore no books about folklore, modern fantasy, science fiction, or those having unrealistic characters or unrealistic settings, will be included. Also excluded are picturebooks with sparse or no written text, as well as those in graphic novel format. All picturebooks included in this study must have been originally published in English, in the U.S., between 1999 and 2009.

The purpose of this study, in light of persistent social structures which continue to maintain racism, and especially those involving the education of children, is to better understand how picture books portray the topic of white anti-racism activism, in response to the calls from scholarship for providing more stories about white allies. Learning how CRT and ARE can be applied within CDA for this purpose, addresses a gap in children's literature research, and contributes to discussions of race in the field of education.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The following review discusses literature pertinent to this study. First, it looks at the two main theoretical perspectives, and then, other research in the areas of children's literature, relevant to these theories, including: race, childhood cognition, social justice and activism.

Theoretical Frameworks

Three main theoretical frameworks are employed in this study: Critical Race Theory

(CRT), Anti-Racist Education (ARE), and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDR). The following review of the literature discusses the history and development of each framework, reviews their main perspectives, and gives examples of how they have been used in other educational research.

Critical Race Theory. In this section, the historical climate that contributed to Critical

Race Theory (CRT) will be described, including: legislative events, literary efforts, and a critique of how institutions perpetuate racism. Next, CRT will be explained by an examination of its main tenets. Lastly, foundational research studies that implement CRT will be presented. This historic overview of CRT, its basic elements, and studies which employed it, demonstrate what

CRT is doing in the field of education.

Two key legislative events, the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education and the 1964 Civil

Rights Act, and their results, will be discussed. Each of these events provided opportunities, setting the stage for CRT to evolve. First, consider the aftermath of the 1954 Brown v. Board of

Education and the 1955 Brown v. Board of Education II decisions, in which the vague wording of ‘all deliberate speed’ for the process of desegregation, often resulted in ‘slow’ or ‘none.'

Many schools closed, and thousands of black teachers and school administrators lost their jobs.

Numerous districts resisted integration for more than a decade. Later, the 1964 Civil Rights

26 legislation finally included provisions for federal enforcement of school desegregation. Yet by then, a movement towards private white schools and magnet programs within public schools, created new structures which continued to racially segregate students in new ways. "By allowing school districts to use delaying tactics... the federal government effectively backed away from a new vision of the United States..." (Ladson-Billings, 2004, p. 11). The Brown v. Board legislation which had given hope to many, in reality, did not fulfill its promise (Bell, 1980;

Greene, 2008; Kivel, 2011). Fifty years after Brown, "most black children still attend segregated schools, and that segregation is even more pronounced in the North than in the South"

(Steinberg, 2004, p. 122). As examples, Brown v. Board and the 1964 Civil Rights Act each underscore the ineffectiveness of certain legislative events where racial equity is involved.

Scholars wanted to understand the dynamics of such paradoxes. This is precisely what CRT would aim to explain.

Struggling for civil rights inspired several literary works which played major roles in the development of CRT and presented new ways to analyze racial injustice. Here, these efforts will be discussed, starting with Black Power (Carmichael & Hamilton, 1967) and the important reactions to it. Then, to the groundbreaking essays on racism by law professor Derrick Bell, and the seminal work by Gloria Ladson-Billings and William Tate, promoting CRT in education.

The book Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America was written in 1967 by Stokely

Carmichael (renamed Kwame Touré), a Black activist who coined the term 'institutional racism,' and Charles Hamilton, a Black political science professor. It explained how an institution's policies structure racial oppression, stressing "that racism operated in more complex and covert ways than just explicit and deliberate hatred and discrimination” (Beratan, 2008, p. 340).

Individual racism may be directly observed and easily documented, yet institutional racism

"originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation" (Carmichael & Hamilton, 1967, p. 4). Black Power and it’s conceptualization of institutional racism, inspired new ways to recognize racial injustice in established social practices.

Scholars began thinking and writing about institutionalized racism, "placing or keeping persons in a position or status of inferiority by means of attitudes, actions, or institutional structures which do not use color itself as the subordinating mechanism, but instead use other mechanisms indirectly related to color" (Downs, 1970, p. 79). For example, the funding disparities due to differences in property values and property taxes, making some schools rich and others poor. This results in a school's ability to provide adequate facilities, teachers, equipment and curricula, etc. Because race is closely aligned with economic class in the United

States, non-white communities end up with the poorest schools. The quality of facilities, teachers, and curricula affect the value of education for students. So, while not directly related to race, this "savage inequality" (Kozol, 1992) indirectly subordinates students of color (Bell, 1980;

Delgado & Stefancic, 2011; Kozol, 1992; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Tatum, 2007). Looking at the ways institutional racism covertly supports racial injustice became an important key to those working for social change.

Black Power (Carmichael & Hamilton, 1967) inspired an examination of institutionalized racism, and stirred a movement within Black America which extended to legal scholarship. This book came at a time when many civil rights leaders were being assassinated. For instance,

Medgar Evers the first Mississippi NAACP field director and President John F. Kennedy were both shot to death in 1963. Then, Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was shot to death in 1965, just as the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and senator and

28 presidential candidate Robert Kennedy were in 1968. Racial tensions ran high, yet contrary to white American fears and assumptions, the ensuing Black Power movement was actually

"grounded in the integrity of Black life, set in the context of the value and worth of all human life" (Van Horne, 2007, p. 370). In this way, because of humanity's interconnectivity, the Black

Power movement can be understood as a way to "nurture, sustain, and enhance the lives of

Whites and others who interact with Blacks” (p. 386).

By the 1970s, a Critical Legal Studies (CLS) movement was looking at the ways legal ideologies operated to maintain and justify certain inequalities in society, and thinking in hegemonic terms, yet not specifically racial ones (Crenshaw, 1988; Ladson-Billings, 1998; Tate

IV, 1997). "Thus, CRT became a logical outgrowth of the discontent of legal scholars of color"

(Ladson-Billings, 1998, p. 11). It is deeply "rooted in the social missions and struggles of the

1960s that sought social justice, liberation, and economic empowerment" (Tate IV, 1997, p.

197). Therefore, Black Power also inspired the examination of CLS shortcomings, by connecting institutional racism and legislative events.

Scores of articles and books written by Derrick Bell (e.g. Bell, 1980, 1987, 1992) the first

Black Harvard professor, looked at ways to expose the hidden legal structures related to race.

Bell's writings initiated CRT, as a way to analyze racist institutions and challenge oppression

(Delgado & Stefancic, 2012; Milner, 2008; Tate IV, 1997). He wrote about peoples' reactions to desegregation laws, and studied the ways the Brown v. Board of Education decisions and associated litigation were dependent upon interest convergence (Bell, 1980), or how "the interest of blacks in achieving racial equality will only be accommodated when it converges with the interests of whites" (Bell, 1980, p. 523).

Challenging racial injustice through activism was a hallmark of Bell's life. From humble beginnings, he worked hard to gain many important positions in the legal profession, and yet often sacrificed them in favor of protest when racially equitable ethics were at stake. For example, he lost the following jobs for the following reasons: (a) in 1958, as lawyer for the Civil

Rights Division of the U.S. Justice Dept, for refusing to surrender his NAACP membership; (b) in 1985 as Dean of the University of Oregon Law School, by resigning when a female Asian-

American candidate was intentionally overlooked for a teaching position; and (c) in 1993 as tenured law professor at Harvard, for protesting the faculty's lack of women of color. Bell is noted for stressing that racism in the United States will always be present and cannot be destroyed, and yet simultaneously imploring people to fight against it regardless (Delgado &

Stefancic, 2005; Leonardo, 2009). From this perspective scholars using CRT understand that

"nothing is gifted to the oppressed by their oppressors, and if left unchecked things can certainly get a whole lot worse" (Gillborn, 2008, p. 41).

CRT officially expanded into the field of education in 1995 when two teacher educators co-authored an article, "Just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education?" for explaining why it was such a good fit. Gloria Ladson-Billings, a professor of curriculum design, initially began using CRT for analyzing legal aspects of school desegregation, and then collaborated with William Tate, a professor of math and science education. Together they contended that looking at race in the context of property rights can explain educational inequalities. Acknowledging that gender and class "intersectionalities" (Crenshaw, 1989) were also significant factors, they stressed that race had typically been overlooked in social science studies dealing with inequity in education (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). They promoted using

CRT for issues of “curriculum, instruction, assessment, school funding, and desegregation” (p.

18).

From the concepts of institutional racism put forth in Black Power (Carmichael &

Hamilton, 1967) to the insights of Bell, Ladson-Billings and Tate, and others, CRT soon grew into a multidisciplinary movement and spread to new areas such as economics and women’s studies (Taylor, 2007). Today, educators use CRT to "understand issues of school discipline and hierarchy, tracking, affirmative action, high-stakes testing, controversies over curriculum and history, and alternative and charter schools" (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012, pp. 6-7).

Main Tenets. There are several main tenets, sometimes referred to as elements or themes of CRT which researchers use as methodological strategies for putting race at the center of their analyses. Although there is no single approach, and because CRT is still a work in progress, most scholars do agree on certain important concepts (Tate IV, 1997; Gillborne, 2006; Price,

2010; Delgado & Stefancic, 2012).

First, racism is always present in American society, regardless of how things may seem.

There is always unequal access to resources according to race. It is a permanent aspect of life in

America (Bell, 1992; Delgado & Stefancic, 2005; Gillborne, 2008; Greene, 2008; Leonardo,

2009), appearing “normal and natural to people in this culture” (Ladson-Billings, 1998, p. 11).

White privilege is continually maintained and rationalized in various ways which disadvantage and oppress people of color. The institutional structures which do this are often overlooked because they are "shrouded in non-racist trappings" (Bullock III & Rogers, 1976, p. 212). For example, Bell (1993) describes the disillusion felt by Thurgood Marshall, and other civil rights lawyers who had worked to support Brown and its promises of integration for educational equality.

We viewed segregation as the prime barrier to black advancement, realizing too late that

once segregation was vanquished by our sustained efforts, it would be replaced by ‘race-

neutral’ standards, a more sophisticated and even more invidious vehicle for maintaining

white dominance (p. 212).

Moreover, not only is racism central to U.S. society, it combines with other forms of social oppression such as gender and class, to further subordinate people (Akom, 2009; Crenshaw,

1989).

A second tenet of CRT is the use of storytelling and counter-storytelling. The narratives of people of color are used for deconstructing the myths that “make up the common culture about race and that invariably render blacks and other minorities one-down” (Delgado, 1995, p. xiv).

Brooks (2008) explains how counter stories function to expose institutional frameworks of racism by questioning the taken for granted “normative depictions of everyday living that ignore or discount structural barriers to equality faced by people of color” (p. 37). The many ethnological practices of storytelling give voice to both historically and contemporary marginalized groups. Even historical fiction can be valuable for understanding the historic aspects of contemporary racial issues. CRT utilizes a wide variety of strategies for interpreting personal experiences and perspectives, as Denzin and Lincoln (2005) describe,

storytelling to autoethnography, case studies, textual and narrative analyses, traditional

fieldwork, and most important, collaborative, action-based inquires and studies of race,

gender, law, education, and racial oppression in daily life” (p. 186).

In fact, Bell (1987) used his ingenious fictional time-traveling character Geneva Crenshaw as a literary device for exposing racism through her counter-narratives. Creating Geneva Crenshaw gave Bell powerful opportunities for offering counter perspectives on important legal and

32 educational issues of race, such as the consequences of affirmative action, debates about reparations, and Black revisionist history (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). In this way, CRT values and focuses upon the experiences of people of color, inviting creative forms of expression in doing so.

Critical race theory’s third tenet involves a Critique of Liberalism regarding its dedication to an activist component. Inherent problems here are based in liberalism's agenda for bringing about gradual social change (Ladson-Billings &Tate IV, 1998). “[R]acism requires sweeping changes, but liberalism has no mechanism for such change” (p. 12). Depending upon the process of litigation within the legal system, case building upon case is debilitatingly slow and less effective than expected. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) warn us that “…getting mad is no longer enough. We must learn how to act in the world in ways that allow us to expose the workings of an invisible empire…” (p. 187). Therefore, CRT promotes activism by striving not only to ascertain how systems of racial inequities function but to do something about it (Delgado &

Stephanic, 2010; Gillborn, 2006).

The fourth tenet poses that it is primarily whites who benefit from civil rights legislation, such as Brown, Affirmative Action, and No Child Left Behind, etc. For example, white women have received the majority of Affirmative Action job positions, and therefore, Affirmative

Action legislation has primarily benefitted white families (Delgado, 2005; Ladson-Billings,

1998; Leonardo, 2009). This tenet brings Bell's (1980) concept of interest convergence into play, the understanding that "racial equality and equity for people of color will be pursued and advanced when they converge with the interests, needs, expectations, and ideologies of Whites"

(Milner IV, 2008, p. 333). According to Malcolm X, the reason that whites "...don’t try to eliminate an evil because it’s evil, or because it’s illegal, or because it’s immoral; they eliminate

33 an evil only when it threatens their existence” (Malcolm X, 1964, p. 40). Bell wrote extensively on this dynamic by pointing out that when "policymakers recognize and act to remedy racial injustices when, and only when, they perceive that such action will benefit the nation's interests without significantly diminishing whites' sense of entitlement" (Bell, 2004, p. 47). Therefore, this tenant of CRT looks at the ways various institutional strangleholds over the types of property which maintain white privilege, where binary tensions of loss versus gain are involved. It offers educators "added language and tools to discuss race, its presence, its pervasiveness, and its consequence in the field" (p. 333).

The four basic tenets of CRT: understanding the centrality of racism in U.S. society, the use of storytelling and counter-storytelling, a dedication to activism and the critique of liberalism, and the concepts of interest convergence and property rights serve as tools for CRT inquiry and analysis. They continue to be creatively applied to the nice field of education in an ever innovative assortment of ways.

Foundational research. Early studies which implemented CRT in education looked at the ways Brown v. Board and school desegregation ultimately failed. Bell (1980) had thought deeply about the reasons and timing of the Brown decisions. He proposed that it was in the interest of whites controlling the political institutions in the U.S. during the post WWII cold war era, to improve the racially oppressive image of the country. Reasoning that these white stakeholders wanted to attract developing third world countries to democracy in lieu of communism (Bell, 1980; Delgado and Stephanic, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2004; Zamudio et.al.,

2011). Because the Soviets had been criticizing the U.S. for the irony of fighting against

German racism yet continuing to tolerate racial segregation and oppression at home. This was especially hypocritical considering that the U.S. was trying to influence governments in Africa

34 and Latin America (Zamudio et. al., 2011, p. 48). Because the Supreme Court did not provide for swift and sweeping implementation of desegregation, much of the country remained segregated as it still does even today. Although at the time of Bell's research his analysis was widely challenged, subsequent political document studies revealed its validity (Dudziak, 1995).

Delgado and Stefancic (2012) explain how people were outraged at Bell for suggesting such a scenario, calling him a cynic. But eventually, files in the archives of the U.S Department of

State, and the Department of Justice, were discovered by a researcher named Mary Dudziak. She proved that Bell was right. The only reason that the Justice Department had helped the NAACP defend school desegregation was because foreign ambassadors had been sending in "a flood of secret cables and memos outlining the United States' interest in improving its image in the eyes of the Third World" (pp. 19-20). It only took a decade to vindicate Bell's important work. He is considered the father of the CRT movement.

Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) looked at the centrality of racism in the U.S., as it manifests through aspects of property, to maintain systems of racially inequitable public schooling. This seminal CRT research in education put forth three propositions: 1) race is a main factor in educational inequalities; 2) the "U.S. society is based on property rights" (p. 48) of various kinds, across the country and throughout its history; and 3) challenging the effectiveness of social justice reform in education must effectively theorize race in the context of property.

Property rights directly affect the quality of schools and the racial equity of students' education in many aspects. First of all, the real estate properties of each community funds its public schools through local property taxes. Therefore, wealthy communities produce wealthy schools, which can afford to provide better facilities, teachers, materials and curricula. Many racial factors have contributed to disparities in property rights. Redlining, a policy of not

35 providing funding by lenders, for homes in predominantly minority areas, affected minority

World War II vets that otherwise could have taken advantage of low home loan interest rates as part of the G.I. Bill. Another form of 'redlining' during this time, was the way the Federal

Housing Administration denied mortgage insurance to homes "in neighborhoods containing more than a smattering of black residents" (Satter, 2009, p. 4). Consequently, many African

American home buyers had no option but to take predatory 'contract' home loans with no payment protection. Meaning that, if any installment payment was ever late that an eviction would ensue, with the home being quickly resold (Satter, 2009). "Real estate steering, redlining, and denial of loans and mortgages, especially after the end of World War II, prevented blacks from owning homes, particularly in desirable neighborhoods" (Delgado & Stefanic, 2012, p.

120). Moreover, these policies continued to exacerbate racial disparities in property rights as time went on. Many white middle class families built the core of family wealth passed down to the next generations on homes that increased dramatically in value. Vets of color did not see the same rise in their property values.

Ladson Billings and Tate (1995) redefined the term property rights in the context of education, by looking at the way whiteness itself confers at least four legally defined properties affecting educational equity:

1) The rights of disposition which involve alienability, this refers to things such as behavior or

curricula that align to white cultural norms. "When students are rewarded only for

conformity to perceived 'white norms' or sanctioned for cultural practices (e.g., dress, speech

patterns, unauthorized conceptions of knowledge), white property is being rendered

alienable" (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995, p. 59).

2) The right to use and enjoy materials and curricula is also a form of property, which is

inequitably distributed between schools, and also within them. Segregation within schools

by means of tracking or gifted programs, can restrict access to material resources and

learning opportunities.

3) Reputation and status are a form of property, and these can be interpreted at the personal

level, and also the ways programs in the curriculum are identified. For instance, attributing

high status to foreign language programs, yet low status to bilingual education.

4) "The absolute right to exclude" (p. 60) has always been part of racial inequality in U.S.

education. Several examples would be: slavery era policies that criminalized education for

blacks, separate but equal (and always unequal) Jim Crow policies, ineffective Brown

desegregation legislation, and current disparities in school quality and student outcomes,

each involves the absolute right to exclude students of color. "So complete is this exclusion

that black students often come to the university in the role of intruders-- who have been

granted special permission to be there" (p. 60). At each level of school experience, property

rights are involved.

Additionally, another concern regarding the various types of property rights in education, is the way they are interrelated and can adversely affect each other. For example, the property taxes which affect school funding, also limit the curricula, which can be understood as intellectual property. This in turn affects both the value of a school and its reputation or status, as well as the available learning opportunities it can provide. Students need both educational standards and material resources such as books, science labs, and technology, etc. Since these material resources are the property of the schools and related to the real estate property tax base they severely vary across U.S. society. Further, even though large urban districts distribute funds

37 more equitably, middle class, usually white, neighborhoods will provide extras for the neighborhood school. Mandated educational standards alone won't have much effect without the necessary properties of material resources and opportunities to learn (Ladson-Billings & Tate,

1995).

Each of the ways to analyze education in the contexts of race and property, also align with key themes of Critical Legal Studies. There are several ways that the concepts of CRT and

CLS intersect when applying CRT to education: (a) Racism is endemic in the U.S., and while poverty is often blamed for poor student performance, "the cause of their poverty in conjunction with the condition of their schools and schooling is institutional and structural racism" (Ladson-

Billings & Tate, 1995, p. 55); (b) Because civil rights laws which sound promising can quickly be undermined, it is important to reinterpret and reveal their ineffectiveness; and (c) Concepts of colorblindness and meritocracy camouflage racism, but these can be resisted by using first person accounts from the victims of racism as powerful evidence, “the voice of people of color is required for a complete analysis of the educational system" (p. 58).

Using CRT in education is much different from multicultural education. Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) carefully offered a critique of the multicultural education movement, explaining why Multiculturalism, the concept of many cultures existing together simultaneously which is often tokenized to topics such as food and holidays, encompasses many types of differences beyond racial. What has happened is that despite the hard work of many social justice leaders the important educational issues of race have become diluted through these movements.

Therefore, scholars using CRT "unabashedly reject a paradigm that attempts to be everything to everyone and consequently becomes nothing for anyone, allowing the status quo to prevail" (p.

62).

Over the years, concerns have been raised about the value of white CRT theorists and scholars within the movement, and this key topic is recommended for classroom discussion

(Delgado & Stefanic, 2012). Bergerson (2003), a white doctoral student, questioned the role of whites in CRT wondering if they would take the focus away from racism and people of color.

Certainly using the main tenets and arguments of CRT seems legitimate, but Bergerson wanted to know if a white could write a counterstory? Consequently, three findings emerged from CRT as guidelines for white scholars: 1) to center race within white scholars' lives by seeing one's white race and it's unearned privileges from the systems and structures of racism, and help other whites to understand this; 2) commit to social justice work and use CRT to analyze institutional racism; and 3) support and collaborate with others in celebrating multiple perspectives through academic research. "White scholars can and should join in the effort to shift the norms for what are considered legitimate epistemologies" (p. 60). There's room for every scholar to employ a

Critical Race analysis.

In Conclusion, many historic developmental factors leading to the use of CRT have been discussed. The Brown v. Board legislation and its ultimate failure to desegregate the nation's schools, key literary work such as Black Power (Carmichael and Hamilton, 1967) during the

Civil Rights movement, the subsequent rise and limitations of CLS, early CRT activists and their foundational research contributions, and important rationales for using CRT in education, as well as concerns regarding the legitimate use of CRT by white researchers in the academy. CRT has been established and continues to gain momentum, as an important and powerful theoretical framework, continually inspiring new methods for revealing, understanding, and hopefully reducing systemic racial oppression in education and society.

Anti-Racist Education. In this section, the major factors of Anti-Racist Education

(ARE) will discussed. Starting with how it grew out of the preceding and concurrent

Multicultural Education movement, the ways both paradigms align, yso differ, specifically in structural dimensions and multiculturalism's limitations. Next, the anti-racist pedagogies of curricula and interracial collaboration are discussed. Finally, this section looks at white allies, their narratives and activism, both historic and contemporary.

Originally, ARE was situated within the greater Multicultural Education movement. It all started when African American leaders of the Civil Rights Movement called for equity and representation in education. Other groups too, spoke out against a teaching force and curricula which were only reflecting a white mainstream perspective, or the assimilationist ‘melting pot’ model in education. In response, the ‘integrationist’ model appeared in the form of bussing during the ‘60s and ‘70s. Integration in schools did little to effect segregation in society.

Acknowledging and accommodating many new immigrants and other diverse cultures within school communities, the idea of ‘cultural pluralism’ advocated cultural understanding. yet still pushed for the assimilation of diverse groups, and blamed victims of poverty for their inability to do so (Kailin, 2002). The move toward Ethnic Studies multiculturalism developed during this time, for promoting the histories of various ethnic or “distinct cultural groups – namely African

Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos/as” (Duarte & Smith, 2000, p. 14).

Eurocentric curricula still perpetuated dominant cultural ideals, and did little to encourage the self esteem of ethnic minority students. Many ethnic studies programs in high schools and colleges sought to empower students’ pride and identity, by extending the knowledge of their cultural heritage to all people in society (Duarte & Smith, 2000). Though this was the intention, ethnic clustering occurred, in which students gravitated to classes about their own cultures, such

40 as the film School Colors (Andrews, Olsson, Robinson-Odom, and WGBH Educational

Foundation,1994) documents at California's Berkeley High School. Multicultural education came to be seen as a form of “social protest” (Banks, 2003, p. 25), seeking to end discrimination of marginalized groups in western nations, addressing the needs of diversity in terms of gender, language, race, ethnicity, and culture. By the ‘80s, groups such as the ‘Rainbow Coalition’ inspired multicultural educators to see that they might help students see “how their fates are tied to those of other powerless groups and the significant benefits that can result from multicultural political coalitions” (Banks, 2003, p. 7). This helped to set the stage for anti-racist education.

An Anti-Racist Multicultural Education movement began to coalesce in the ‘80s and

‘90s, aimed at exposing the longstanding socio-political structures of discrimination and oppression, for the purpose of inspiring collective resistance specifically to institutional racism

(Amster, 1994; Kailin, 2002; Duarte and Smith, 2000; Lund, 2006). Given that race itself is a cultural construct, anti-racists consider it important to realize how cultural institutions function in societies to maintain power. “Often, concepts of race are the product of the justification of the economic exploitation of one group by another group. For instance, in the United States the major, but not the only, racial division is between blacks and whites” (Spring, 2000, p. 133).

Reviewing the historical social political economy of the U.S. reveals the superstructures upon which these patterns became established.

Governmental institutions of western civilization as far back as the Romans have enacted laws based on ideologies of superiority and inferiority, domination, subjugation, privilege and oppression based on cultural constructs of race (Spring, 2000). The English for instance,

“…declared groups racially inferior, took away their lands and, in the case of Africans, turned them into slave labor. Racism and economic exploitation go hand in hand” (p. 134). White

Anglo-Saxon Protestant land owning males, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, founding fathers of the United States, intended to subjugate people of color and maintain power for the proliferation of the white race. This truth is evident in early legislation. As an illustration, the Naturalization Act of 1790 only permitted white immigrants opportunities for citizenship; it was in effect for 150 years and was also used by thirteen western states to deny land ownership to Asian immigrants based on citizenship status (or the lack thereof). Eventually, though the 1924 Immigration Act offered citizenship to Native Americans, it was also used “to limit immigration of nonwhite populations” (Spring, 2007, p. 131). On the heels of Civil Rights legislation came the 1965 Immigration Act, and by 1980, a huge surge in newly immigrated peoples had come to the U.S. from “Mexico, Vietnam, the Philippines, Korea, and China-

Taiwan” (p. 132). To discuss multiple cultures in an anti-racist context, requires looking at the structures in society, such as belief systems, and the economic and legal complexes that support them.

Multicultural education sought to empower minority students, and combat prejudice in the quest for social justice. Yet, after half a century of working to do so, many people remain oppressed along the lines of race and socioeconomic class. For example, the majority of the teaching force is still dominated by middle or working class white women.

ARE became well known for exposing the supposedly liberal position multicultural education has claimed to maintain, when in reality it has actually been supporting “the status quo and frequently encoded deficit perspectives of black children, their parents, and communities”

(Gillborn, 2006, p. 12). Additionally, multicultural education continues to manifest itself in schools as tokenism, celebrating the food, clothing and holidays of diverse cultures. Grinter

(2000) explains why multicultural education’s perspective on race is seen culturally and not

42 politically, when racism can be viewed as personal problems of the individual, " based on ignorance and misunderstanding" (p. 143), conceivably solved by information and education.

Thinking about racism in this way, keeps multicultural education popular with "teachers who have a social conscience, but who would not consider themselves activists in a political sense"

(p. 143). Whereas the advocates of Anti-Racist Multiculturalism take the position that personal prejudice is not the problem, it’s only an attitude; to them, racism must be understood politically.

According to Lentin (2005), Multiculturalism is even criticized and thought of as a regime, because of its penchant for making race invisible by replacing it conceptually as culture.

It has become multiculturalism’s institutionalized taboo to “place racism of the postcolonial western world satisfactorily in the political and historical context of its evolution from

Enlightenment through slavery, colonialism and the Holocaust” (p. 381). A popular trend has even developed for denying race as a category altogether, and replacing it with the concepts of ethnicity or identity. Ironically, this current misnomer was addressed more than half a century ago by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In

1950, a panel of experts convened to issue the UNESCO Statement on Race and Racial

Prejudice. Although the UNESCO statement has undergone a few updates, it is still in use today.

Further, the statement continues to function as the United Nations official position on the subject, recommending that a “distinction be drawn between ‘race’ and ethnicity: the former pernicious, the latter a supposedly benign means of categorizing human beings” (Lentin, 2005, p. 384). But using this term is anything but benign, and as Sleeter (1996) explains, “Equating ethnicity with race is a related strategy for evading racism” (p. 260). The media plays a major role in hiding racism. When extreme groups and sensationalized examples of hate crimes from the media are used to identify racism then the more everyday versions become less visible, simply taken-for-

43 granted. One example of such an everyday taken for granted form of racism is the Greek system of fraternities at universities. These institutions are mostly segregated and white, and include inheritance or 'legacy' systems of membership. Former Greek fraternity members also maintain significant control of Fortune 500 companies, and represent political positions including about half of U.S. presidents, senators, and Supreme Court justices. Through these positions of power younger Greek members are given hiring preferences within an elite system of unearned white race privilege (Jensen, 2005).

Antiracist pedagogies have evolved because Antiracist educators responded to the call to

“develop vocabulary and strategies for addressing white racism and other forms of oppression”

(Sleeter, 1996, p. 153). According to Duarte and Smith (2000),

antiracism has developed three main focus points: 1) inspecting the white mainstream

culture for ideologies and systems which exploit non-whites; 2) recognition that racism

organizes systemic human oppression; and 3) curriculum and pedagogies for questioning

such structures and ideologies, to inspire activism for social justice (p. 17).

There are many examples throughout history of anti-racist resistance which can be used to exemplify activist solidarity (Apthecker, 1992; Eichstedt, 2011; Tatum, 1994; Duarte and Smith,

2000; Wise, 2012). For instance, Sleeter (1996), cites the demand of Frederick Douglass, that all people black and white work together to eradicate white supremacy. In addition, Sleeter notes that many whites "have worked collaboratively with oppressed racial groups to combat racist policies and practices. We are not starting from scratch; we have a history to guide us” (p. 153).

Tatum (2007), an African American clinical psychologist, promotes the use of Anti-

Racist pedagogies, and reminds people about the racist history inherent to concepts of intelligence. The U.S. education system is embedded with long standing stereotypes assuming

44 students of color are less intelligent than whites. This type of reasoning came from the era of scientific racism which ultimately justified the eugenics movement. Today, these same media stereotypes continue to portray Blacks and Latinos as “either stupid, lazy, dangerous, hypersexual, or all of those things combined” (p. 51). It’s no wonder children of color enter school disadvantaged from low expectations in contrast to whites. People must work consciously to counteract these influences that shape how we treat others. ARE is needed at all levels of development. One of the biggest dangers of which few people talk about is the resegregation of public schools, about which Tatum warns, "meaningful opportunities for cross- racial contact are diminishing” (p. xi). Moreover, the United States has yet ignores "a wealth of untapped and underutilized talent in communities of color across the country" (p. xvi). There is a great need to talk about race and racism. ARE pedagogies provide the opportunities to do so.

An ARE curriculum must be evaluated for racial equity regarding both materials and their use. This requires facilitation by knowledgeable teachers with anti-racist commitments who have the ability to turn racist content within the curricular materials into teachable moments for critical skills. A special need exists to liberate and decolonize the mindsets of longstanding racist traditions within social studies and history texts. Narrative texts and counter-stories authored by people of color, can expose the structural dimensions of racism. It is important to model interracial collaborations for social justice. Children can be given hundreds of years of historic examples along with those of today. Making racial structures visible and relevant to local communities and students. Anti-racist curricula is an important tool, and an important goal.

(Aptheker, 1992; Bonilla-Silva, 2005; Derman-Sparks & Phillips,1997; Wise, 2012). However, work to actually change the larger curricular framework to eliminate racist ideologies, looks much different than simply integrating content about diverse American cultures. Consequently,

45 changing the big picture in this way is an important and necessary task. “The reason is that if you are compelled to lie about one aspect of anybody’s history, you must lie about it all”

(Baldwin, 1988, p. 8). As hooks (2000) explains, abandoning white supremacist mythologies would have to look much different than an inclusive multicultural curriculum. Lessons and discussions in an anti-racism curriculum would include much different content.

It would mean talking about imperialism, colonization, about the Africans who came here

before Columbus… It would mean talking about genocide, about the white colonizers’

exploitation and betrayal of Native American Indians; about ways the legal and

governmental structures of this society from the Constitution supported and upheld

slavery, [and] apartheid (p. 113).

Teachers will need to be free of white supremacist programming in order to make these changes.

As a result, transformation of curricula so that institutionally racist hegemonic structures can be revealed, would benefit and liberate all students (hooks, 2000; Duarte & Smith, 2000; McLaren,

1997; Wise, 1997; Zinn, 2007).

Anti-racism calls for collaboration and solidarity between people of color and whites to design social change. Racism hurts everyone, and “authentic help means that all who are involved help each other mutually, growing together in the common effort to understand the reality which they seek to transform” (Freire, 1978, p. 8). DeRosa (1999), Duarte & Smith

(2000), and hooks (2000) each share the powerful parable of Malcolm X’s eventual regret for once discouraging a white activist who wanted to contribute to the Black Power movement.

Spike Lee created a film about the life of Malcolm X, but unfortunately only the first part of this story was included, in which Malcolm told the white woman there was nothing she could do.

Potential white activists were undoubtedly discouraged by this omission. Because the full story,

46 in which Malcolm wished he would have recommended working with other whites to resist racism and then joining alliances to collaborate with people of color, is an incredibly inspiring one. For instance, it was fundamental to DeRosa's (1999) own journey of white allyship.

Malcolm's word were a wake-up call for me, and it guided me in the direction of my life's

work. Malcolm's vision also helped me to reframe my racial questions from the

paternalistic ("What can White people do for people of color?") to those that expose

White privilege ("What can Whites do to dismantle White supremacy?"), thereby helping

me to take responsibility for racism as a White problem (p. 193).

Commitments for interracial collaborations against white supremacy are affirmed by hooks

(2000) who states, “…I am not making a commitment to working only for and with black people,

I must engage in struggle with all willing comrades to strengthen our awareness and our resistance” (p. 117). Finding and providing examples of this mutual work can be offered to children through their literature.

Bridging ARE together with CRT can reveal structural racism and inspire anti-racism activism. Each of these analytical perspectives has typically been employed and refined for at least some years now in the U.S. and to some degree in Canada, Australia, the U.K., and elsewhere to critically challenge racism in society and schools. Both perspectives have been long known to be philosophically compatible and now studies are just beginning to weave them together intentionally towards this challenge, “…there is a great deal to be gained by a dynamic understanding of how anti-racists and critical race theorists have approached certain key issues and dilemmas” (Gillborn, 2006, p. 26). Complicated factors contribute to the potential for successful results, not the least of which is that there is no official “dogmatic ‘manual’ of anti- racism” (p. 13). Anti-racism needs more flexibility as racism continues to take new forms.

Similarly, CRT also lacks “an elaborate theoretical schema” (p. 14). Both CRT and ARE intersect in many ways but primarily both focus on the structural roots of institutional racism that maintains white supremacy. Both anti-racists and critical race theorists consider it important to realize how institutions function in societies to maintain power. ARE and CRT both take the position that personal prejudice is not the problem, it’s only an attitude. Each perspective asserts that racism must be understood politically in order to actually change the larger framework to eliminate racist ideologies. Both understand that race itself is a cultural construct, and these

“concepts of race are the product of the justification of the economic exploitation of one group by another group” (Spring, 2000, p. 133). Wrestling with issues such as these is not easy and requires guidance but it does lead to deeper understandings of racialized systems.

The nature of racism is in constant flux in our rapidly changing world. Therefore, antiracist approaches must also be flexible for analyzing education. In consideration of these needs,

Gillborn (2006) calls for a description of “what is characteristically anti-racist about an “antiracist” analysis; offers a suitable starting point for further explorations in educational theory, policy and practice” (p. 13). Gillborn argues for the use of CRT because of the unique criterion anti-racist and critical race theorists hold in common. Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, & Thomas

(1995) note the common focus held by each lens.

to understand how a regime of white supremacy and its subordination of people of color

have been created and maintained in America [and] a desire not merely to understand the

vexed bond between law and radical power but to change it (p. xiii).

By looking at the ways CRT and ARE view issues and problems in society, it is easy to see why they are compatible. "Both schools [of thought] share a concern, not merely to document but to change: they are engaged in praxis" (Gillborn, p. 26). Drawing inspiration from both

48 approaches, scholars realize the opportunity for bringing change to the “real world beyond the walls of the academy” (p. 14). Paired with ARE, CRT helps insure a critical perspective on race, and supports action for change.

Newer forms of Multicultural education have evolved which do seem to have commonalities with ARE, such as Insurgent Multiculturalism and Critical Multiculturalism.

Furthermore, Lentin (2008) argues that anti-racism as well, has made three significant shifts since the early ‘80s, “from anti-racism, to anti-anti-racism, to post-anti-racism” (p. 311), claiming such differences are due to the interpretations of various problems and solutions which are proposed. As a result, Lentin calls on people to “become ‘anti-post-racism’ and combat both the persistence of racism and the presumption that it is a thing of the past” (p. 325).

Racial literacy. ARE depends upon adequate levels of racial literacy concerning the cultural constructs of race and the structural systems of racism. Students must be able to

"understand, discuss, and write about race and racism - how it works and its material and psychological effects - or how to challenge it" (Aanerud, 2007, p. 22). This section looks at the variety of perspectives on young children's racial literacy.

Though it may be tempting for early childhood educators to assume children are colorblind, this is not true. Even children younger than three years old can notice the differences society attributes to race such as skin color (Tatum, 1997, Wright, 1998). To approach the subject of racial literacy, sociologists have suggested, “...if we are ever to know fully what race and racism mean in the larger society, we must understand what they mean to children” (Van

Ausdale & Feagin, 2001, p. 214). Therefore, it is a serious responsibility for teachers and the adults influencing children’s lives, to help them “make sense of their own race-related observations” (Tatum 1997, p. 32), so educators can “consider what messages children are

49 receiving about the relative worth of light or dark skin” (p. 43). Regardless of a child's exposure to people of other races, most young children will absorb and establish ideas about race anyway.

Van Ausdale & Feagin, (2001), professors of sociology, explain this phenomenon.

Well before they can speak clearly, children are exposed to racial and ethnic ideas

through their immersion in and observation of the large social world. Since racism exists

at all levels of society and is interwoven in all aspects of American social life, it is

virtually impossible for alert young children either to miss or ignore it. Far from being

oblivious to racial group and racism, children are inundated with it from the moment they

enter society (pp. 189-190).

Moreover, recent research indicates there may even be an important window of opportunity that exists before grade three, during which children are the most receptive to racial information.

Katz (2003) conducted a longitudinal study starting with two hundred babies, and following them until the age of six to look at various race consciousness markers including cross-racial interactions. During first grade, children in racially diverse student study groups were guided to peer mentor each other for tasks. At recess, these students played more cross-racially together.

Yet, by third grade, the effect ended. In light of the findings, Katz thinks parents and educators may be waiting too long. "It's possible that by third grade, when parents usually recognize it's safe to start talking a little about race, the developmental window has already closed" (p. 55).

Coincidently, Van Ausdale & Feagin (2001) also agree that researchers are waiting too long.

"By doing investigations mostly on older children, we in effect assist in allowing race and racism to become important operating routines for life" (p. 214). Yet, discussing race in the classroom can feel awkward and many teachers tend to avoid it, inadvertently creating colorblind silences and setting the stage for bias. Montague (1997), a pioneer in promoting the scientific fallacy of

50 race since the 1940s, voiced concerns about the consequences of this silence in children's development:

No attempt is made to supply [children] with the facts relating to race as demonstrated by

science…for the most part they are supplied with the kind of information that makes

fertile ground for the development of race prejudices [which] early acquired are

notoriously difficult to eradicate. The child picks up attitudes long before he becomes

familiar with the facts (p. 178).

Wright (1998) notes, “children are more vulnerable to negative stereotypes than adults who have more experience and judgment in the process” (p. 187). Tatum (1997) asks, “are we as adults prepared to help the children we care about make sense of their own race-related observations?"

(p. 42). Derman Sparks and Ramsey (2006) explain that white preschool children absorb media stereotypes and express prejudice toward people of color. This stems largely from lack of contact with other races, plus family and community attitudes, but it may also be connected to their cognitive abilities. For example, in middle childhood white children's prejudice seemingly declines, only to flare back up during elementary school with an increasing use of racial slurs.

Could this be related to lost childhood windows of opportunity for meaningful experiences and discussions about race having closed, as Katz (2003) suggests? Teachers assume children have learned these attitudes at home, but research has not definitely proven this link, as it is “difficult to measure both parents’ and children’s’ attitudes… many adults have become adept at hiding their true feelings from researchers and even from themselves” (p. 104).

According to Mac Naughton and Davis (2009a), the evolution of racial identity development starts when children begin noticing racial markers by age two or three, advancing from this awareness, to an orientation, and then to a racial attitude by age seven to nine. Various

51 models from cognitive developmental theorists have followed such stage-based developmental patterns. “Children sort and classify people into groups in the same way they sort and classify other items into groups: they search for similarities and differences between people and sort them into categories” (p. 21-22). People may assume that older children will gain competence and get even better at these categorizations yet just the opposite proves to be the case. Older children become more silent about race and may represent a new capacity for internalizing society’s norms. This is considered a cognitive anomaly which may indicate a child’s “growing understanding that ‘race’ and what is said or not said about it matters in their specific context; and so children’s silence on ‘racial’ issues may be linked to their maturing social cognition” (p.

23).

Additionally, Van Ausdale and Feagin (2001) consider that popular theories of cognitive development may be problematic when applied to racial matters. For instance, researchers who base their work on Piaget’s theories of cognitive development may not consider certain limitations. “Piaget never investigated children in social settings not dominated by an adult” (p.

7). Furthermore, Piaget's research was biased because it ignored cultural variation assuming that patterns for acquiring knowledge and skills were universal (Croker, 2003). Serious problems from linear stage-development theories have been dominating research on racial attitudes and other social identities, in that these theories actually neglect children’s racial attitudes (Van

Ausdale & Feagin, 2001). It is crucial to consider the consequences of misunderstanding how children form racial concepts. As Van Ausdale and Feagin (2001) explain, such ignorance

exacerbates and extends the influence of racism in U.S. society. By ignoring the ways

children learn about these matters, we neglect some of the reproduction processes that

undergird the nation’s continuing racist system (p. 10).

Considering that discourses shape our ways of being in the world, such as how one knows what is acceptable and in which contexts, it is important to remember that these discourses “operate through texts (images and words) and so are learned through language” (Derman-Sparks &

Ramsey, 2006, p. 34). Therefore, the use of storytelling with young children helps them “give voice to their lived experience, unfairness, questions and frustrations they experience around

'race,' knowing that the adult is willing to talk about racism with them and acknowledge ‘race’ as a salient factor in their lives” (p. 47). Society cannot afford to take children's cognition about racial issues for granted.

Of all the subjects that schools decide are important for educating students, perhaps the most important is social justice. A social justice curriculum shouldn't be thought of as some new trend or supplement. "Rather, education for social justice is the root of teaching and schooling in a democratic society, the rock upon which we build democracy" (Ayers, Quinn, & Stovall, 2009, p. xiv). The imperative of utilizing a social justice curriculum is underscored by Delpit (2006), a teacher educator specializing in culturally relevant literacy, who shares a particular letter which has always moved her. It was written by a school principal, and once published in Teacher and

Child, by Ginott (1972). This principal gave it to teachers starting their new school year.

Dear Teacher:

I am the survivor of a concentration camp. My eyes saw what no person should witness:

Gas chambers built by learned engineers.

Children poisoned by educated physicians.

Infants killed by trained nurses.

Women and babies shot and burned by high school and college graduates.

So I am suspicious of education. My request is: Help your students become human.

Your efforts must never produce learned monsters, skilled psychopaths, educated

Eichmanns. Reading, writing, and arithmetic are important only if they were to make our

children more humane (p. 317).

This powerful letter recalls Wise's (2010) recommendations for strengthening the "empathy and solidarity connection [with people of color] among white children... " (p. 172). It important to deconstruct stereotypes and teach about injustice through a "lens of resistance" (p. 173).

Challenging racism means guiding children to care about the suffering of other people of other races. "The significance of this cannot be overstated, for the failure to acknowledge the humanity and dignity of all persons has lurked at the root of every racial caste system"

(Alexander, 2012, p. 246). Therefore, a social justice curriculum needs to be given priority in order to address "the first R" (Van Ausdale & Feagin, 2001).

Utilizing the ARE paradigm means looking at racism as a part of U.S. society upon which other forms of oppression are hinged. This is also the essence of Whiteness Studies, which show how common social concepts of whiteness are forms or structures of racism.

According to Rogers and Mosley (2006), white researchers in education need to learn more about how these concepts affect teachers and students, since "only recently has research been conducted that explores whiteness, white identity, and the impact internalized dominance and white privilege has on white people" (p. 466). Models of white identity formation inform researchers and educators how white students perceive their own race. Several models for this do exist, but Tatum’s simple three stage model explains the likelihood for getting stuck in the

‘guilty white’ model. Spring (2000) acknowledges that the issue of white identity is important in

ARE, yet wonders if Tatum's 'white-ally' model neglects the social class issue, such as in regard to poor whites' identity.

Is their racial hostility the product of lacking a positive white identity? In part, this might

explain their continued racism. But, on the other hand, their racism might be fed by

poverty and their own encounters with prejudice (p. 140).

Whiteness studies, CRT, and ARE each look at racism as part of U.S. society that interconnects with other forms of oppression. Whiteness studies see the ways that common social concepts of whiteness are forms of racism, and call for ARE to interrupt them.

Using the term 'white ally,' or 'white anti-racist' can be problematic when discussing anti- racism and white anti-racism activists. Simply using these terms raises concerns about their definitions in the context of power. There is still no consensus or common language yet among scholars. Nevertheless, it is important to discuss the range of perspectives, and the discourse surrounding them.

In order to claim a white anti-racism identity, as many educators agree (Brown; 2002;

Howard, 1999a; Jensen 2005; Kivel, 2002; Wise, 2010) requires an understanding of: (a) the construction of race in the U.S., (b) how whites are privileged according to social structures and institutions, and (c) the ability to admit to being racist, regardless of intentions. However,

Eichstedt (2013), looks closely at challenges facing whites working for racial justice and adds

[T]o remain antiracism activists they must find a way to balance this negative identity

with some positive constructions of self-or they will not be able to continue the work. In

fact, it is likely that they will not be able to begin the work in earnest if they do not find

ways to overcome immobilizing guilt and shame at being white (p. 465).

Alternately, according to Applebaum (2010) the practice of racially conscientious whites acknowledging white privilege is not enough to become effective allies with people of color.

Instead, it is important for white people to use their moral agency and acknowledge complicity in white privilege and to ultimately practice white complicity pedagogy. In essence, this means that in order for whites to truly use their white agency as allies, they must become more responsible by really hearing what people of color are saying. Applebaum contends,

white complicity pedagogy can potentially increase the development of alliance identities

by facilitating the type of listening on the part of white students that can foster a

willingness on the part of the systemically marginalized to engage in dialogue with white

students (p. 6).

In other words, listening is the key. Really listening and therefore hearing what non-white people who are targets of racial oppression are discussing is crucial to building cross-racial alliances. White complicity pedagogy urges is an admission of guilt and an acknowledgment of complicity. Although many scholars and educators suggest white students need strategies for moving beyond the stage of guilt which produces silence in classrooms and colorblindness

(another form of silencing), Applebaum (2008) suggests that this particular form of guilt can actually facilitate listening skills.

Not seeking so zealously to “get over” the discomforts of acknowledging complicity

and being willing to remain engaged even in the midst of discomfort promotes the

possibility of creating alliance identities and is a necessary step in working together to

challenge and undermine the unjust system we are currently so deeply embedded in (p.

298).

Acknowledging white complicity, can help establish the humility required on the part of whites, in order for people of color's willingness for taking risks together in "courageous conversations"

(Singleton & Linton, 2006) about race. The basic premise of what Singleton and Linton (2006) promote for engaging in a courageous interracial conversation about race, is to "stay engaged, experience discomfort, speak your truth, and expect and accept non-closure" (p. 58). Yet according to Applebaum (2010) this may not be enough, "white exceptionalism impedes white listening and makes cross-racial dialogue fractious" (p. 182). Along these lines, more than a few critical race scholars have concerns about even using the term white ally because it may have the effect of normalizing whiteness, recentering white moral agency, and thus impeding cross-racial alliance building (Applebaum, 2010).

According to Camarrota (2013), Hollywood and the media often stereotype the white savior or lone white hero character, such as in the films Avatar and The Blindside (Camarrota,

2013). It is important to realize that what separates allies from saviors, is the difference between a focus on systemic structures of racism, versus benevolence bestowed upon an individual, or efforts to lead versus collaborate. Lone white heroes are said to be those whites who feel morally above or more advanced in understanding racism, often distancing themselves from other whites.

Because allyship is more of a process than an identity, experiencing a lone white hero stance is sometimes described as a common early stage in the ongoing, endless process of allyship

(Howard, 1999b; Kivel, 2002).

White Antiracism Narratives. Personal narratives of white anti-racism activists have a great potential to inspire students, and to provide them with deeper understandings about the social structures of racism in society, past and present. Although such narratives do exist, they can be hard to locate, even in contemporary times.

[T]here are very few narratives by white antiracism activists or scholarly works that are

based on, or that examine, activists' own words. Such a lack weakens our ability to

develop a positive white antiracism activism and it leaves a gap in the social movement

literature (Eichstedt, 2001, p. 449).

Within the forward to a collection of essays from white women activists connected to the Student

Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) during the 1960s Civil Rights movement, Ransby

(2000) also acknowledges that such narratives are rare. "These first-person accounts by white women activists represent a critical voice, yet one that has not been often heard" (p. vii). Such stories have the power to "remind us of a longer and larger tradition of white antiracist activism and an older generation of white antiracist southerners -- racial renegades, we might call them"

(p. x). Moreover, Ransby notes that the true gift of these anti-racism narratives is their ability to create "a more optimistic legacy for a new generation of blacks and whites as they navigate the ever-volatile path of racial relations into the twenty-first century...to make the world a better and more humane place" (p. xi). Wise (2012) concurs.

Imagine how different the racial dialogue might feel for us if we knew and had been

taught from a young age of the history of white allyship and antiracist resistance? If as

children we had been introduced not only to the black and brown heroes and sheroes of

the antiracist struggle -- Like Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth, Rosa Parks, Fannie

Lou Hamer, Ella Baker and of course Dr. King -- but also to those white freedom fighters

who stood beside them? What if we learned of the alternative tradition in our history, the

one in which members of our community said no to racism and white domination, said no

to racial hegemony and yes to justice? (p. 149).

Kivel (2006) urges people to talk with children and young people about racism. If people can “understand and learn from the history of whiteness and racism…learn something about the history of white people who have worked for racial justice…their stories can inspire and sustain”

(pp. 2-3). According to Kivel, being a white ally is “one of the most important things white people can do” (p. 86), and it's important for people to remember that there is no one way to go about it because everyone is different, the important thing is to stay active and keep trying.

Training professionals for work with early childhood education programs requires knowing how to make connections between children of color, their families, and communities.

Carter (2001) advises that becoming an effective white ally includes understanding that “there are good reasons for people of privilege and power not to be trusted by those from groups historically denied justice and equity” (p. 71). Carter urges people to take “time to build genuine relationships and keep them up-to-date” (p. 72) . Especially in the context of early childhood education it is important to understand that relationships are more important than agendas.

Howard (1999) promotes anti-racist activism and shares his own personal white identity development as an ally striving for solidarity with people of color, likening it an ongoing and ever-changing dance throughout stages of life, and explaining why it is a difficult process.

There are complex moves and many ways to lose the step…I had to confront my own

ignorance and often tripped over my own and others’ feet… I had to learn to move with

some degree of grace and style, without stumbling over guilt, denial, or the rejection of

my own whiteness (p. 223).

After spending the majority of his career of helping people appreciate other people’s cultures,

Howard stresses the importance of finally finding ways to appreciate his own Euro-American heritage. More work and attention to theories of whiteness are recommended, not less, for they

59 emphasize ongoing processes rather than fixed attributes. Howard discusses working with white children around these topics.

To teach my white students and my own children that they are 'not white' is to do them a

disservice. To teach them that there are different ways of being White and that they have

a choice as White people to become champions of justice and social healing, is to provide

them a positive direction for growth and to grant them the dignity of their being (p. 17).

Color conscious strategies for working with young students are important because there are so many disconscious and subliminally racist factors at work in society. Wise (2005) describes the dangers of being raised in U.S. society and the challenges of struggling to maintain and promote an anti-racism.

The perverse thing about growing up amidst racism is that no matter your own views, no

matter your own commitment to resisting it, you inhale it anyway; you ingest it, inhale it

just as surely as you inhale any other environmental pollutant. Having done so, you are

then always at risk of coughing it back up, of vomiting it back into the world whence it

came (p. 121).

Even committed anti-racist activists are really unaware of what they are passing down to their children, so insidious is the nature of racism in society. Wise reminds us that it is a perpetual battle of resistance with an uncertain outcome, but the “outcome of our silence and inaction” is nothing (p. 154). Brown (2002), refers to racism a “social disease of the mind” (p. 148), which

European Americans need to recover from. “We must each reach into our hearts and, inspired by the long line of white allies before us and with us, find our own ways to eradicate racism” (p.

148). Along these lines, a group of white antiracist activists, including Wise and Kivel,

60 collaborated with Calderón (2012) to create a "Code of Ethics for White Allies" (pp. 171-175).

Category titles for each of this document's ten recommendations are provided (Appendix B).

Many adult students of color have expressed their amazement in meeting and learning about white activists, particularly younger students who did not live through the actual civil rights era. Narratives of white allies help people of color realize that there is hope, “these narratives are a gift of light, illuminating the possibility of coalitions and cross-racial partnerships in the journey to justice for both white people and people of color alike” (p. 62), reminding us that “even small choices make a difference” (Tatum 1999, p. 63). Echoing this most important understanding, one of the greatest white allies, Zinn (2012) explains

what we learn from history is that even the smallest of acts that people engage in matter.

It is important to know this, because otherwise people think they have to do something

heroic to change things. There are people who do things heroic, but most people do not

do things heroic. Social movements come about not through a few heroic acts. Social

movements come about because millions of people do small things and, at certain points

in history, all these small things come together and something good happens, then change

takes place (p. 282).

Anti-racism narratives do exist, including children's literature, and offer ways for students to contemplate both small choices and heroic ones.

Historic Antiracism narratives can be difficult to locate because history books either omit or minimize the contributions of white allies, even though extensive scholarly works exist.

Aptheker (1992) dedicated his career to African-American history and the study of black resistance movements, then wrote the first comprehensive book on anti-racism activism throughout two hundred years of U.S. history, as well as others on this topic which specifically

61 look at the American Revolution and colonial eras. Wise (2012) refers to Aptheker's work as

"majestic" (p. 152), and recommends reading it as a starting point for learning about the "history of white antiracism, multiracial solidarity, and allyship" (p. 151). Interestingly, Aptheker (1992) discovered three generalizations about historic white anti-racist activism to be valid.

First, it is 'more common among the so-called lower classes than among the so-called

upper class.' Second, it 'appears among white people who have had significant

experiences with people of African origin.' And third, it 'seems to be more common

among women than men' (p. xiv).

Nevertheless, many types of people have collaborated cross-racially for social justice. "Anti racism has persisted in this nation’s history and is an important, though grossly neglected aspect of that history” (p. 7). In 1937, Herbert Aptheker produced a Master’s thesis for Columbia

University on Nat Turner’s slave rebellion, and in 1943 a doctoral thesis on American Negro

Slave Revolts, both of which "challenged then prevailing interpretations of slavery that stressed slave acquiescence rather than resistance" (Organization of American Historians, 2003, p. 19).

These literary works, as well as Aptheker's collaborations with Carter G. Woodson and W.E.B.

Du Bois, helped shift the trend in the field of American historiography, to one that places

"greater emphasis on African American agency” (p. 19).

According to Wise (2008), teaching about historic white antiracists is necessary in order to debunk a common argument used to justify the structural atrocities of genocide and enslavement, by claiming that it was just the way all whites felt at the time. For instance, this argument is often used to justify inhumane policies of the founding fathers of the United States.

Yet often the very people doing this arguing, will ironically “insist morality is timeless, and… clamor for the posting of the Ten Commandments… prohibitions against murder and theft” (p.

134). Offering students examples of whites who objected to atrocities on moral grounds in historic times allows for a completely different historical understanding. All whites did not condone land theft, human trafficking, and murder. Yet the history which is typically taught to students not only lacks the non-white perspective but the antiracism white perspectives too.

Thus promoting an extremely narrow version of history, "one that normalizes contributing to the death and destruction of racial others as something quintessentially white, perhaps even the essence of whiteness” (p. 135). Moreover, to believe that's just the way it was without other choices, sends a terrible message to children that normalizes racism.

Is it any wonder that with such a stunted understanding of what it means (or can mean) to

be a person of European descent, that so few whites think antiracism [their] struggle? Is

it any wonder that whites who have never been exposed to antiracist white history can’t

see any alternative to going along with the system as [they've] inherited it, all the while

making excuses about how ‘that’s just how our people have always thought? (p. 136).

Learning about examples of white anti-racist resistance during the colonial period, civil war, and the more recent civil rights movements, will help students understand and take pride in the history of white anti-racism activism, and inspire ongoing work for transforming society.

Contemporary antiracism narratives are easier to find. Today, many white anti-racism activists are working to improve racial equity, and committed to finding the most effective ways to do it. Yett here is certainly no consensus on exactly how or when to begin educating children to inspire cross-race collaboration, and for claiming a white antiracism identity (Applebaum,

2010; Calderón, 2012; Eichstedt, 2011; Kivel, 2011; Howard, 1999b; Thompson, 1999).

The implications of ARE for K-12 teachers and students are both exciting and concerning. Conversations about racism require courage, they are not easy, and unless including

63 information about racism’s historic structures and legacies, they may not be productive either.

Success will depend upon teachers’ ongoing commitment to anti-racist skills and their emotional affect. The type of approach required to use Anti-Racist pedagogies successfully, considers the degree to which racism is entrenched in our psyches. According to Derman-Sparks and Phillips

(1997) educators need understand what to expect, considering that

it is virtually impossible to approach the study of racism dispassionately. Victims of

racism harbor anger, frustration, impatience, and so forth. Perpetrators and beneficiaries

of racist systems exhibit various forms of denial and other defenses (p. xi).

In fact, Derman-Sparks and Phillips wonder why it has not been categorized as a pathology by psychologists in their DSM, which list: "denial, delusions, projection, phobias, and distortion – all of which are aspects of racism – as psychological disorders, yet racist behavior is not identified as a mental illness" (p. xi). Considering the effort required and uncertain outcomes for helping students explore their relationships to racism, it may seem hard to understand why teachers would even try. After all, "who needs the tension, the disappointment, the frustration, the conflicts? Only those who have hope and who are committed to erasing the evil force of racism, without compromise, [can] persist” (p. xii). As teachers who have worked with young children and their families for years, as well as in teacher education, Derman-Sparks and Phillips share insights for successful anti-racist education programs. The following is a profound parable that they use on the first day of class, to help their students conceptualize racism.

Once upon a time a woman, strolling along a riverbank, hears a cry for help and seeing a

drowning person rescues him. She no sooner finishes administering artificial respiration

when another cry requires another rescue. Again, she has only just helped the second

person when a third call for help is heard. After a number of rescues, she begins to

realize that she is pulling some people out of the river more than once. By this time the

rescuer is exhausted and resentful, feeling that if people are stupid or careless enough to

keep landing in the river, they can rescue themselves. She is too annoyed, tired, and

frustrated to look around her…Shortly after, another woman walking along the river

hears the cries for help and begins rescuing people. She, however, wonders why so many

people are drowning in this river. Looking around her, she sees a hill where something

seems to be pushing people off. Realizing this as the source of the drowning problem,

she is faced with a difficult dilemma: If she rushes uphill, people presently in the river

will drown; if she stays at the river pulling them out, more people will be pushed in.

What can she do? (pp. 1-2).

The solution is a matter of choice, and anti-racist educators hope people will see the wisdom in organizing with others to “destroy the source of the problem” (p. 2). Anti-racism education can become an important new beginning. Teachers and students have many resources for the K-12 levels. Programs in anti-racism usually proceed through phases, because each portion typically builds upon the previous stage. However, programs can only help if districts choose to use them, and it seems that many teachers and school districts today have challenges in regard to confronting their own racialized understandings. Also, given the framework of racism that schools are built upon, for instance, funding disparities, it is hard not to feel overwhelmed.

Teachers can influence the outcomes of their students in every learning situation. This is especially true for reading teachers working critically with issues of race in picturebooks and

ARE pedagogies. Guidance is necessary to help children develop racial literacy (Rogers &

Mosley, 2006). Many children's literature specialists have concerns about children’s literacy and the ways in which they negotiate meaning when reading a book. Teachers must help children

65 use literature by teaching them how to read for social change. It is important to show students these alternative ways of reading (Botelho & Rudman, 2009; Yenika-Agbaw, 1997; Zipes,

1993).

Children may read books aesthetically or efferently. In other words, pleasurably with feelings or for simply seeking information from the text (Rosenblatt, 1982). But, to critically comprehend a book, children should be able to read post-colonially or multiculturally across the grain for social change because these are ways to uncover both “ideologies of domination and resistance embedded within texts” (Yenika-Agbaw, 1997, p. 450). In consideration of life in a racially inequitable society "it is the teacher’s responsibility to show children how reading the word can affect how students read the world (p. 452). Children’s literature and children’s readings must be taken seriously. Students bring their own individual background knowledge to texts, but a teacher can guide students to discover multiple perspectives within their literature by facilitating "an inclusive discussion that treats each reader with respect and dignity. Through this forum readers learn to recognize different signs that shape meanings in texts" (p. 453).

Pilgrim (2005), a sociologist at Ferris State University, maintains a museum of racist memorabilia specifically for using intolerance to teach tolerance. By helping students examine

“historical patterns of race relations and the origins and consequences of racist depictions” (p. 1).

This way of using racist objects and images as iconic texts, encourages people to use their heads and hearts to risk these conversations, and talk about race. Though admittedly, there are no rules, there is also no shame in feeling confused. Each person must use trial and error to find what works for them in their unique circumstances.

Related Research

The following section looks at research related to this study in some context, or combination of contexts, including: picturebooks, racial literacy, storytelling and counter- storytelling, whiteness studies, social justice curricula, and CRT or ARE for working with students. Through this review, both correlations and gaps within the research in the field of education are revealed.

Rogers and Mosley (2006) conducted a study designed to investigate the phenomenon of race-talk, or white-talk, with white second graders and their teachers within their literacy curriculum. The study focused on the inequities of literacy education in U.S. schools, and the social-political and economic limitations this creates for people of color. Aligning with the tenets of CRT, this research considers the need for racial literacy which interprets race structurally, not individually, and focuses on anti-racist democratic public actions as ways to find solutions. Ignoring race perpetuates inequity. Conversely, racial literacy becomes an important tool for helping address race directly. An important need exists to critically explore and analyze literacy, race, and whiteness discourse in the classroom. Young white children do talk about race, racism and anti-racism within literacy curricula Yet because literacy research tends to be silent on race especially with youth and whites, racial literacy development requires guidance. In this study, CDA framed the use of CRT and whiteness studies as a means of coding for and interpreting research data. Ten white students and two white teacher/researchers took part in the study, within a second grade classroom. The classroom was integrated, which reflected the local working class community. White students were able to talk about texts and issues with African

American peers in groups and within the classroom. Finding anti-racist consciousness raising books for young levels was difficult, so students used existing storybooks and helped critique the

67 author’s representations. A coding system was developed which helped identify 'white-talk.'

Multiple audio and video recordings were collected and analyzed. Researchers created rich descriptions of verbal and non-verbal communications, and cross checked their results with other anti-racist white scholars and scholars of color. This study was successful in presenting that young students do express racial literacy development interactively as they analyze race to practice problem solving within a social justice literacy curriculum. Students were able to find contradictions and omissions in the texts and illustrations, and to question the author in such relationships. White children identified, problematized and reconstructed understandings of whiteness, thereby illustrating that white-talk can become strategic to extend discourse about race and racism for helping students “take responsibility for channeling this acknowledgement into conscious antiracist actions” (p. 483).

Chen and Yu (2006) conducted research looking at the power of visuals and pre-school students. The research explores the relationship between a child’s age and the effect of images.

Findings show that the younger a child is the more powerfully an image's influence will be. In other words, the “psychic life of preschool children is predominately imagistic” (p. 114). Chen and Yu studied six children’s books dealing with the trauma experienced at Japanese-American

WWII internment camps. They note that for children, traumatic experiences involve

intense visual, spatial, and somatic elements, their traumatic memories appear more as

iconic images than as descriptive narratives… It is the imagistic memory through the

introjection of the externalized image around physical-visual-spatial environments that

begins the formation of the ego…for preschool children, traumatic stories are made more

accessible not by episodic narratives but iconic images (p. 114).

Along these lines and in consideration of the magnified effect that imagery has on very young children, more research needs to be conducted in regard to the traumas of young children of color who are subjected to racist environments and micro aggressions in educational settings.

Brooks, (2008), explains how CRT can be applied to analyze children’s literature, by applying a CRT analysis of Mildred Taylor’s award winning historical fiction novel, The Land, offers “valuable insight to historicize contemporary race relations” (p. 36). Recipient of the 2002

Coretta Scott King Award, it is based on the struggles of land ownership by Blacks during the

Reconstruction era. Brooks had found the will of her own great-great grandfather, who, like the protagonist in Taylor’s novel, was a bi-racial man during the Reconstruction era. This book helped Brooks interpret the challenges of land acquisition he may have faced due to the racial structure of his historic space and time. CRT is an excellent tool for looking at the embedded meanings and relationships between property rights, whiteness, and “institutionalized racism in

U.S. society” (p. 38). Brooks offers three important reasons for applying a CRT framework to this story. First, it gives people a system for understanding

racism’s enduring influence from the perspective of those exploited… by chronicling the

life of an African/Indian/European adolescent, enduring and living beyond the years of

slavery… it portrays the complexities of race and race relations in the United States…

still overlooked in many of the texts read in today’s schools (p. 42).

Secondly, a CRT framework allows “addressing property ownership and its relationship to whiteness [so that] a reader can tangibly grapple with one of racism’s antecedents” (p. 42). And, thirdly, to represent a “contemporary rather than a historical theoretical frame [so that] connections between the past and present are evoked…” (p. 42). Telling counter-stories offers themes of discrimination, oppression, and resistance. The Land has incited controversy, and

Taylor's books have been banned in schools and criticized for “racial violence and use of historicized language” (p. 35). Yet including this content has a purpose.

I have chosen to use the language that was spoken during the period, for I refuse to

whitewash history. The language was painful and life was painful for many African

Americans, including my family. I remember the pain... My stories might not be

‘politically correct’ so there will be those who will be offended, but as we all know,

racism is offensive. It is not polite, and it is full of pain (pp. 36-37).

This study recommends this type of historical fiction novel be used in conjunction with a contemporary novel, which will illuminate corresponding issues in present times, to further generate understandings of racial structures in society. Additionally, Kivel’s (1996) ‘White benefits checklist’ is suggested for locating privilege (Appendix C).

Akom (2009) applies critical race methodologies for helping high school students inquire, self reflect and assert voice. Students exemplify the values of CTR and ARE through a curriculum that utilizes culturally relevant teaching and counter-narrative storytelling. Here, an

African American student reflects on the course experience.

I love this class because the curriculum is about me…about my life…my problems…my

history…Why can’t we learn about the positive contributions Black people make in

regular (read White) history class…Why is all they teach us about is how Black people

were slaves and stuff…What about all of the inventions Black people have made?... why

can’t we talk about that in “regular” history class…And they wonder why I don’t try and

don’t come to class…I remember they were all laughin’ at me because I didn’t know who

Hitler was…and I was like…I don’t give a damn about who Hitler is…Why do you think

the Jewish Holocaust is more important than the African Holocaust? Why should I care

who Hitler is? What does Hitler have to teach me about my community? (p. 512)

Critical Race methodologies helped turn these students into researchers and public intellectuals, shifting them from problems into agents and assets. Offering relevant histories of powerful resistance movements, especially interracial collaborations and relevant accounts of suppressed histories can empower and encourage leadership and activism.

Cammarota and Romero (2009) created the Social Justice in Education Project (SJEP), in which a U.S. history curriculum was created from a Chicano perspective, involved working for two years with a cohort of high school juniors and seniors. The course materials utilized CRT, critical pedagogy, and visual research methods. Students became “critical agents” (p. 471), they documented life problems photographically. One student offers a testimonial about his reactions throughout the experience.

I remember one day you were talking about the other class (cohort one) and how they

said the project saved their lives. That made me think, I was wondering if that could be

true. I didn’t think you were lying, but I was not sure how this would be for me. For me

and Jairo this class did change our lives. It helped us to understand that …Nos Vemos

el mundo con ojos critico, you know like you say we see the world different. We see

ourselves different, I see myself different, and I believe different things. Now I believe

that things can change, I can help change things, and the things can be just. It hard, and

sometimes it feels like too much, but I know Mexicanos or Chicanos can be strong, we

do have power, and unless we speak up and take action nothing will change. I am going

to help (p. 473).

The SJEP courses were designed to expose racism and White supremacy in society. These courses teach students to how to “confront and overcome racism” (p. 474). Combining CRT and

ARE into methodologies, curricula, and pedagogies, is predictably becoming more popular.

Offering antiracism opportunities for using CRT in education does help inspire activism.

Ironically, one especially unique research study looks at an interracial coalition involving historic and contemporary legal conflicts over tribal lands in Minnesota. Lipsitz (2008) conducted ethnographic research with the Anishinabe Nation regarding their successful cross- race alliance with white allies. The Anishinabe were struggling against white supremacist vigilantes in Northern Wisconsin over Native American treaty rights for spear fishing. Whites created composite identities as “nonviolent witnesses against violence… environmentalists… human rights advocates… [and] antiracists” (p. 112). The Anishinabe, worked together with their white allies and even made a point “to seek reconciliation with the anti-treaty protestors, to extend a hand in friendship to their enemies” (p. 112). To form alliances with whites, the

Anishinabe used models they had in place from their previous work in developing Native

American solidarity. They “labored to create new social identities capable of pulling white people away from white supremacy and toward a sense of themselves as citizens willing and able to join movements led by people of color” (p. 109). This research not only offer models of successful interracial alliances, but surprisingly successful outcomes for influencing the opposition.

Copenhaver-Johnson, Bowman, and Johnson (2007), three white researchers, conducted a qualitative case study with two classrooms of first graders. Picturebooks were used to engage children in conversations about race. The students were from low income working families in diverse neighborhoods. Twenty three students self-identified as “white” (some included

“Hillbilly”), and ten self-identified as “black” or “mixed.” Picturebook read-alouds and literature discussions provided a context to explore race and power. Students’ own inquiry was evidenced by “explicit questioning, hypothesis posing, wondering aloud and challenging their classmates’ perspectives” (p. 236). The researchers audiotaped read-alouds, collected field notes, interacted with students, analyzed conversations, collected artifacts of students’ writing and drawings, and noted children’s gestures and verbal interactions. CDA of conversations and iconic texts helped to reveal how young children were “making meaning of race” (p. 235). Two picturebooks, Martin’s Big Words (Rappaport, 2001) and ‘Twas the Night B’fore Christmas

(Rosales, 1996) were used to generate student inquiry and conversations to “challenge normative race assumptions” (p. 234). ‘Twas the Night B’fore Christmas is a beautifully illustrated story featuring a Black Santa Claus and 1904 “Southern Black English Vernacular” (p. 237).

Additionally, the school arranged for a Black Santa to visit with children during lunch time and one of the teachers placed two little figurines, a Black Santa and a White Santa, in the classroom reading area. The focus was on each student’s own inquiry about race in the form of comments, questions, and mediated responses (body language and gestures) within a reader response format as they engaged with the picturebooks and each other. For example, to cope with the cognitive dissonance several students felt when confronted with the theme of a Black Santa, “Shandra and

Vicky stand up with the small figures. “'We know,' Vicky announces. 'This is the real Santa

Claus' (holding up the White Santa), 'and this is the helper Santa Claus' (holding up the Black

Santa). They smile and sigh as if they’ve finally made sense of the text” (p. 237). Reading

‘Twas the Night B’fore Christmas challenges accepted representations of Santa’s race. “In their efforts to make sense, children developed 'helper' theories, 'collaboration' theories, 'job-sharing' theories, and 'family' theories to explain Black Santa’s presence" (p. 240). Conversations which

73 allow children to demonstrate their understandings of race and power can make white teachers uncomfortable, because they reveal which assumptions adults privilege and reinforce. These researchers admitted to taking risks in the study but they wanted to share their methods because they feel “these are the circumstances under which genuine conversations often occur – in the moments for which we have not rehearsed” (p. 242). Some of the students demonstrated new perspectives, and a group of white students chose to investigate the assassination of Dr. King.

For instance, the children were concerned as they realized

none of the books showed James Earl Ray, Dr. King’s assassin, and most texts did not

include many representations of White people at all. They wondered where the White

people were, why they were not illustrated in the texts, and why Ray could have wanted

to harm Dr. King. Their research resulted in a student-led, long–term project involving

both Black and White classmates (p. 242).

The key to this method of generating race-related inquiry with children, is allowing them to express their first thoughts without judging or interrupting. Teachers note that in time, “we have been able to lead children to more critically interrogate White privilege, but initial feelings of safety support response” (p. 243). It is important how educators guide discussions about race.

Gardner (2008), an African American early learning librarian at a private K-12 school in

Atlanta with students from affluent white families, designed a reading program for promoting

“tolerance, social justice, equality, and inclusion” (p. 80). Through action research while working with students and teachers, Gardner employed a critical multicultural discourse analysis including race discourse. Students at the elite private school are inadvertently isolated from diversity. Reading programs using careful literature selections and guided discussions about

74 critical issues can help white students begin to see different aspects of society. The following examples of picturebooks and ideas for using them are recommended: a) Come and Play: Children of our World Having Fun (Lowe, 2008) contains photos of

children at play from around the world. These images work well to prompt comparisons

across cultures. b) Freedom on the Menu: The Greensboro Sit Ins (Weatherford and Lagarrique, 2007) helps

explain how young children experienced segregation, and is good for initiating conversations

about civil disobedience and social justice. The use of dramatic tableau, and other student

role playing performances can be enacted from the book’s scenes. c) Dadima Wears a Sari (Sheth, 2007) offered a connection to one of the few minority students

represented in a class; the book was integrated with a first grade unit on India, and a

Pakistani student’s grandmother attended class and helped pronunciate the Hindi words. d) And Tango Makes Three (Parnell and Richardson, 2006) and The Family Book (Parr, 2003)

are both books that represent non-traditional families in “fun matter of fact tone” (p. 82). e) The New Girl and Me (Robbins, 2006), Willimena Rules (Wesley, 2007), and Ziggy and the

Dinosaurs (Draper, 2006), are books with anthropomorphic characters that Gardner suggests

can be used to teach tolerance. These “melting pot books feature children of color but lack

cultural references” (p. 83), while not good to use exclusively, they can be beneficial for

showing commonalities. f) Wangaris’s Trees of Peace (Winter, 2008) is an inspirational story of one woman’s ability to

organize a movement to rescue the environment in Kenya, was included in a kindergarten

unit plan about trees.

Additionally, Gardner uses personal stories from her own childhood to testify about the dangers of Black History Month, which normalize whiteness and can make African American children feel like outsiders. Tatum (1999b) also mentions problems regarding this popular school tradition. "Uncomfortable with the portrayal of their group as helpless victims, students squirm as they feel the eyes of white children looking for their reaction to this subject" (p. 29). Gardner

(2008) encourages schools to stop using these approaches which minimize

contributions of minorities within the fabric of American culture... Instead, open

windows to the world, not only as we wish it were but as it exists… [to] provide a sense

of social justice and moral consciousness (p. 84).

Speaking to concerns of adequate culturally sensitive books, Gardner cites her favorite resources:

(a) Debbie Reese’s Native American Children’s Literature Blog; (b) the “small independent publishing houses… Free Spirit Publishing and Lee & Low Books” (p. 82), and (c) new titles from authors already regarded for sensitive multicultural work.

McNair (2008) wanted to study the “representation of children’s literature written by people of color” (p. 24). By systematically examining kindergarten through second grade Book

Club order forms over a six month period, the percentages of books written and/or illustrated by non-white authors are identified. During this inquiry, themes emerged which helped reveal a variety of interrelated “cultural phenomena such as racism, classism, and sexism [which] operate within the context of education” (p. 28). Preschool and K-1 Scholastic Book Club order forms contain images and graphics promoting texts which convey political ideologies to children regardless of how benign they seemingly appear. In McNair’s own teacher education classroom, critical race discourse analyses was used to explore preservice teachers' reactions to the Book

Club order forms. Study results revealed that of the more than twelve hundred books evaluated,

76 less than five percent were written by Blacks, less than half of one percent were written by

Latinos or Asians, and none could be identified as written by a Native American. Additionally, five percent of the books in the order forms were being promoted as

'Classics,' 'All Time Classics,' or 'Best Children’s Books of All Time,' and all of them

were written by White authors… Literary cannons, like the law, are social institutions

that are not neutral or color-blind, and they also function to maintain the status quo (p.

26).

What is more, January and February Scholastic Book Club order forms featured books for

'Black History Month' and the 'African American Heroes Collection'… but the words

'White' or 'European American' were not used in this manner to classify and describe

books written about Whites, thus normalizing Whiteness (p. 27).

Implications of this research affect both the publishing industry and the field of education.

Scholastic Book Clubs do promote literacy and school reading programs but are lacking a social critical consciousness. What is needed is a book selection which will "allow all children to see both reflection of themselves and glimpses in to the lives of others - mirrors and windows for every child” (p. 29). Preservice teachers were easily able to understand the Eurocentricity of the forms. Discussing this study helped to spark a “socio critical consciousness…of how racism and other social ills are manifested within the context of education” (p. 29).

Holmes, Powell, Holmes, and Witt (2007), three University of Mississippi researchers and one Mississippi elementary teacher, conducted research with thirty-five third graders. The study was designed to reveal whether the race of book characters (either Black or White) would correlate with the race of a child (either Black or White) for selecting the book. Better understandings about the interestingness of books to all children, and particularly of books for

Black students, was the research goal. Tacit reasoning led the researchers to assume that race factors would be significant to student interest and book selection. The students were evenly distributed by Black or White racial categorization as well as gender. Two identical sets of books were chosen which clearly illustrated the race of characters from the book on the cover.

An effort was also made to choose books with cover graphics that were similar “in terms of colors and graphics” (p. 278), appropriate reading levels, equal distribution of comparable topics, and absence of books about sports (of which boys aggressively sought in a pilot study, regardless of racial factors). Observers were randomly assigned to several students each, to record each student’s book selections. Lingering times in book choice related to each race were measured and compared. Concerns regarding the fact that accelerated-reading books (involving points awarded to students) were highly attractive, therefore teachers made sure students understood that for research activities no points would be awarded. Students understood they would be disqualified from the activity if they recommended a book to a classmate during the selection activity. Yet ironically, the study results contradict research predictions revealing that

...both Black and White students will read books about races other than their own if

given the opportunities... [implying] if teachers add books with Black characters to

classroom libraries, Black students and White students will read them” (p. 280).

The study results indicate students' interest in new understandings and acceptance about persons from different races.

Long (2008), a literacy professor, promotes a unique new qualitative methodology of social critical inquiry called full circling. Initially conceived while working with urban middle school students (struggling readers) while noting heightened engagement when visually literate components were part of the approach. Students critically engaged with responses to civil rights

78 and the Jim Crow era, and whenever a historic (authentic) photograph was projected “student curiosity heightened and questions grew more profound” (p. 498). Eventually Long realized that it was a combination of the thought provoking photographs being chosen and prompting students to question what they were seeing. Applying arts-based activism is doing something about it.

Full circling is accomplished by following four procedures.

1) Start with a visual as text and develop curiosity for it. 2) Invite students to become

aware of many kinds of texts emotionally and vocalize that awareness. 3) Engage

students in observing, analyzing, and acting on ethical conflicts related to the text. 4)

Come full circle by transmediating what was learned, and implement a plan of action

around this knowledge (p. 501).

Three basic tenants support the full circling process:

1) When challenged with ethical problems that are driven by compelling, historically

contextualized visuals, adolescents will respond with their heads and their hearts. 2)

When ethical problems are posted that invite adolescents to care - to develop

relationships with the people and events in history - they will often do so with great

fervor that compels them to read and reflect more, write more, and discuss more. 3)

When the process is used over time, it encourages adolescents to become ethical activists

in the world, as this journey - to truly come full circle - must be transformative (p. 500).

Visual images are foundations for engaging all literacies, critically analyzing, and profound inquiring. Therefore, positing Socratic open-ended questions with compelling visuals is a powerful literacy strategy. For example, ask students to locate something they may wonder about then to make predictions about what is going on or about to happen. Focus on integrating other forms of related information on the theme such as “additional authentic photographs,

79 paintings, posters, ads, [or] newspaper headlines” (p. 504). When the original image is reviewed in the full circle process, ask students to describe their feelings. Just as readers can place themselves into the text as they read, so viewers “develop multitextual relationships with the people in the photographs…they imagine themselves inside the unfolding historical events’ (p.

505). Long recommends using the full circling process to invite transmediation of new knowledge into other sign systems to integrate mind, emotion, and action, and also "oblige

[students] to act on the world as burgeoning advocates of human rights” (p. 507). This study exemplifies the use of images to promote activism.

Ghiso and McGuire (2007), researchers from the University of Pennsylvania, look at the ways one kindergarten teacher utilizes picturebooks with sparse verbal text in whole class read- alouds. Situated in a high-poverty area in a major eastern U.S. city, all students in the class were

African American and their white teacher had taught with the district for ten years. Picturebooks with sparse verbal text are a subgenre of picturebooks in general, and their use in classrooms is declining due to the current focus on decoding verbal text for young readers. Teachers consider this type awkward for use in read-alouds, where they are required to perform oral text.

Previously, a larger study had examined thirty-one audiotaped whole class picturebook read- alouds during a school year, but this study specifically focused only on the three which utilized sparse verbal text picturebooks “Yo! Yes? (Raschka, 1993), No, David! (Shannon, 1998), and

David Goes to School (Shannon, 1999)” (p. 343). When verbal text is minimal readers compensate by “drawing on all the semiotic resources that are available… Teacher mediation, then, is particularly critical in maximizing the affordances…’’ (p. 343). Transcripts were analyzed next to each picture book and its features. Ghiso and McGuire categorized utterances and turns in the conversation using the “constant comparative method” (p. 344). Teacher

80 discourse was triangulated through the reading of verbal text, data, and a supplementary interview. Rich varieties of categories "responded to and guided discussion of both text features and emergent student interpretation” (p. 344). Mediation was based on student centered encouragement for: questioning, guessing and prediction, interconnection to real life stories, and valuing each student’s primary discourse and interpretations. The teacher helped students focus on the semiotics and

...did not privilege words over illustrations…treating picture storybooks with sparse

written text as a rich source for personal connections, visual/verbal interpretations, and

grappling with complex themes (p. 351).

Successful strategies for working with young students using sparse text picture books, are also applicable to picture storybooks. Collaborative discovery techniques help students engage more deeply with the iconic texts in picture books.

Looking at research involving racial literacies, visual literacies, interracial collaborations in a variety of research applications, critical methodologies, the use of picture books, and studies with young students are all important to the context of this study.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Methodological design for this research study employs a combination Critical Race

Theory (CRT) (e.g. Bell, 1980; Delgado, 1995; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995) and the discipline of Anti-Racist Education (ARE) (e.g. Banks, 2003; Derman-Sparks & Ramsey, 2006; Duarte &

Smith) as theoretical lenses within a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) (e.g. Fairclough, 1995;

Gee, 2005) of children’s picture books with representations of white anti-racism activism. In this chapter CDA as the analytical lens and picture books as the data source are discussed. Next, the details of the study, it's procedures, data collection, and coding are defined.

This study begins with the identification of an initial corpus of picturebooks. First, it looks at all the picture books, informational and picture storybook formats, on the topic of social justice. All books have an original copyright date from 1999 to 2009, are printed in English, published in the U.S., and available through either Amazon (US) or the Worldcat system.

Additionally each book contains at least two representations of a white ally, within either the written text, the iconic text, or a combination thereof. A variety of book award and honor winners' lists were also reviewed, to locate potential books for this study. These books comprise the first corpus of ninety-one books. This study proceeds by creating three filters.

The first filter is applied to the first corpus for selecting books in which a white anti- racism activist is the main character. These books comprise the second corpus of fourteen books. Next, a second filter is applied to the second corpus, which finds the books having the greatest number of additional white allies represented within the text, either in written or iconic

82 text. A third and final filter selects for only those books which have picture storybook format.

This filter is applied, and these books form the third corpus of five books.

Finally, a deep analysis of Corpus Three, codes each book for representations of: (a) critical factors within the story in the context of the white anti-racism activist main character, (b) whether these critical factor situations or incidents involve a cross-racial exchange, and (c) whether or not the critical factor situation or incident occurs during childhood.

Methodological Framework

Critical Discourse Analysis. There are several forms of Critical Discourse Analysis

(CDA) which have evolved for various applications of analyzing discourse in regard to power relations. "The models of power, understandings of language. culture, and social processes, and foci of analysis vary across approaches" (Bloome and Carter, 2005, p. 1). But, the most significant approach to CDA, relevant to its application in this study, is the Fairclough and

Wodak (1997) approach, in which it is suggested that "CDA consists of three dimensions simultaneously: language text (spoken or written or visual messages), discourse practices, and sociocultural practices" (Willis, Montavon, Hall, Hunter, Burke, & Herrera, 2008, p. 53).

Additionally, CDA is often combined with other critical methodologies for exploring "how dominant discourses work through multiple texts to show how identities are established and how knowledges and understandings are taken up as history, politics, justice, and 'truth'" (Matthews,

2005, p. 206). CRT, ARE, and CDA fit well together as critical methodologies for evaluating white anti-racism activism in children's picture books.

CDA draws from the seminal works of Fairclough (1989, 1995), Gee (1988), and Morrill

(2002, 2004). Basically it is concerned with social practices which relate to identity, ideologies, hegemony, relationships, and culture. It has been used to explore “how dominant discourses

83 work through multiple texts to show how identities are established and how knowledges and understandings are taken up as history, politics, justice, and ‘truth’” (Matthews, 2005, p. 206).

Gee (2005), has applied the way language and texts are related to identity within specific discourses. He notes CDA has implications for education.

What children learn in school is never general or generic… Rather it is a specific set of

social practices recruiting specific ways with words, actions, and interactions replete with

specific sorts of identities and political implications. (p. 311).

Consequently, it is important for teachers to consider which types of identities are being recognized and recruited, and how they may “resonate with other identities these learners take on in other parts of their lives” (p. 311). Florio-Ruane and Morrell (2004) promote CDA as an important tool in education, especially for “designing and assessing transformative discourse situations and practices generative of new possibilities for thought, action, and identification” (p.

60). As the goal of this study is to learn how the white anti-racist identity model is being offered

(represented) to children through multimodal discourses in picturebooks, CDA is a logical methodological choice. Gee (1988), who proved that even directions on a bottle of aspirin can be subjected to CDA, wryly warns those who may also venture to apply it.

If you opt for seeing literacy as a matter of discourse systems, you have opened a

Pandora ’s Box of social and political concerns. You are dealing with the root of

people’s identities, since discourse systems are ultimately about the ways in which people

situate themselves in the world (p. 40).

Yet this is precisely CDA's purpose for this study, as it reveals in which ways white anti-racism identities are represented. “A discourse is a sort of ‘identity kit’ which comes complete with the appropriate costume and instructions on how to act, talk, and often write, so as to take on a

84 particular role that others will recognize” (Gee, 1989). What do readers understand about the discourses of white anti-racism activists from picturebooks? Which ways of “being in the world…words, acts, values, beliefs, attitudes, social identities…gestures, glances, body position, and [or] clothes are involved?” (pp. 6-7).

Semiotics is the practice of studying signs within cultures. Societies have culturally similar ways of sharing concepts and meanings by developing representations (Hall, 1997).

Thoughts are represented by signs which make up languages in the broad sense. “Any sound, word, image or object which functions as a sign, and is organized with other signs into a system which is capable of carrying and expressing meaning is, from this point of view, ‘a language’ (p.

19). Images, or iconic signs, carry meanings which require access to cultural concepts to be interpreted. Relationships between concepts and signs are called codes. Linking concepts to signs with codes conveys meaning, or signifies. The meaning of any sign is relational, that is, dependent upon cultural concepts and codes to construct it “through signifying – i.e. meaning– producing practices” (p. 28). Hall, a British sociologist, uses critical discourse analysis of written, visual and textual content to explain how the meanings a viewer perceives from viewing still images (iconic signs), depends upon the codes, or signifiers, of their particular culture.

Visual literacy is based on the use of images, which are foundations for engaging all literacies, critically analyzing, and profoundly inquiring. Visual information literacy can be analyzed and explained by conducting a semiosis to analyze the cultural codes being signified.

A discourse analysis can also be used for revealing connections to preexisting contexts and information and the iconic language of any particular image such as in reading photographs.

Visual images are foundations for engaging all literacies, critically analyzing, and profoundly inquiring. Contemplating the power of visual images calls to mind the words of Berger (1984).

The visible has been and still remains the principle human source of information about

the world. Through the visible one orients oneself. Even perceptions coming from other

senses are often translated into visual terms. Vertigo is a pathological example:

originating in the ear, one experiences it as a visual, spatial confusion (p. 50).

Many studies have looked at the advantages of training students to be visually literate. Abilock

(2008) explores the reading of images and proposes that teachers and librarians teach students how to evaluate documentary photos using a “seven power lens” (p. 4). This technique help students focus on the following aspects of each photograph: (a) personal; (b) moral and ethical;

(c) historical, political, economic, and social; (d) cultural; (e) aesthetic; (f) critical; and (g) metaphoric. It is important to understand that visual literacy “ought to take into account the transaction of the viewer with the image” (p. 1). Inferences from the evidence in a photo’s composition such as expressions, gestures, camera angles, and tensions, all influence meaning.

Other compositional elements are “leading lines, the Rule of Thirds, and framing” (p. 1).

Expropriation of images as a form of plagiarism include: photo manipulation, “true-to-life enhancing procedures…impermissible alterations…(and) egregious alteration” (p. 8), have become a serious a dilemma in the media. When teaching and learning visual literacy, having students gather various newspapers’ images of the same event can provide good examples for critique when placed next to each other (online sources work well too). Understanding how to use and evaluate visual information is transformative for students. Visual literacy is an essential skill in today’s world.

Researchers now are giving new attention to the use of photographs as a method of analysis. Content analyses of photos for comparing criteria have typically used quantitative measures. In order to more deeply analyze the meanings from images, “content analysis needs to

86 be combined with a qualitative semiotic analysis” (Holm, 2008, p. 329). Psychologists sometimes use an approach known as photo-elicitation, the use of images as prompts for triggering detailed memories, often more successfully than verbal strategies. (Holm, 2008;

Harper, 2005). Berger (1980), photographer and art critic, reminds us,

photographs do not in themselves preserve meaning. They offer appearances…

Meaning is the result of understanding functions. And functioning takes place in time,

and must be explained in time. Only that which narrates can make us understand.

Photographs in themselves do not narrate (p. 51).

If a photograph is an instantaneous trace of an appearance, how does that technically differ from an illustration or a drawing, such as typically found in picturebooks? Again, Berger (1982), world renown art theorist, offers a precise explanation.

A drawing is a translation…each mark on the paper is consciously related…a drawn or

painted image is woven together by the energy…of countless judgments…everything

about it has been mediated by consciousness, either intuitively or systematically…This

difference between making and receiving, also implies a very different relation to

time…The artist gives more time to what she or he considers important…The countless

judgments and decisions which constitute a drawing are systematic, that is to say that

they are grounded in an existent language… Photography, unlike drawing, does not

possess a language (p. 95).

Certainly photographers commonly strategize the composition of a photograph with conscious intent to deliberately convey meaning, but it is still important to distinguish the major differences between illustrations and photographs. Indeed, the photographic world has changed with the advent of computers in the intervening decades since Berger shared his perspectives. Visual

87 researchers today are aware of the potential for image manipulation. Nevertheless, digital technologies have created an increasingly more visual culture, especially for youth (Holm, 2008;

Harper, 2005).

Several aspects of still imagery which can manipulate the power of the images, are central to the phenomenon of children’s literature. Analyzing visual images in picture books typically employs a multimodal discourse analysis which considers three main aspects. First, the verbal texts of picture book communication. Second, a social semiotic analysis of the language of the visuals, in other words what is being represented, the interpersonal connections of the image (i.e. producer, image, and viewer). And third, how it has been composed. Each of these modalities establishes meaning (Guijarro & Pinar Sanz, 2008).

Thus, the analysis of the intersemiotic relationship between visual and verbal modes in

representational terms requires the identification of the represented participant

(henceforth RPs), whether animate or inanimate… (p. 1604).

Power dynamics are conveyed by angles within the image and the viewer, and this corresponds with camera angles such as those used in photography. For example, in a high angle view the viewer will be looking down upon the RP, which creates a sense of dominant power, or power over the RP. Conversely, from a low angle view, the viewer will be looking up to the RP, and therefore a subordinate or lesser than power dynamic is produced. Eye-level views with visually balanced power relationships convey equality. Distance relationships between the RP and the viewer (zoomed in or zoomed out) suggest degrees of intimacy and/or social distance. Where items are placed within the image also express meaning; left indicates old information, right relates to new information, and high or low placement can suggest mood or status. The framing

88 of images will create distance from the viewer as opposed to full page images which psychologically draws the viewer in.

In these many subconscious ways the power of images convey information to children through picture books, just as, or perhaps for young children more significantly than words.

Image is a powerful form of communication, it is iconic language.

Picture Books as the Data Source

Picturebooks are an important format of children’s literature and there are several different varieties. This study looks at two kinds, picture storybooks and informational picturebooks. Typically, a children’s picturebook is a combination of images and text which each work to communicate information for the enrichment of the reader. This unique format can

“…enrich, extend, and expand young readers’ background of experiences, setting, and themes”

(Cianciolo, 2000, p. 3). Combining both modes, words and images, serve to tell the story or convey information more powerfully than either mode independently (Arizpe & Styles, 2003;

Nikolajeva & Scott, 2006; Nodelman, 1988; Serafini, 2009). Pictures provide “…the visual and emotional information about which the [written] texts themselves remain silent” (Nodelman,

2008, p. 77). Though all ages of children and even adults enjoy and learn from picturebooks, children tend to read and interpret them differently than adults, that is, it is as if they are experiencing a new book with each repetitive reading, as concentration and understanding cycles between each mode of text (Nikolajeva & Scott, 2006). Arizipe and Styles (2003) share one ten year old student's testimony about why she likes picturebooks.

The writing only explains what the book is about and what is happening, but it doesn’t

explain what you feel and what they feel. So I like the pictures better because you can

think about more stuff (p. 196).

The Study

This section discusses the study procedures. It begins with the initial data collection to form the first corpus, then looks at the second corpus creation and coding processes for arriving at the third and final corpus. Finally, the deep analysis coding process of the third corpus is described, including textual examples for each coding category.

Corpus #1. Here the method for locating and selecting the study's initial data and how it is coded are explained. Picturebooks of two format types will be used in this study, picture storybooks, and informational picturebooks, with the exception of those having more written text than visual text. Excluded picturebook formats include graphic novels and sparse word picture books. The primary criterion is that the picturebook has a theme of social justice involving race, and contains two or more representations of a white ally. Both written textual representations and visual representations will qualify to be counted, and multiple representations of the same person can be counted. Additionally, each book will have been originally published within the ten year period from 1999 to 2009, as this constraint will express relatively recent trends in the data.

Several types of literature genres were selected. A genre of literature is a socially constructed book classification which “shapes a reader’s expectations for a text” (Botelho &

Rudman, 2009, p. 191). It is the most common method of cutting children's literature into smaller bites (Tunnell, Jacobs, Young, & Bryan, 2012). Yet people often confuse children's literature genres with children's literature formats. For example, a picture book is not a genre it is a format. Referencing Tunnell et al.'s (2008) children's literature genre ontology (Appendix

D), the following genres of picturebooks are included in this study: (a) prose; (b) poetry; (c) fiction, including realistic fiction, contemporary fiction and historical fiction; and (d) nonfiction,

90 including both biographical nonfiction and informational nonfiction. The children's literature genre which will not be included in this study is fantasy which includes: (a) folklore, (b) modern fantasy and (c) science fiction. Therefore, picturebook characters must be realistic and not anthropomorphic or zoomorphic, and settings must not deviate from "natural physical law" (p.

58). Additionally, historic contexts in the picture book will be limited to the 1600’s through present times, involving locations which would become, or currently are, within in the U.S.

Sampling methods encompassed physical searches within a university library system and a local municipal library, as well as online electronic searches using both the Amazon (US) and the WorldCat databases. The following chart lists the keywords which were used for online searches to locate picture books for the first corpus, and includes some examples of individual activists' names, for whenever a book met the criteria for corpus one, if the book provided an activist's individual name then an additional search was conducted for each name.

Keywords used to locate picturebooks for Corpus #1

abolitionist boycott justice race

activism Chicano Latin-American racial

activist children's books Latino/a racial justice

African-American civil rights Native American social justice

anti-racism civil rights movement Pacific Islander white ally

Asian-American interracial picturebooks white allies

Examples of additional keyword searches for individual activists' names

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Prudence Crandall Caesar Chavez

Frederick Douglass Annie Oakley Jimmy Carter

Harriet Tubman Eleanor Roosevelt Branch Rickey

In addition, children's book award and honor winners were reviewed, to check for books meeting the criteria for inclusion in this study. These following book award and honor winners were examined: Caldecott Medal & Honor, Carter G. Woodson Book Awards, Coretta Scott

King Award and Honor, Ezra J. Keats Awards, Jane Addams Book Award and Honor, John

Steptoe Award, National Jewish Book Awards and Honor, John Newbery Medal and Honor,

Orbis Pictus Award and Honor, and Pura Belpré Award and Honor. Basic definitions of these book awards are provided (Appendix E).

Coding. Titles were sorted by relevance to the study, that is, each book was carefully read and a filter applied, in order to select those books meeting the criteria of having at least two or more white anti-racism activists represented within the book's texts, present within either the written text, iconic text, or both. These qualifying books form the first corpus, and are subsequently coded for the following: total number of pages, genre, award or honor status, and whether or not a white anti-racism activist exists as the main character. A matrix chart is created for Corpus One (Appendix F). Additionally, an annotated bibliography notes a brief description of each Corpus One book's content (Appendix G). A reference for each Corpus One picture book is included in the comprehensive list of Picture Book References provided (Appendix H).

Corpus One is comprised of ninety-one books which range in historical settings from historic to contemporary and include both fiction and non-fiction genres. Stories of cross-racial friendships are included because they are significant to processes of allyship.

Corpus #2. This section explains the process of selecting a narrower group of books from the first corpus, which will best exemplify white anti-racism activism from the context of the processes of allyship in the life of an activist. A filter is applied to the first corpus books, selecting books in which a white anti-racism activist is the main character. This forms Corpus

Two (Appendix I). Corpus Two is comprised of fourteen books which are non-fiction biographies and range from historic to contemporary settings.

Next, two filters are applied to the second corpus. The first filter selects for those books which have additional representations of white anti-racist activists within the book's texts, either written, iconic, or both. A second filter is then applied, which selects books created in a picture storybook format. This creates the third and final corpus (Appendix J). Corpus Three is comprised of five historic biographies of which one is an award winner.

Corpus #3. Here, Corpus Three has a three pronged coding procedure. First, books are analyzed for the critical factors portrayed by the white activist. Second, the images are analyzed for four semiotic features: (a) the reader's angle of incidence and positionality to the main character or represented participant (RP), (b) framing dynamics affecting the reader, (c) quality of facial expressions and gestures, (d) colors conveying an essence of emotion, and (d) the percentage of critical factors evident and included within the comprehensive (written and iconic) text entries for critical factor analysis.

Coding. Critical factors from Corpus Three are coded for situations and events in the life of the main character, a white anti-racism activist. Building on Harro's (2000b) stages in the

"Cycle of Liberation," and borrowing from Caldwell's (2008) research, "Critical Factors in

Social Justice Orientation Development," this study creates a set of codes to analyze the critical factors in the story and life of the book's main character.

Harro (2000a) looks at socialization, and the ways people become engaged in cycles of oppression, and alternately, how they are able to break free to initiate a cycle of liberation. "It is important to note that one can enter the cycle [of liberation] at any point, through slow evolution or a critical incident, and will repeat or recycle many times in the process" (Harro, 2000b, p.

464).

Critical Incident Analysis was introduced by Flanagan (1954) for evaluating aviation training programs. More recently, it is used for counseling and clinical psychological analysis.

Several studies have employed Critical Incident Analysis to improve student learning, and intercultural sensitivity in higher education. Montalvo (1999) used Critical Incident Interviews to help social work students

become more confident interviewing clients regarding their ethnic and racial experiences,

develop greater empathy for client concerns, such as racism and acculturation, and

engage less often in stereotyping behavior (p. 20)

Along similar lines, Dela Cruz, Saltzman, Brislin, and Losch (2006) studied Hawaiian student's critical incidents during college, involving intercultural insensitivity on the part of non-native

Hawaiian university personnel.

Inspired by Critical Incident Analysis models, Caldwell (2008) surveyed both clinical psychology students as well as established professional psychologists, to learn which types of critical incidents, or other factors, may contribute to a social justice orientation. From these survey results, Caldwell categorized the narrative responses into different themes, or critical

94 factors. This study borrows seven of these themes and lists them in the Critical Factor Codes below. Discursive events representing "critical factors in social justice orientation development"

(Caldwell, 2008) within a story and from the context of the life of a white ally main character, occur within the picture book's texts both written and visual. A total of twelve critical factor codes are used for coding textual representations of the various critical factors in the life story of each Corpus Three book's main character.

Influence of significant persons as a critical factor is divided into three separate categories: (a) mentors, (b) family, and (c) peers. Caldwell (2008) says the influence of a mentor includes "senior experienced colleagues who provide support, guidance, direction, role- modeling, and feedback to less experienced junior colleagues" (p. 83), that positively influences social justice orientation. The influence of significant persons from the family is defined as

"family members teach the value of social justice, model social justice actions and behavior, share stories about oppression and social justice" (p. 85). As for the influence of peers, they belong "to the same age group or social group as someone else" (merriam-webster.com). Peer support "includes collegial relationships with colleagues, friends, co-workers, and classmates committed to social justice values and active involvement in social justice work" (Caldwell,

2008, p. 87).

Exposure to injustice is divided into two code categories. As Caldwell (2008) describes them, one is personally and directly experiencing a form of injustice such as: stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, or institutional oppression. The other involves "[w]itnessing or observing social injustices involved being exposed to injustice by seeing others' experiences of oppression" (p. 91).

Education about injustice is categorized by Caldwell (2008) in two forms. The first being

"formal and informal education and learning that encouraged participants' social justice orientation development" (Caldwell, 2008, p. 92). This refers to leaning in schools, or tutoring for example. The second form of education, "[i]ndependent readings or research involves books, empirical studies, and conceptual articles that examine oppression and social justice or involve accounts of oppression" (p. 92).

Activities of resistance to injustice are divided into two categories, which Caldwell

(2008) lists as civil disobedience, and teaching or advocacy. Civil disobedience is defined as the

"refusal to obey laws as a way of forcing the government to do or change something" (merriam- webster.com). Teaching by speaking, writing, actions, and/or advocacy refers to "any action that speaks in favor of, recommends, argues for a cause, supports or defends, or pleads on behalf of others" (allianceforjustice.org).

An additional category is provided for factors of significance to social justice orientation development which are unique to any of the other code category. Two secondary codes which can be applied as a secondary code to the preceding ten critical factor code categories, are cross- racial interaction which is a direct mutually interactive experience with a person or people of a different race or races, and a critical factor which occurs during childhood or adolescence, as a minor.

Each of the ten basic critical factor code definitions and textual examples for each are provided in the following chart. Secondary code categories are indicated by an asterisk. An additional chart which including definitions for Critical Factors and Social Justice that expands the Critical Factor code definitions and gives examples meeting the criteria for each code is also provided (Appendix K).

Critical Factor Codes / basic definitions and examples

Influence of mentors, roll models

IM When President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for troops to defend the anti-slavery

Union, he [Wes] immediately enlisted in the army.

Influence of family, parents

IF Owen [John's father] believed every word of the Bible... He also taught them [his

children] slavery was wrong.

Influence of peers

IP Wes immediately befriended their Ute Neighbors, and set about learning to speak their

language.

Exposure to injustice - Personal experience XP William boldly preached… He and William Mead… were arrested and imprisoned…

Exposure to injustice - Witnessing XW Harriet saw slaves at work. She saw them mistreated by their slave holders.

Education about injustice - through school

ES …William, ...entered Chigwell Free Grammar School, where he... learned that one did

not have to observe religious rituals to be truly religious.

Education about injustice - independently (reading or research) EI Molly read a posted announcement that a ship would be landing soon. … a slave ship.

Resistance activities of civil disobedience CD Molly had broken colonial law by marrying a black man.

Resistance activities of Teaching or advocacy

TA John Wesley Powell had great respect for Native Americans and defended their right to

live according to their own traditions.

Other factors unique to the codes provided

O John spoke out often against slavery. He believed that God wanted him to free the

slaves.

Cross-racial interactions *CR Once, when John brought Owen's cattle to market, he made friends with a young slave.

Childhood experiences

*CH Seven year old Wes was often taunted because of his father. One day, he ran home

from school, bloody and crying. His classmates had beaten and stoned him.

The underlined portions within the above text entries examples are necessary for each textual entry in order to indicate the specific portion which corresponds to one critical factor code. Enough textual information must be included to insure the identification of a single code.

Therefore, underlining allows a direct correspondence between one text entry and one critical factor code.

Analysis. Each of the five books in Corpus Three are closely read, in order to locate discourse representing critical factors in social justice orientation, from the context of the main

98 character's life situations and experiences. A text entry is created for each critical factor located in the discourse. Because text entries require enough context included, for any single factor to be coded, text underlining is used to isolate the specific portion intended for coding. Additionally, interrater coders are employed for the calibration of both coding categories and the quality of text entries.

Interrater coding calibration. Two interrater coders, each holding bachelor degrees in science, independently coded each of the text entries for each Corpus Three book. Interrater results were compared to the researcher's coding decisions for each text entry. When coding for any entry did not reach consensus, I met with the interrater coders and we discussed the context of the coding categories, then successive independent coding sessions were conducted. Written descriptions of visual text was also calibrated with the interrater coders, to insure direct correspondence to an associated critical factor in the written text. The goal was to be able to isolate each entry so that it could only be coded for one code. One problem which arose for some entries throughout the corpus, and particularly for many in William Penn's story, was an inability to isolate codes for the influence of mentors and family from an original code which had been created for religion and spirituality. This original code had been borrowed from one of

Caldwell's (2008) critical factor categories. In the Corpus Three books, there were only five text entries across the entire corpus in which the code for influence religion or spirituality, was not involved with the influence of a significant person. By eliminating this code category, each entry was able to be correlated with a single code. Therefore, allowing the coding of the five unique entries across the entire corpus as "Other," provided a solution.

Adjustments were made to both the coding categories and the text entries regarding how the details of each entry were isolated, until 95% interrater consensus was achieved. For the

99 remaining 5% a third interrater coder was enlisted to address the discrepancies. A Total of 198 text entries were created for critical factors contained in the total text of the five Corpus Three books.

Images. The images of each book are discussed holistically, regarding their ability to engage the reader through positionality, framing, facial expressions and gestures, and colors.

Critical factors in the social justice orientation of the main character as evident in the visual text and which have been included within the critical factor analysis as text entries, are reported as frequency counts and percentages in relation to the total text entries from each book (both written and iconic) and in relation to these frequency counts and percentages for the total corpus.

Silences. In order to ascertain potentially missing critical factors in the social justice orientation in the actual life experiences of each Corpus Three book's main character, primary documents written by the historical people were used. Additionally the works of two historians known for their antiracism historical work were consulted, Aptheker (1959, 1993) and Zinn

(2004, 2007, 2011, 2012), as were other sources identified by these historians to discuss a

Corpus Three main character (e.g. Stegner, 1992).

Researcher. The researcher in this study is a white middle-aged, middle-class woman with unearned race privilege and additional experience looking at issues of race in children's literature. Prior to this research, a study (Kelley, Stair, & Price, 2013) looked at racial stereotypes portrayed in a popular children's picture book.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA AND ANALYSIS

Results for the Corpus Three critical factor code analysis is provided as a chart which reports both total frequency and relative frequency (as a percentage) for each critical factor code, for each book analyzed, as well as totals for the overall corpus (Appendix L). A Critical

Discourse Analysis for each individual Corpus Three book is presented here in the following sequence: (1) storyline, (2) significant critical factors, (3) images, and (4) silences, or what is missing in the representations.

Molly Bannaky

Storyline. Molly's story begins in late seventeenth century England, where her life as an orphaned teenager and white indentured servant working as a dairymaid is difficult and oppressive. Because the cow she milks kicks over the pail and spills the milk, Molly is charged with theft and ordered in front of the local court. Her life is spared because she can read the

Bible, yet she is sentenced to seven years bondage on a tobacco plantation in a British-American colony. Molly works hard and learns how to drive a plow and grow tobacco. After seven years, as the law provides, Molly is given and ox and cart, a gun and bag of tobacco seed. Though it is unusual for a woman to homestead alone, Molly stakes a claim in the Maryland wilderness. Her neighbors help her build a cabin, and to harvest and prepare her first crop for market. Realizing she needs help, Molly learns of a slave ship's arrival, and goes to watch the proceedings. She purchases an enslaved African man, and vows to set him free after her crop is planted. His name is Bannaky. Becoming friends while working together and teaching each other about their native lands, Bannaky and Molly fall in love, and ignoring colonial miscegenation laws, they marry.

Together, Molly and Bannaky raise four daughters and develop their one hundred acre homestead. Sadly, due to poor health Bannaky dies. Molly lives to see her daughters marry, and 101 to teach her grandson about his grandfather, a prince from Africa. Though the spelling of the name Bannaky changed slightly over time, Molly's grandson became the famous astronomer

Benjamin Banneker.

Significant critical factors. The following percentages of critical factors were significant as representations in this picture book.

5) Cross-racial interactions (51.4%). Over half of Molly's critical factors could also be coded

as cross-racial interactions. Her relationship and marriage to Bannaky and the family and life

which they created provided the context for many cross-racial interactions as critical factors

in her life story.

6) Personal experience of injustice (24.3%). Life as a dairymaid in and English manorial

system was full of experiences of injustice for Molly. Being hung to death was the standard

sentence for a dairymaid spilling milk! Even being given an alternative sentence to seven

years of bondage to a tobacco plantation owner was legally structured oppression. Molly was

in her mid-twenties before she was able to experience a more equitable life.

7) Influence of family (21.6%). For Molly, critical factors involving influence of significant

persons as family were not from her family of origin. Critical factors involving the influence

of family in Molly's life are connected with the family she had with Bannaky, their children,

and grandchildren.

8) Influence of peers (21.6%). After Molly was free from bondage, and making a new life on

her own land, her white neighbors not only helped her work to establish her farm, but they

also maintained a confidence about her marriage to a Black man. Because Molly had

violated colonial law she would have had severe consequences if her marriage was revealed

to authorities.

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9) Influence of mentor (0.0%). Total absence of the influence of a mentor or leader was not

surprising. Molly's early life was represented as full of hard work and loneliness. Moreover,

she was usually portrayed solemn, aloof, and distanced from others. In fact, the first time she

is shown with a smile and enjoying life was in her experiences with Bannaky.

10) Education and learning about injustice in schools (0.0%). Of course there were no schools

for people like Molly in her era, in neither England or nor the British colonies. Molly had no

opportunity to attend school. Additionally, how she learned to read is not revealed.

Images. The illustrations in Molly Bannaky are richly colored and full of detail. Each single image completely covers a two page spread. By reaching to the very edges of the pages, the reader is drawn into the scene not only by the intense facial expressions and gestures of the characters, but because of the visual relationship to Molly. The reader is so close to Molly throughout most of the scenes, it is as if we are experiencing the situations right along with her.

Often placed near her side from the same angle of incidence, neither high nor low, but equal.

Readers experience the reactions towards her from others. They can see the indifference in the facial expressions from the men of the court who scrutinize Molly's testimony as they prepare to decide whether she lives or dies. The angry cook who threatens her, and the affection of

Bannaky as he listens to her telling him the stories of her life. Facial expressions are so highly detailed, even during the loveliest joy of their marriage rites, the telltale signs of oppressive life experiences can ever so delicately be seen in their eyes. These illustrations offer a literary goldmine of potential for use with Visual Thinking Strategies (Housen, 2002), in which students are questioned about what they see, and asked to tell what's going on. From a CDA perspective these images support the counter narratives of historical issue of race, gender and power in this visual text, regarding an unusually strong and determined woman, a cross-racial marriage and the

103 civil disobedience of colonial times, as well as a cross-racial coalition with friends and neighbors. Additionally the highly contrasting use of light and dark lends a chiaroscuro effect, that is, contrasts of reflected light and shadowy areas, which intensifies the human emotions and critical factors involved. It is not surprising Molly's illustrations were able to be coded for the a high percentage of critical factor text entries for the analysis in comparison to the total corpus.

Image entries for critical factors

Book/s Total critical factor entries Image entries % Image entries

Molly 37 12 32.4%

Total Corpus #3 198 48 24.2%

Silences. Although this book provides a powerful counterstory about colonial America's white indentured servitude, manumission, and cross-racial relationships, there is one relevant aspect of this era's history which is not mentioned. The author does include an informative page of historical notes, yet it does not reveal the fact that interracial marriages were not uncommon in the colonial era. After all, governments wouldn't bother making laws against non-existent phenomena. For instance, Bridenbaugh (1952) cites a marriage in colonial Virginia. "The only blacksmith near Staunton in 1753 was a free Negro who had come with a Scottish wife from

Lancaster and who understood and read German very well" (p. 169). As noted by Aptheker

(1993), Molly and Bannaky's grandson Benjamin owned land and attended school with both

Black and white children in colonial Maryland, adding that during this same time

Maryland legislators in 1661, 1684, 1715, and 1717 were somewhat frantically passing

laws providing various discouragements, fines, and even prison for --quoting the 1717

enactment-- "any white man or woman who cohabited with a Negro, free or slave."

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...such cohabitation was common not only in Maryland but throughout the United States

and especially in the South (p. 16).

Moreover, the situations and conditions of enslaved African peoples and both black and white indentured servants in the British American colonies had many similarities. Together these three groups represented one third of the population, and friendships among them were common, as was flight as a form of resistance, including mutual conspiracies and uprisings (Aptheker, 1959).

To combat these forms of resistance, the elite forces intensified divide and conquer strategies.

Aptheker (1959) describes these widespread campaigns for segregation.

The deliberate planting and spreading of white supremacist doctrine and habit by the

planters and the rich generally is observable in the colonial era with assemblies passing

laws forbidding fraternization, ministers preaching against it, and masters and employers

frowning upon it. Important in this connection was the employers' practice of pitting one

group of workers against another and using slave workers to push down the wages of

those who were free (p. 46).

Molly Bannaky does not include information about the prevalence of interracial relationships in the British American colonies, nor show the presence of Black indentured servants and enslaved

African peoples working together in bondage with indentured whites. Molly is not some kind of superstar outlier who came up with how to treat people. She was part of a community that helped form her beliefs. Context has influence on beliefs, especially regarding critical factors associated with childhood. Nevertheless, Molly Bannaky contributes a true and powerful counterstory for the important conversation about cross-racial collaborations and relationships that resisted racism early in our nation's history.

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An additional silence regarding this book deals with the way this book has been classified. The classification which has been used by the Library of Congress to classify Molly

Bannaky is problematic. Molly's story is not a fictional story. Yet, it is classified as Juvenile

Fiction. Granted, often fiction does a better job conveying racial realities, than telling a true story and leaving out certain important parts. For instance, documentaries which have been made about the American Dust Bowl are never as effective for conveying a personally emotional understanding as The Grapes of Wrath (Zinn, 2007). Regardless, Molly's story is a real life story, which has been handed down within Benjamin Banneker's family. Enough historical evidence exists for Aptheker (1993) to have written about the life Mary Welsh (Molly)

who came to Maryland in the early 1680s as an indentured servant. Her indenture ended

in 1690; she soon was able to acquire some land and in 1692 purchased two male slaves.

She manumitted both soon thereafter, and one, named Bannaka, became her husband in

1696. A daughter from that marriage named Mary, married a slave, Robert. Both lived

with the Bannekers (as the name now was spelled). Benjamin was the son of this Mary

and Robert (p. 15).

It seems unfair to classify folklore handed down through cultures as non-fiction, and then to classify the family lore of grandparents handed down through a family such as Molly Bannaky in the genre of fiction. After all, specific historic information about Molly exists, which the authors do include as historic notes in this picture book. “Clearly the concept of genre is crucial in understanding how literature is implicated in basic systems of social control” (Hodge, 1990, p.

21). Moreover, Olson (1998) discusses inherent problems in the Dewey Decimal system of classification. "The problem of bias in classification can be linked to the nature of classification as a social construct. It reflects the same biases as the culture that creates it" (p. 2). It is

106 important to understand who is responsible for this classification. Whether it is the author's, publisher's, or the Library of Congress' decision. This may be a prime example of what Hall

(1997) refers to as "ritualized expulsion" (p. 259). From a CRT perspective this misclassification may represent an attempt to hide an important historic account of resistance. A comparison of each Corpus Three picture book's classification is provided for reference in consideration of this issue (Appendix M).

A Picture Book of Harriet Beecher Stowe

Storyline. Harriet was born to a large wealthy preacher's family in the early nineteenth century. She loved to read and write, and began teaching school when she was only sixteen.

Acknowledging her literary talent, young Harriet declared to her brother that she would use her gifts to do good works. She wanted her life to be meaningful. Originally from Connecticut, the family moved to Ohio when Harriet was still a teenager. Ohio borders Kentucky, which was a slave state at that time. For the first time, Harriet witnessed enslaved African Americans working cotton and being treated cruelly. She read newspaper articles about slavery, and saw public notices offering bounties for runaway slaves and also for killing abolitionists. In Ohio,

Harriet married a fellow teacher and had seven children, and pursued a writing career. Harriet and her family moved to Maine, where she wrote for an abolitionist newspaper, and she began writing Uncle Tom's Cabin, in weekly installments. The story focused many white people upon the horrors of slavery, and eventually published in book format, it was able to influence many

Americans. President Lincoln is shown shaking Harriet's hand and giving her credit for starting the Civil War. Harriet lived for ten years after the death of her husband, but she became reclusive. This story acknowledges the contribution Uncle Tom's Cabin made to America's destiny.

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Significant critical factors. The following percentages of critical factors were significant as representations in this picture book.

 Resistance activities of teaching and advocacy (45.5%). Harriet's teaching and advocacy

came through her writing of Uncle Tom's Cabin. She wrote it several times, first as an

ongoing series of short stories. Later, she published it as a book, which swept the nation.

Through a work of fiction, she was able to teach people about the disgusting realities of

enslavement. In this way, Harriet advocated for social justice.

 Critical factors experienced during childhood (45.5%). Harriet was interested in the stories

of other cultures, as she read her father's copy of The Arabian Nights over and over. While

still an adolescent, Harriet's witnessing of the enslaved cotton workers never left her mind.

She could read, teach, and write well, and Harriet found herself in the midst of a politically

charged pro-slavery versus anti-slavery world.

 Education and learning about injustice by independent research (36.4%). Harriet

developed cultural and political awareness through her own readings and personal life

experiences. She had an interest in reading about other cultures, as she read her father's copy

of The Arabian Nights over and over many times. Reward posters for runaway slaves and

bounty notices on the lives of abolitionists were posted in Ohio, where she lived as a

teenager.

 Cross-racial interactions (0.0%). Though Harriet observed slavery in action, she is not

portrayed in this story as having had any cross-racial interactions. So here, Harriet becomes

an example of a segregated white woman who is still able to teach and advocate for social

justice through literature. This is the only book in Corpus Three which does not include any

cross-racial interactions.

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 Significant influence of family (0.0%). Harriet does not have any critical factors which can

be coded for influence of significant persons from her family. Her father was a minister, her

older sister was a teacher, and her husband was also an educator. Yet there are no

representations of their influence regarding social justice for Harriet.

 Significant influence of peers (0.0%). Peers did not represent people that influenced Harriet

for social justice. Certainly her work for the National Era, an abolitionist newspaper which

was mentioned in the text could have provided significantly influential peers for Harriet, yet

the story does not portray any of these.

 Personal experience of injustice (0.0%). Harriet had upper class status, and there were no

personal experiences of injustice represented in this story. Her mother died when she was

young, and later she had a strict stepmother, yet neither of these situations could be directly

interpreted as injustice or oppression.

 Education and learning about injustice in schools (0.0%). Learning about injustice is only

represented through Harriet's independent reading and experiences, not in schools. Though

she is portrayed as a school teacher, there is no indication that she learned about injustices

within the classroom or curricula.

Images. Harriet's images are also delicate and realistic watercolors, the majority of

which also fill two page spreads all the way to the edges of the page. Even though both

books have the same number of pages, Harriet's book is only half the physical dimension of

Molly's, leaving much less room for rich detail. Yet by far, what separates the images of

Harriet's book from any of the others in this corpus is the low amount of critical factors

represented in either the visual text or the written. Only one image from Harriet's story was

able to be coded with a one to one correspondence with a critical factor from the written text.

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Additionally, the images of Harriet place her in homes and clothes that appear to be upper

class status. According to the actual history of Harriet, she was known for being very poor

throughout her childhood and much of her adult life. The reader can only look clearly into

Harriet's face once, for she is usually shown looking down or to the side in a meek or modest

manor. The cover illustration of Harriet shows her looking pensively upward as she holds an

open book in her lap. The other face the illustrator allows the reader to look closely at, is an

African American woman working in a cotton field, during enslavement. This Black

woman's face holds an expression of sadness, a look of numbness, despair, exhaustion.

These images do convey the inhumanity of enslavement, and thoughtful focus of Harriet, but

they do not support the written text's critical factors very well.

Image entries for critical factors

Book/s Total critical factor entries Image entries % Image entries

Harriet 11 1 9.1%

Total Corpus #3 198 48 24.2%

Silences. According to the representations of significant critical factors in Harriet's

Corpus Three picture storybook, many important aspects of her actual life have been left out.

Therefore, the way this book portrays the various critical factors in Harriet's life are misleading because they function to silence a deeper understanding of her antiracism activism.

Unfortunately this is nothing new regarding stories and misunderstandings about Harriet Beecher

Stowe (Aptheker, 1993; Graham, 1973). Critical factors in the processes of Harriet's true life and allyship actually include: (a) influence of parents and family, (b) personal experiences of oppression, (c) significant cross-racial interactions, and (d) resistance activities of civil

110 disobedience. None of these factors were represented within Harriet's book in this study's analysis. Looking at each of these missing critical factor categories in the context of additional information offers a clearer understanding of what has been misrepresented.

Definite silences exist regarding the influences of Harriet's parents and family for her social justice orientation. To begin with, Harriet's father was a Christian minister who followed the teachings of the activist Reverend Cotton Mather. Mather's teachings rejected racial categorization and the deficit theories of human worth espoused by eighteenth century scientific racism (Aptheker, 1993). Stowe (1896) recalled her father's and Mather's influence,

"...there was one of my father's books that proved a mine of wealth to me. It was a happy

hour when he brought home and set up in his bookcase Cotton Mather's 'Magnalia,' in a

new edition of two volumes" (p. 28).

Lyman Beecher was an educator who "...helped establish the Cornwall Foreign Missions School in Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1819. Youths from Polynesia, China, and Japan as well as

American Indians were students" (Aptheker, 1993, p. 123). Later Stowe (1896) would write, "I wish father would come on to Boston, and preach on the Fugitive Slave Law, as he once preached on the slave-trade, when I was a little girl in Litchfield" (p. 131) Harriet describes the effect her father's advocacy had on both herself and her brothers,

one of the strongest and deepest impressions on my mind was that made by my father's

sermons and prayers, and the anguish of his soul for the poor slave at that time. I

remember his preaching drawing tears down the hardest faces of the old farmers in his

congregation... which indelibly impressed my heart and made me what I am from my

very soul, the enemy of all slavery. Every brother I have has been in his sphere a leading

anti-slavery man" (p. 135).

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One brother, Henry Ward Beecher, was famous for his abolitionist work providing rifles to arm anti-slavery groups, and also for arguing that Darwinism was compatible with Christianity

(Applegate, 2006). Clearly, Harriet was significantly influenced by her family about issues of racial justice, even though her picture storybook in this analysis contains no representations revealing it.

Personal experiences of oppression are missing from Harriet's storybook representations.

Scenes of Harriet as a child in Litchfield, Connecticut appear to represent a high social status by the clothes she wears and the house in which she lives. Yet, Lyman Beecher and his family were poor, and Stowe (1896) certainly described herself this way.

Having been poor all my life and expecting to be poor the rest of it, the idea of making

money by a book which I wrote just because I could not help it, never occurred to me...

During long years of struggling with poverty and sickness, and a hot, debilitating climate,

my children grew up around me (p. 173).

It wasn't until the royalties from Uncle Tom's Cabin that Harriet was able to change her economic situation.

Significant cross-racial interactions are so silenced in Harriet's picture book story, that it was tempting to consider her advocacy as an example of resistance work done in isolation of cross-racial exchange. However, Graham (1973) notes many significant cross-race friendships and associations which Harriet maintained through her life.

"Her opinions on race and character were derived from reading abolitionist literature,

acquaintance with various Negroes in the North, and her experiences teaching Negro and

white children in Cincinnati" (p. 616).

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She met with Sojourner Truth whom she praised and regarded highly. And not only had she interacted with Frederick Douglass, they had in fact "once planned to open an integrated school to teach free Negroes trade skills that might advance the cause of emancipation..." (p. 620).

Because she and her husband Calvin were poor, they divided the land around their home and sold over twenty small farming plots. Their neighborhood became a community of free Blacks.

When Harriet lost one of her babies to a miserable death from cholera, she was comforted and inspired by these neighbors, whose children she taught together with her own. Close personal friendships and interactions with African Americans "brought her to an advanced understanding of the race question" (p. 618).

Resistance activities of civil disobedience are missing from Harriet's story, and here too, it is tempting to think of her as an advocate for racial justice who never broke an unjust law. The book about Harriet in this study's analysis only reveals the teaching and advocacy she enacted as a resistance activity through the writing of Uncle Tom's Cabin. Yet Stowe (1896) explains how she and husband Calvin Stowe defied the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act by collaborating with many

African Americans escaping enslavement on their flights to freedom.

[W]e have for the last seventeen years lived on the border of a slave State, and we have

never shrunk from the fugitives, and we have helped them with all we had to give. I have

received the children of liberated slaves into a family school, and taught them with my

own children..." (p. 135). Time would fail to tell you all that I learned incidentally of the

slave system in the history of various slaves who came into my family, and of the

underground railroad which, I may say, ran through our house (p. 176).

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Learning about Stowe's use of civil disobedience to resist systems racism in the era of slavery can help students understand her activism, as well as Uncle Tom's Cabin, in a more holistic context.

Resistance through teaching and advocacy have been represented in certain contexts, but silenced in others. One text representation of Harriet's resistance activities through teaching and advocacy in her Corpus Three book reads, "Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote other books, articles, stories and poems, but none of them had the power of Uncle Tom's Cabin" (p. 25). This is significant because it means the story in Harriet's picture book neglects the fact that Harriet wrote other important stories and articles with anti-slavery themes. It is tempting for a reader to think that her other literary works were not about race. Stating that Uncle Tom's Cabin had the most power is certainly true regarding the enduring influence it had on the American public. But another one of her works had a unique power for influencing political and legal institutions.

Harriet's sequel to Uncle Tom's Cabin was written in response to Southern critics who accused her lying about slavery. She wrote it as a documentary, not another novel. Stowe (1896) explains, "It will contain all the facts and documents on which that story [Uncle Tom's Cabin] was founded, and an immense body of facts, reports of trials, legal documents, and testimony of people now living South (p. 177). Harriet continues,

I must confess that till I began the examination of facts in order to write this book, much

as I thought I knew before, I had not begun to measure the depth of the abyss. The law

records of courts and judicial proceedings are so incredible as to fill me with amazement

whenever I think of them... This horror, this nightmare abomination! can it be in my

country! (p. 177).

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Indeed, The Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin might have even influenced President Lincoln to write the

Emancipation Proclamation. Bray (2007) looks at Lincoln's library records for the books he checked out from the Congressional Library and states,

Lincoln might have at least looked at the Key without having read Stowe’s novel [Uncle

Tom's Cabin], since the former contained a great deal of various sorts of documentation

supporting the author’s [Stowe's] representation of slavery—plausibly quite interesting to

Lincoln (p. 75).

Recently, Kane (2013) carefully reviewed Bray's lists of Lincoln's Congressional Library records and noted that

...on June 16, 1862, President Lincoln had checked out “Stowe’s Key to Uncle Tom”

which he returned on July 29. This corresponds with time during which he drafted the

Emancipation Proclamation (p. 2).

Though it may not be possible to prove which references Lincoln actually used, the scope of

Harriet's literary resistance work can be more fully understood. For example:

 Uncle Tom's Cabin (1851 - to protest the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law)

 A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853 - a non-fiction retort)

 The Two Altars (1853- an anti-slavery story, reprinted by the American Anti-Slavery

Society)

 Uncle Sam's Emancipation (1853 - an anti-slavery story)

 Dred (1856 - an anti-slavery novel)

Interestingly, in an introduction written for a book about African American heroes of the

Revolutionary War, Stowe (1855) states that misconceptions of race "show how much injustice there may often be in a generally admitted idea" (p. 5). Ironically, misconceptions such as the

115 taken for granted silences and marginalization about the quality and scope of Harriet's own nineteenth century activism also exist. Journeys of allyship are never perfect, they are forever works in progress. It is important to keep perspective as Graham (1973) has, that Stowe "was fully aware that discrimination produces accentuated differences between the races and that these differences become justification for further discrimination..." (p. 619), and to bear in mind that

"the salient argument of her writings was for the full, equal brotherhood of all men" (p. 622).

Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, the One-Armed Explorer

Storyline. John Wesley "Wes" Powell was a young boy in Ohio during the 1840s. His father was a Methodist preacher and an abolitionist, and their small family was of modest means.

It was a politically charged time in history, and abolitionists were victims of local harassment.

Young Wes was viciously attacked by the classmates from his school, so his mother removed him. A family friend, Big George, agreed to tutor him. Big George was an abolitionist who maintained an Underground Railroad stop on his farm. Through their tutoring lessons and local field excursions, Wes learned to love the natural world, and came to respect Native American cultural heritage. But local terrorism against abolitionists got much worse, and Big George's home was burned down. The family decided to flee quickly, and so they headed for Wisconsin.

Wes worked the farm while his father traveled to find work. Eventually Wes became a teacher, and later when the civil war began, he enlisted. As a captain, there was a cannon accident and he lost his arm, yet he reenlisted because of his devotion to the anti-slavery cause. After the war was won, Wes explored the Rockies and the Grand Canyon as a naturalist, devoted to scientific discovery. He and his wife made friends with the Ute peoples of the Colorado Plateau region, even learning their language. Conducting an expedition down the Colorado River and through the Grand Canyon was an incredible feat which made Wes famous. Later, he helped establish

116 the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of Ethnography, and Wes used his position of national fame and scholarly leadership to advocate for the protection of Native American cultures.

Significant critical factors. The following percentages of critical factors were significant as representations in this picture book.

 Critical factors experienced during childhood (43.3%). Much of this story is devoted to

Wes' childhood, which was very rich in many types of critical factors for social justice

orientation.

 Cross-racial interactions (20.0%). Friendship and associations with the Ute tribe and other

Native peoples of the Colorado Plateau provided many cross-racial interactions for Wes.

 Significant influence of peers (20.0%). During his seasons conducting field research on the

Colorado Plateau, Wes' Ute neighbors were influential peers. Their mutual interactions were

critical factors which led to his future teaching and advocacy work at the Bureau of

Ethnology at the Smithsonian, and across the county defending the protection of native

cultures.

 Personal experience of injustice (20.0%). Many personal experiences of oppression during

Wes' childhood were critical factors for his deep understanding of unjust social structures in

the both the social and political systems of the nation.

 Education and learning about injustice in schools (0.0%). Schools did not provide Wes

education about injustice, other than being beat up and stoned by fellow classmates! Because

his mother removed him from the school, Big George came became his tutor, and he was

educated through the influence of a significant person, a wonderful mentor.

 Resistance activities of civil disobedience (0.0%). Wes chose to collude with the existent

power structures of his era, and work within the law to find ways to teach and advocate for

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social justice. He did not break unjust laws through civil disobedience resistance activities,

he challenged them through teaching and advocacy.

Images. The illustrations in Wes' storybook are full single page images, which draw the reader in to a fair degree. They appear to be a combination of watercolor and either colored pencils or oil pastels. Bright and colorful, soft and gentle natured, the figures of people are mostly viewed from the back or side. The reader is often positioned closely alongside Wes, almost in the style of Molly's illustrations, yet here Wes' scenes lack the dimension or degree of detail. In several scenes the reader is able to look into Wes' kind and sincere face. During the river trip, at times the reader views down from a high angle, and other times they are right down in the canyon with him. Wes' images represent critical factors within the story better than

Harriet's illustrations, but less successfully than Molly's. Understandably, the reader is not shown the violence of Wes' childhood attacks nor the raids on abolitionists. There is a sense of how hard he worked to run the farm by himself at the age of twelve. Two separate pictures have been dedicated to his cross-race interactions with the White River Ute tribe. Ute village scenes have been represented accurately.

Image entries for critical factors

Book/s Total critical factor entries Image entries % Image entries

Wes 30 5 16.7%

Total Corpus #3 198 48 24.2%

Silences. This picture storybook contains a rich assortment of information including critical incidents for social justice orientation in the childhood and career of John Wesley "Wes"

Powell. Wes' interesting childhood in the family of a Methodist abolitionist preacher during an

118 era rife with the stress of anti-slavery and pro-slavery politics. Later, several illustrations show him in friendly cross-racial interactions with members of the White Mountain Ute Tribe.

Additionally, the book explains that he "immersed himself in the language and culture of the southwest desert's native peoples" (p. 41), and finally mentions his activism through teaching and advocacy.

John Wesley Powell had great respect for Native Americans and defended their right to

live according to their own traditions. His research of native cultures led to the creation

of the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. He was

appointed its first director in 1879 and held the position for the rest of his life (p. 41).

Granted, the major focus of this book was not about Wes' antiracism activism. Nevertheless, children will benefit from the assortment of wonderful discursive events related to processes of allyship in this story. Yet there is another documented incident from his life involving a powerful cross-racial interaction during his childhood which is missing from this story. It happened in 1846, after the Powell family fled to a new home and small farm in Wisconsin. Wes had to operate the farm by himself at the age of twelve because his father was working as a traveling minister. The farm was close to some woods, where Wes liked to play. Lee (2007) describes the following critical factor which was a significant cross-racial interaction for Wes.

His first encounter with Native Americans happened when members of the Winnebago

Tribe camped near his family’s farm and explained how the Powell's land used to be part

of their hunting grounds. This encounter fascinated Powell and began his lifelong study

and appreciation of Native Americans and the study of ethnology (p. 34).

Wes had been significantly influenced by these regional peers. Previously in the book, Wes and

Old George were shown exploring a cave with shards of pottery and an arrowhead in the

119 illustration (p. 4). The written text mentions his fascination with ancient cultures. "He wondered about the native people who had lived there and made those things before written history" (p. 3).

Yet his encounter with the Winnebago provides additional information about his processes of allyship. Further, Wes had cross-racial interactions throughout his research with many southwestern Indian tribes. Stegner (1992) comments on the unique quality of these research collaborations, in which Wes "could not count on and did not want the military escort that was standard equipment with most western scientific parties" (p. 166). Wes was friendly and never wore a gun, and believed as Stegner notes,

that one who meant no harm could travel freely among Indians, at least within the

territory of a single tribe, unarmed and unprotected, except when foolish or brutal white

men stirred a tribe to revenge, when even the innocent could suffer (p. 171).

Remarkably, he even visited with the tribe that had killed three of his men from the first

Colorado River expedition. They were able to talk over the tragic misunderstanding and apologize. In the Corpus Three book about Wes, Ray (2007) writes

Wes would never see the men again. Later, he would learn that members of the Shivwits

tribe, mistaking them for three marauders who had kidnapped and murdered a young

woman from their village, had killed them (p. 35).

At least this explanation has been included. Yet it is interesting to contemplate what the effect might be on readers if more of this story had been revealed. The Shivwits begged forgiveness for the mistake, and Wes never turned them in to the military. According to Lee (2007), there was something that set him apart from other advocates.

Because he knew many Indians well, he neither saw them as violent savages nor as

peoples to be idealized. He tried to convey to white America that the Indians were

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people who felt threatened, rightly so, and needed help in assimilating into modern

society (p. 35).

At the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of Ethnology, Wes directed the documentation of Native

American Languages and organized four hundred years of information into a comprehensive

American Indian bibliography. He personally had significant cross-racial interactions with many different Nations of American Indians, at least eighteen in the Colorado Plateau alone including:

Apache, Chemehueva, Maricopa, Mohave, Navaho, Paiute, Papago, Pima, Pueblo, Shivwits,

Shoshoni, Tewan, Tusayan, Unita, Ute, Yuma, and Zuñi (Powell, 1895). Although personal interactions with only one of these peoples the Ute, are represented in the Corpus Three picture book. Nevertheless, Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, One-Armed Explorer offers children a valuable door into a unique counterstory of historic allyship that has seldom been told.

John Brown

Storyline. John Brown grew up in Ohio, during the early years of the nineteenth century.

His father was a strict, and taught John that slavery was against the Bible and God's laws. At twelve years of age, he witnessed a slave owner's vicious attack upon the enslaved African

American boy whom John was befriending. When John had his own large family, he taught his children to hate slavery. He taught and advocated for abolition in churches and public, and aided African American resistance by helping those fleeing enslavement make it to Canada.

Realizing more must be done, John planned to arm enslaved African Americans, so that they could successfully revolt. Explaining his plans to Frederick Douglass the famous African

American abolitionist and former slave, John hoped for support. Though Douglass remained committed to change through non-violent methods, John pressed forward with his plan. John's

121 sons had established in Kansas Territory in 1854, where pro-slavery factions were terrorizing anti-slavery families. Joining them the next year, John and his son's killed some pro-slavery leaders. Then, John returned east to Ohio to proceed with his plans to take guns from a government armory at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. Ultimately the plan failed, John's was wounded, his sons were killed, and he was immediately put on trial. Testifying from a cot in front of a judge, he declared that though he had broken man's laws, he was obeying God's laws. John and his men were quickly hanged. But, his prediction came true, and ultimately violence was required to end the formal institution of slavery in the U.S.

Significant critical factors. The following percentages of critical factors were significant as representations in this picture book.

 Resistance activities of civil disobedience (34.6%). Yes, John's story is a quintessential story

of civil disobedience. Breaking his country's racially unjust laws in order to uphold what he

believed were God's laws, this was John's mission. Valuing the potential freedom for

millions of enslaved African Americans more than the lives of a few white men, he devoted

much of his life to civilly disobedient resistance activities which challenged the institution of

chattel slavery.

 Cross-racial interactions (32.7%). Interactions with African Americans in a variety of

critical factors were a part of John's story. Interacting with an enslaved boy, operating stops

on the Underground Railroad and helping people fleeing enslavement get to Canada,

consulting with Frederick Douglass about his planned revolt, and fighting side by side with

African Americans in the Harper's Ferry raid, are all critical factors with cross-racial

interactions.

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 Personal experience of injustice (21.8%). Choosing to deliberately act against white

supremacist power in society caused John many personal experiences of injustice, including

having his sons killed, being shot and wounded, and ultimately being executed himself.

 Critical factors experienced during childhood (16.4%). John experienced critical factors

during his childhood, such as: the influence of family, witnessing oppression, and

independent reading and research about injustice

 Resistance activities of teaching and advocacy (12.7%). Preaching anti-slavery at meetings

and in churches, as well as teaching his own children to hate slavery, were forms of John

Brown's resistance activities of teaching and advocacy.

 Education and learning about injustice by independent research (0.0%). Not portrayed as

attending any type of school, John learned about injustices through his own experiences, such

as reading the Bible, befriending an enslaved and terrorized African American boy, working

on the Underground Railroad, and living during a time of politically charged social conflict

between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces.

 Education and learning about injustice in schools (0.0%). John was never portrayed

attending school. Perhaps due to his lower class status, or because his father taught him a

trade and he was working for the family by the age of twelve.

Images. Illustrations for John Brown are incredibly powerful and detailed. Each image although small, is realistically drawn and painted, and does an accurate job of capturing historic figures such as Frederick Douglass. Amazingly, even though this book is less than half the dimension of Molly Bannaky, and although the pictures are not full page scenes, they are still effective for supporting and portraying the highest percentage, almost two thirds, of critical factors from the written text. Each image is worthy of projecting to a larger screen dimension for

123 working with visual literacy strategies. Not even necessarily brightly colored, the emotions of characters' gestures and expressions are sensitively rendered. Cross-race interactions and scenes representing injustices of enslavement are effectively done. There are contrasting examples of slave owners and abolitionists, white and Black abolitionists, and pro-slavery and anti-slavery government forces. Additionally an actual photo of John Brown is included at the end of the story with the historical notes. It is proof for readers that he really looked like that! His face alone testifying to an amazing and passionate convictions.

Image entries for critical factors

Book/s Total critical factor entries Image entries % Image entries

John 55 21 38.2%

Total Corpus #3 198 48 24.2%

Silences. The Corpus Three picture storybook John Brown has a low percentage of critical factors for significant influence of peers. This book does not include information about

John's six silent partners, a group of influential and wealthy northern white abolitionists who privately financed and supplied his resistance activities. One was a millionaire and another had been a U.S. Presidential candidate! The storybook does state that, "John returned east to ask his friends for more money and guns" (p. 30). Yet this statement seems out of context because it is the first and only mention of these unidentified friends. Other stories about John Brown tend to portray him as a lone obsessive radical. Where is the information for understanding how John's network of affluent white allies used their white agency to support his resistance activities?

Moreover, why is the representation of John's interactions with Black leadership limited to

Frederick Douglass? Douglass didn't want to be part of John's revolt plan, he declined. Yet

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Brown actually established an impressive interracial alliance, which is significant to a deeper awareness of cross-racial collaborative resistance. For example, Reynolds (2005) notes that

Brown spent three weeks in Canada trying to tap into this rich body of potential recruits.

His most important contact was the distinguished black doctor and editor Martin R.

Delany... Delany promised to help attract Canadian blacks to the antislavery convention

in Chatham that Brown was planning (p. 259).

This was no small victory. Delany advocated racial separatism, and he was very impressed with

John's cross-racial interactions and collaborative resistance strategies of civil disobedience.

Delany found in Brown something he had never seen in a white: the desire to organize an

anti-slavery movement co-supervised by blacks and whites and committed to the violent

overthrow of slavery. If American could produce a man like Brown, Delany decided, it

was a nation worth fighting for.

Although Brown's critical factors of cross-racial interactions with Frederick Douglass are well represented in this book. These represent significant influence from a mentor involving a famous African American abolitionist leader. Yet what is missing here, it that John was also closely allied with Harriet Tubman, another equally famous Black abolitionist. Bradford (1897) describes this relationship.

Harriet was one of John Brown's "men." His brave and daring spirit found ready

sympathy in her courageous heart: she sheltered him in her home in Canada, and helped

him to plan his campaigns (p. 96).

Wendell Phillips, a famous white abolitionist, commented on silences about Harriet Tubman.

"Her dreams and visions, misgivings and forewarnings, ought not to be omitted in any life of her, particularly those relating to John Brown" (Bradford, 1897, p. 136). Of course Tubman is the

125 subject of many excellent children's picture books, yet how many reveal anything about her interactions with Brown? Phillips continues,

The last time I ever saw John Brown was under my own roof, as he brought Harriet

Tubman to me, saying: "Mr. Phillips, I bring you one of the best and bravest persons on

this continent--General Tubman, as we call her." (p. 134).

Then after the Harper's Ferry raid and John's death, Phillips reflected on their alliance.

She was in his confidence in 1858-9, and he had a great regard for her, which he often

expressed to me. She aided him in his plans, and expected to do so still further, when his

career was closed by that wonderful campaign in Virginia. The first time she came to my

house, in Concord, after that tragedy, she was shown into a room in the evening, where

Brackett's bust of John Brown was standing. The sight of it, which was new to her, threw

her into a sort of ecstacy of sorrow and admiration, and she went on in her rhapsodical

way to pronounce his apotheosis (p. 136).

Another critical factor which is missing from this story is John Brown's advocacy for women's rights. Reynolds (2005) explains his perspectives.

While emphasizing injustice against blacks, Brown again included another oppressed

group: women. Full rights must be extended to 'all,' he declared— not only without

regard to race but also 'Irrespective of Sex' (pp. 302-303)

Obviously, important critical factors regarding the significant influence of mentors, cross-race interactions, and intersectionalities of resistance are missing here. This silence obscures a deeper understanding of collaborative interracial resistance to racism.

William Penn: Founder of Pennsylvania

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Storyline. William Penn was born to an elite British family in the mid-seventeenth century. England was embroiled in political turmoil as many leaders fought to control the religion in the country. Civil wars had ensued and several kings literally lost their heads. The

Penn family had status in the government, and also some affiliation with Quakers, or The

Religious Society of Friends. William was able to attend grammar school and later university, where he learned more about religious freedom. He defied his college at Oxford University by refusing to attend the Church of England, consequently William was expelled. Witnessing the devoted charity of Quakers towards their own oppressors, as well as inspiration from the many mentors he had studied with, William decided to become a Quaker and to advocate for religious freedom. Doing so caused him to be imprisoned several times for extended months. While incarcerated, William wrote several books supporting his cause. Eventually, he was able to use his political connections to secure governorship of an American colony. William helped create the colony of Pennsylvania so that American Quakers could have a place where they would be protected from religious persecution. Thus, the British colony of Pennsylvania was established.

William Penn supposedly purchased land from the Lenni Lenape Indians peacefully, through the

Great Treaty of Shackamaxon. (The Lenni Lenape are part of the Delaware Nation). Later, when the British insisted on fighting the French and American Indians during King William's

War, the colonial government in Pennsylvania remained pacifist and refused to take part in the

King's conflict. Ultimately, William was removed as governor by the British government for this refusal. In 1701, he freed all his slaves and helped them to become tenant farmers. Later, he was put into debtor's prison in England, then bailed out by Pennsylvania Quakers, and finally died without returning to America.

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Significant critical factors. The following percentages of critical factors were significant as representations in this picture book.

 Personal experience of injustice (23.1%). William was born to elite status in England, and

his family was well connected politically. Nevertheless, due to his determination to preach

and advocate for religious freedom, William was imprisoned several times for long periods

extending many months.

 Resistance activities of teaching and advocacy (26.1%). Daring to preach about religious

freedom in public landed William in the Tower of London. While imprisoned, he continued

to advocate for social justice by writing books on the subject.

 Significant influence of family (1.5%). Though William's family hosted a Quaker leader's

visit to their estate, his father and other members of his extended family held a variety of

different perspectives about religion. Leaders and mentors that influenced him came mostly

from outside his family system.

 Education and learning about injustice by independent research (1.5%). Most of Williams

understanding about religious oppression came through significant persons who were leaders

and mentors. Because his family has access to resources, William was educated in Chigwell

Grammar School and later at Oxford University. He had access to teachers and professors for

learning about injustice.

 Cross-racial interactions (4.6%). Most of the critical factors in William's life that were

portrayed in his story, did not involve cross-racial interactions. Yet, his supposed Great

Treaty of Shackamaxon is represented, where Lenni Lenapi leaders engage in peaceful trade

together.

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Images. The illustrations in William Penn: Founder of Pennsylvania are softly painted in gentle colors. Many pictures are partly framed, restricting the viewer from joining in. Luckily both of the illustrations involving American Indian peoples are flush to the edges and more engaging for readers. The illustrations have a low percentage of critical factors portrayed as image entries. This is due in part to the larger quantity of written text compared to the other books in the corpus. The closest the reader comes to William are the scenes in which he is alone in prison. Dull and subdued tones express the mood of incarceration.

Image entries for critical factors

Book/s Total critical factor entries Image entries % Image entries

William 65 9 13.8%

Total Corpus #3 198 48 24.2%

Silences. The story of William Penn is important to the interactions of European colonizers and Native Americans. Zinn (2007) calls for William's story to be better known for an understanding of U.S. history.

Granted, it is good to have historical figures we can admire and emulate. But why hold

up as models the fifty-five rich white men who drafted the Constitution as a way of

establishing a government that would protect the interests of their class—slaveholders,

merchants, bondholders, land speculators? Why not recall the humanitarianism of

William Penn, an early colonist who made peace with the Delaware Indians instead of

warring on them, as other colonial leaders were doing? (p. 57).

And why not review the context in which William's critical factors transpired in these resistance activities of advocacy and cross-racial interactions? Aptheker (1993) further illuminates the

129 dynamics of this history which certainly was

a tragic saga for the Indians, divided amongst themselves, generally outnumbered,

tremendously out-armed, and terribly prone to the new diseases brought by the invader

from Europe, went down to defeat. Let it be noted that where some decency and honor

prevailed--as in the cases of William Penn and Roger Williams--the Indians maintained

fraternal relations with the whites (p. 21).

Given this context, even limited occurrences of cross-racial interactions take on greater significance. Though this picture storybook represents a low percentage of cross-racial interactions, it does show how other critical factors related to personal experiences of oppression may lead to antiracism resistance activities through teaching and advocacy. One representation of a cross-racial resistance activity of advocacy with African Americans in this book states that

"William freed all his slaves, but made them tenants on or near his estate" (p. 22). What is missing is adequate information to understand in the context and factors that led William to do this. Why did he even enslave African peoples at all? The significance of asking this question, is that within six years of forming the Pennsylvania Colony, according to Foner (1975) in 1688, just a few years after Penn established the colony, Quaker leaders in Germantown, Pennsylvania

"drew up a vigorous protest against slavery and the slave trade. The protest of 1688—[was] the first such formulated by an American congregation..." (p. 284). Although this appeal did not change the legal policy of slavery in the Pennsylvania Colony at that time, it was the first call for ending slavery by the American Quakers. Five years later, a clearer vision from "the Yearly

Meeting at Philadelphia ...[advised] Friends to buy no slaves except for the purpose of freeing them" (p. 286).

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Missing from this story is information about the structures and policies connected with the extreme oppression of Native American peoples at the time William interacted with the

Lenni Lenapi (Delaware). These would involve critical factors of learning about or witnessing injustice. Similarly, information and policies which influenced the Colony of Pennsylvania and

William's choice to advocate for and free his slaves would also represent critical factors in learning about injustice and forms of resistance activities.

Total Corpus

Significant critical factors. The following percentages of critical factors were significant as representations in the total corpus of all five picture books.

 Critical factors experienced during childhood. (24.8%) Approximately one fourth of the

critical factors represented across the corpus were experiences that occurred during

childhood.

 Cross-racial interactions. (23.2%) Almost another fourth of the critical factors across this

corpus were critical factor experiences involving cross-racial interactions.

 Personal experience of injustice. (21.2%) More than one fifth of the corpus' critical factors

were personal experiences of injustice.

 Resistance activities of teaching and advocacy. (19.2%) Almost another fifth of critical

factors across this corpus involve the resistance activities of teaching and advocacy.

 Education and learning about injustice in schools. (2.0%) Practically none of the main

character's critical factors for social justice orientation involved education about injustice

which was learned in school.

 Education and learning about injustice by independent research. (4.6%) Additionally,

learning about injustice by independent reading and research was also extremely limited.

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Less than five percent of the critical factors across this corpus fit this category. When

education about injustice is considered, it is personal experiences of oppression that occurs

most frequently.

Images. Overall, visual text across this corpus has a high ability for representing critical factors to the reader. Virtually one fourth of the text entries for the critical factor analysis came from images in the books. Molly Bannaky and John Brown had the highest percentages of image entries compared to their written text entries, which is understandable because these were the two books with the most detailed and realistically drawn illustrations. The expressions, gestures and ability to look directly into the faces of the characters helped facilitate their effectiveness.

Details in the scenes supported information from the written text in order to make one to one correlations for critical factors. Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell the One-Armed

Explorer, and William Penn: Founder of Pennsylvania were also able to portray an average amount of critical factor image entries for analysis. Their images although drawing the reader into the scenes well for discourse involving critical factors, there was simply more written text in both these stories than the other three books, and therefore more critical factor entries came from written text in the stories. Finally, A Picture Book of Harriet Beecher Stowe had the lowest amount of text entries overall and also for image entries. The images here had the potential to represent more critical factors than they did, but they did always include adequate detail to be coded for correlations in the written texts, and unfortunately the images of Harriet did not reveal the actual poverty of her childhood nor adult life regarding clothing and surroundings.

Ironically, the cover of Harriet's book was actually very effective for representing a critical factor, as was John's, yet this analysis did not code for book covers.

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Image entries for critical factors

Book/s Total critical factor entries Image entries % Image entries

John 55 21 38.2%

Molly 37 12 32.4%

Wes 30 5 16.7%

William 65 9 13.8%

Harriet 11 1 9.1%

All 198 48 24.2%

Silences. Each Corpus Three book in the study had missing and silenced information relevant to the true life situations of the book's characters. Yet by far, A Picture Book of Harriet

Beecher Stowe was the most misleading. This is a great example of the way white resistance has been marginalized in the history of antiracism activism. It is understandable that children's picture books are not meant to provide in depth historic details, they are stories. Nevertheless, it would only have involved a few extra carefully placed visual details to represent some of them.

For instance, the cross-racial enslaved and indentured colonial work colleagues, who were in all likelihood part of the community and childhood influences in Molly Bannaky's life. Moreover, the point to consider is that preparing supplemental information and materials is always a good strategy for working with critical content.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

First, this discussion revisits the research question. Then, it looks at the results, findings, and trends revealed through the analysis. And finally, implications about the need for further study are suggested.

Research Question

How are white antiracism activism and the lives of white antiracism activists represented by children's literature authors in picture books? To answer this question I draw on the three theoretical lenses. CRT, ARE and CDA provide the tools to bring portrayals of white antiracism activism into focus. Through these critical epistemological stances such representations can be seen in the context of the social and institutional structures of racism. White activist portrayals can be evaluated for pertinent critical factors involved in social justice orientation development, such as the influence of significant people, the ways people learn about injustice, and how an activist's resistance to injustice is enacted. Locating texts within picturebooks, both inferential

(written or spoken) and iconic (images or illustrations) reveal how critical factors in the lives of activists and their activism are represented by authors of children's literature in picture books.

Findings

Here, I revisit the analysis results in order to discuss the findings and trends represented in the ways that white antiracism activism and activists are portrayed in these books.

The following critical factors and types of critical factors stood out as the most frequently and least frequently portrayed in this study's analysis.

 (CH) critical factors were experienced during childhood (24.8%)

 (CR) critical factors involved cross-racial interactions (23.2%)

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 (XP) exposure to injustice through personal experience (21.2%)

 (TA) resistance to injustice through teaching and advocacy (19.2%)

 (CD) resistance to injustice though acts of civil disobedience (15.2%)

 (ES) leaning about injustice in school (2.0%)

 (EI) learning about injustice through independent readings or research (4.6%)

Trends. In this section, I look at the trends which have emerged from the analysis. First as represented by the most significant critical factors in the stories of these white allies, and then by the least significant ones.

Critical Factors in childhood. All books have representations of critical factors which occur during childhood. This is significant because it shows that kids need this information.

Studies indicate that young children do think about race and can think critically about racial issues if given opportunities and guidance. Moreover, parents and teachers need to do a better job of talking about race and modeling cross-racial friendships with children, because there may be a limited window of opportunity to do so at risk here, which according to Katz (2003), might be closing sometime around third grade. When parents do not discuss race with their children, access to picture books with racial themes and information are especially important. Vittrup and

Holden (2011) looked at several factors which affect a white child's racial attitudes, such as parents' discussions and use of media. In this study, only ten percent of ninety-nine parent participants complied with instructions to have race related discussions with their children.

Findings suggested that if parents are not discussing racial issues with children, that media such as educational television may help. Many factors interact to socialize and influence racial attitudes in young children, such as neighborhoods, schools, materials, and popular media.

"Thus, when it comes to influencing a child’s racial-attitude development, it is not enough to

135 look at effects from only one of these systems” (p. 101). Teachers using picture books and guided discussions of race may help reduce children's racial biases. "Once attitudes have been held for many years, they become a stable part of a person’s personality, and it follows that it will be more difficult to change attitudes in adulthood than in childhood" (p. 83). It is imperative to work with young children to help them build racial literacy and contemplate cross-race alliances.

Cross-racial interactions. Four of five books portray critical factors involving cross- racial interactions. Friendship, love, marriage, parenting, work partnerships, collaborative resistance activities, political negotiations and affiliations, teaching, learning, and mentoring are examples of the variety of cross-racial interactions represented.

Thompson (2001) discusses whites who have close or intimate relationships with people of color, and while such relationships can never guarantee or be a credential for white antiracism, they often can change a white person's consciousness regarding racism. "Through close cross- racial relationships, white people come to understand race experientially (not just abstractly) and to realize they cannot afford to distance themselves from the realities of racism" (p. 334).

Further along these lines, sometimes activists come from families which promote cross-racial interactions and antiracism perspectives. According to Thompson,

a model of racial identity that makes room for the lives of antiracist activists must

account for how mentoring by people of color influences development, how family

dynamics shape people's paths, and how progressive struggles shape consciousness (p.

30).

Of great concern here, as Tatum (1997) warns us about the re-segregation of public schools, is the reality that our children's "meaningful opportunities for cross-racial contact are diminishing”

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(p. xi). Moreover, a recent study by Pahlke, Bigler & Suizzo (2012) finds that when white mothers avoid talking about race with their kids, then their children's racial biases will relate to whether or not their moms have any meaningful cross-race relationships. Pahlke et al. analyzed eighty-four white mothers as they read racially themed books with their four and five year old children. Afterward, both moms and kids were surveyed to predict each other's levels of racial bias. Because these mothers had been using colormute and colorblind socialization,

neither children nor mothers accurately predicted the others’ views. Children’s racial

attitudes were unrelated to their mothers’ attitudes but were predicted by their mothers’

cross-race friendships; those children whose mothers had a higher percentage of non-

European American friends showed lower levels of racial biases than those children

whose mothers had a lower percentage of non-European American friends (p. 1164).

The value of interracial relationships must be more seriously considered, because this common critical factor for social justice orientation and antiracism alliance building is more valuable than many parents and teachers realize.

Personal exposure to injustice. Four of the five main characters in the corpus have significant personal experiences of exposure to injustice. And again, Harriet is the outlier in both cases, neither cross-racial interactions nor personal experiences of injustice are represented in her story. Personally experiencing injustice is often a consequence of taking a stand against forms of oppression in society, and this was the case for both John Brown and William Penn. Wesley

Powell also had exposure to injustice through personal experience, although his occurred primarily during childhood when he was targeted because of the moral and political stance his abolitionist parents had taken.

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Often courses and training for social justice have students look at intersectionalities, or the many forms of oppression in society which involve binaries of dominant and target group dynamics. Even though a person is white, they may also be members of target groups for other forms of oppression (e.g. sexism, ageism, ableism, sexual orientation, spirituality, etc.).

Personally experiencing oppression can generate empathy for people of color's racial oppression.

For instance, Bell (1997) points out how the Jewish Americans during the 1960s Civil Rights

Movement,

who were the largest group of whites to participate, drew on their own experiences of

oppression to mobilize support and commitment in white communities. Whites with

access to power and privilege not available to most Black Americans acted as allies in the

struggle for change by passing laws in Congress, using the media to publicize the

struggle and joining in actions where white lives were more likely to gain police

protection. Together they forged a coalition for change that inspires social movements to

this day (p. 14).

In essence, Jewish Americans had empathy and compassion for racial oppression because they had critical factors of personal experiences of oppression in their lives and cultural history, and were able to use white agency to collaborate with people of color to resist racism.

Molly, for instance, was born into an oppressive manorial system as an impoverished servant to a wealthy English lord and his huge estate, and later bonded to a wealthy planter in the

Maryland Colony, really forms of slavery by another name. As a white woman with these experiences, she deeply understood the injustice and oppression in other's lives. Yet today most whites have little experience with personal injustice. In regard to clinical psychological training,

Caldwell (2008) suggests that white students "benefit from learning about the experiences of

138 target group members through participation in exchanges and activities with individuals who have personally experienced injustice and oppression" (p. 183). For children, literature which offers doors to the world through critical issues is another way to provide some of these understandings within racially segregated communities, schools, and classrooms (Botelho &

Rudman, 2009; Gardner, 2008; McNair, 2008). From a CRT perspective, this kind of engagement with someone experiencing personal injustice, provides a counter-narrative. These counter-narratives help students recognize and understand systems of oppression structurally, instead of understanding oppression as just an individual phenomenon.

Resistance through teaching and advocacy. Each of the main characters use teaching and advocacy as a form of resistance to social structures of racism. Molly advocates for

Bannaky by using her white agency for his manumission, 'freeing' him from enslavement. She also teaches her grandson to read and educates him about the structures of racism in society. He lives on to become a great African American abolitionist and activist himself (Aptheker, 1993;

Zinn, 1980). Harriet uses her writing ability to teach and advocate against the inhumanity of the institution of chattel slavery through her work of protest literature for abolitionist publications.

Wes uses his scholarship as a researcher and his white agency to help create the Smithsonian

Institute's Bureau of Ethnology. He advocates for protecting the natural and cultural resources of the American Indian tribes of the Colorado Plateau Region. John Brown aggressively teaches his family, and preaches to the public advocating abolition. Beyond this, his attempt to raid the

Harper's Ferry arsenal, though failed, still ultimately taught and advocated for abolition. William authored protest literature advocating religious tolerance and preached publically against injustice. He advocated for the rights of Native Americans through friendly political relationships, and refused to oppose the French and their Indian allies in King William's War.

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Zinn (2007) explains the dynamics and reach that writing has for teaching and advocacy.

Ultimately, protest literature should move people to think more broadly, to feel more

deeply, begin to act, perhaps alone at first, but then with others, on the supposition that

social change comes about through the combined and cumulative actions of many people,

even if they do not know one another or are not aware of the other’s existence (p. 241).

It is clear that Uncle Tom's Cabin was able to do this. "A poem can inspire a movement. A pamphlet can spark a revolution" (p. 16). And, often fiction reaches the reader more emotionally and effectively than documentation. Therefore, it is important to understand the power that picture storybooks can have for antiracism teaching and advocacy.

Resistance through civil disobedience. Two of the main characters, Harriet and Wes, did not take part in resistance through civil disobedience. But John's and William's stories represent such high percentages of critical factors involving it, when added to Molly's content a significant trend emerges. Zinn (2007) comments on the power and potential of engaging this form of resistance activity.

Civil disobedience can arouse people and provoke us to think. When we organize with

one another, when we get involved, when we stand up and speak out together, we can

create a power no government can suppress (p. 16).

For example, Molly's neighbors kept her confidence and never divulged her marriage with

Bannaky to government authorities. These neighbors had the power to hurt her, but they actually protected her and collaborated to resistance to unjust laws, as did the traveling preacher who performed Bannaky and Molly's marriage rites. Although students need to understand the vast extent of multicultural solidarity during the colonial era, it is not being provided. Silences and missing information especially in Harriet's but also in Molly's, Wes', and even John Brown's,

140 reduce the power of these stories and their ability to provide students with critical information about cross-racial solidarity for resisting racism.

Teaching the importance of collaborative protest and resistance through civil disobedience is imperative for both CRT and ARE contexts. According to Zinn (2007), this involves "the most important job citizens have, which is to energize democracy by organizing, protesting, sharing information, and engaging in acts of civil disobedience that shake up the system" (pp. 167-168). From a CRT perspective, limiting the scope of information here seeks to hide structures of racism in order to protect them from being shaken up. Thus, facilitating and maintaining the taken-for-granted normalcy of white supremacy. An ARE perspective would understand that silences here contribute to the ongoing mis-education of students in the context of race. Both CRT and ARE scholars see the importance of representing activism and collaborative acts of resistance through civil disobedience to students. Each paradigm holds a dedication to praxis (Gillborn, 2007).

Education about injustice through school. Here, the critical factor of learning about injustice in schools and coursework, is significant as a trend due to its absence. This can have an effect on students today. True, for most of these historic biographies, public schools didn't exist yet. Only William could afford to go to school in the 1600s, because his family had the privilege of wealth, and he did learn about issues of social justice in his classrooms, but he is the only one who is represented doing so. Harriet had privilege and was able to attend and even teach school in the 1800s, as her family was connected to the system of large religious institutions. Yet it is not shown that information about social injustice was any part of her school experiences. John on the other hand, came from a less privileged labor class, and worked for his family. He is not

141 represented attending school. Wes was driven from his public school due to violence at the hands of his classmates, because they supported pro-slavery systems of racial oppression.

On the one hand, the absence of these representations might maintain color-mute and colorblind systems, such as tend to exist in the schools and classrooms of our educational system today. On the other hand, when students learn more about racial injustices within their literary curriculum regarding the structures of racism existing today, it empowers new voices and visions of advocacy. From a CRT and ARE lens, offering students counter-narratives and information about racial injustice through their education in school is crucial. For many students this may be the only opportunity to gain these understandings. Any silence or absence in this regard can be interpreted as a way of restricting curricula and blocking access to counterstories, thus contributing to the maintenance and normalcy of white supremacy.

Education about injustice by independent readings/research. Unfortunately, the trend here is the same as learning about injustice through education in schools. This is significant because of its absence. As a consequence, students do not see representations of the way others may independently investigate racial equity issues. Learning about injustice in schools today hopefully includes encouragement for independent reading and research. Albeit second grade students in the Copenhaver et al. (2007) study were initially inspired at school, the literacy program that students took part in led to several students collaborating on an in depth investigation about Dr. King and his assassination. "Some of the children’s inquiries led to action and a sense of agency in conducting and publishing research" (p. 242). Interestingly, students noticed the conspicuous absence of whites represented in resources on civil rights.

Jesse pointed out that none of the several books on hand showed James Earl Ray, Dr.

King’s assassin, and most texts did not include many representations of White people at

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all. They wondered where the White people were, why they were not illustrated in the

texts, and why Ray could have wanted to harm Dr. King (p. 242).

Young students' literacy curricula and the teacher's influence have the potential to inspire independent readings and research along these lines.

Imagery and critical factor representation. The visual texts were actually quite successful for supporting representations of the main character's critical factors. Overall, almost one fourth of the illustrations signified aspects of social justice orientation in the lives of antiracism activists. Although variations in the quality of the illustrations affected an ability to maintain clear correspondences with written text, and the fact that two books contained a greater quantity of written text, thus limited the variety of critical factors which could be pictured.

Overall, the books images portrayed critical factors in the main character's stories effectively.

Essentially one quarter of the factors occurred within the visual text.

Image entries for critical factors

main character total textual entries image entries % image entries

John 55 21 38.2%

Molly 37 12 32.4%

Wes 30 5 16.7%

William 65 9 13.8%

Harriet 11 1 9.1%

All 198 48 24.2%

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Missing critical factors and silences. Every book in Corpus Three had missing and silenced information that involved critical factors in the story of the white activism activist.

"America’s future is linked to how we understand our past" (Zinn, 2007, p. 11). Teachers must take care to locate silences, provide missing information, and help students learn to do the same.

A chart listing the 'silences' regarding the potentially 'missing' critical factors for each Corpus

Three picture storybook is provided (Appendix N).

Silences or absences in the discourse regarding information or perspectives within texts can be just as important as what has been represented (Botelho & Rudman, 2009). Often the materials in school curricula omit important aspects of history in literature and text books

(Alexander, 1983; Aptheker, 1993; hooks, 2000; Duarte & Smith, 2000; McLaren, 1997; Wise,

1997; Zinn, 2007). In this way they are doing the characters and children a disservice.

Searching for instances of marginalization or silencing is important, and according to Zinn

(2007) it must be taken seriously.

When our government, our media, and our institutions of higher learning select certain

events for remembering and ignore others, we have the responsibility to supply the

missing information. Just telling untold truths has a powerful effect, for people with

ordinary common sense may then begin asking themselves and others: "What shall we

do?" (104).

Beyond omissions and silences, sometimes outright misrepresentation occurs, as Aptheker

(1993) explains "...the history of challenge to or rejection of racism has also suffered because there are numerous instances wherein evidences of anti-racism have been turned into the opposite (p. 5). So, what this means from a CRT and ARE perspective is that misrepresentations

144 are deliberate, for obscuring the structures of racism that voiced narratives and information would expose. For instance, this explains why Molly Bannaky doesn't show up in history books.

Although it is understandable that because authors work with publishers, they don't always have the choice of what to put into books. Publishers limit what they can write, so lots of things will be left out. Plus, books can't have everything included and still be effective. Picture books are limited by length, and have to have limited information to be able to work as a story.

But teachers and parents can still use them to talk with kids about race, providing extra contextual information through other stories, images, or books as supplements.

Additional Trends. Other than and in addition to frequencies and types of critical factor representations, this analysis reveals several other trends evident in the Corpus Three books.

These trends involve the following issues: quantity of books, genre limitations, characters' gender and class, book award status, and what is missing from the stories.

Five books in ten years. Corpus Three books were published between 1999 through

2009 in these following years: 1999, 1999, 2000, 2003, and 2006. This means that only five picture storybooks within a ten-year time period highlight the story of a white antiracism activist as the main character while also providing representations of other white activists within the book. Representing critical factors in the lives of these activists are valuable for modeling the processes involved in a character's use of agency for resisting the social and institutional structures of racism, in other words, the processes of allyship. Therefore, less than one picture storybook per year has been produced recently, which offer the scope of activism in this way.

The good news is that there are other books in this study and beyond it, which can model cross- race collaborations and white activists, so educators of white allies still have more choices.

Nevertheless, only five books in ten years here is disappointing.

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Only historic biographies. All five books are set in historic eras. Molly's and William's stories take place in the 1600s and provide important information about the early years of British colonialism and the European colonization of North America. Harriet, John, and Wes' stories are each set in the 1800s during the anti-slavery abolitionist movement. Although each of these stories are about important contributions resisting racism, a serious question remains. The message that is being sent through an absence of contemporary or even recent historic stories, biographies, and thus role models, is that they are not important. Authors of children's books may think it safer and that perhaps less white guilt is involved by looking back to the past, to issues of historic racism. Perhaps authors agree with popular assumptions that racism ended with Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the passage of the Fourteenth (citizenship and equal protection) and Fifteenth (equal voting rights) Amendments. But it most certainly did not.

According to Zinn (2012),

Every president of the United States for one hundred years, Democrat or Republican,

liberal or conservative, every president violated his oath of office. The oath of office

says you will see to it that the laws are faithfully executed. Every president did not

enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, collaborated with southern racism and

segregation and lynching and all that happened. So the Civil War had this aftermath. It

has to be looked at in a longer perspective (p. 293).

It is clear that historic structures of racial inequity have not been dismantled. These structures change and adjust, but never go away, particularly because they are ignored.

CRT theorists would view this deficit of contemporary story settings for books about white activists as a reflection. It represents the lack of awareness across white society today about contemporary structures of racism due to colorblindness, color muteness, and

146 resegregation. Picture books with stories about contemporary white activists and their allyship would help students identify contemporary structures of racism, and think about collaboratively work to resist it. Silences about contemporary racism block an understanding of "White moral responsibility" (Applebaum, 2010), or the ability for whites to realize their complicity in the systems and structures of racism. It is not possible for a white person to literally be anti-racist, for they will always benefit from the systems of racism in U.S. society. CRT theorists understand that racism is always present in American society, regardless of how things may seem. There is always unequal access to resources according to race. It is a permanent aspect of life in America (Bell, 1992; Delgado & Stefancic, 2005; Gillborne, 2008; Greene, 2008;

Leonardo, 2009), appearing “normal and natural to people in this culture” (Ladson-Billings,

1998, p. 11). According to Jensen (2005), confronting contemporary structures of racism involves fashioning a "personal confession in which we ask ourselves how it feels to be a problem" (p. 96). By referencing Rudyard Kipling's old 'White Man's Burden,' Jensen explains that white people must "commit to dismantling white supremacy as an ideology and a lived reality... The real White People's Burden is to civilize ourselves" (p. 96). Therefore, students need to understand contemporary structures of racism and in order to even begin thinking about ways to resist it. Marginalization of contemporary white antiracism activism in history books and other educational resources such as picture books, only serves to hide, protect, and maintain current systems of white supremacy.

Generalizations. Aptheker (1992) found generalizations that proved true for historic white antiracist activists, i.e. they tended to be lower socio-economic status women with significant cross-racial interactions. Molly Bannaky is the only activist fitting this description from the five books in Corpus Three. Harriet and William were portrayed as having upper class

147 status, and both Wes and John though having come from lower socio-economic status with significant cross-racial interactions, were men. What this means that so few books meet

Aptheker's generalizations, is that a historically inaccurate sense of the white activist role model is being implied.

Only one award winning book. Molly Bannaky is the only book in Corpus Three which has received an award. The Jane Adams Peace Award is given for a book which addresses how diverse peoples resolve disputes in order to live peacefully, how people can think about social injustices more humanely, how youth participate in solutions to forms of oppression, or how equity is promoted for women (Jane Adams Peace Association, 2010). This book shares the empowering account of how Molly survived years of oppressive social systems and worked hard to make the most of her life once she was in control of it. The author and illustrator have created a masterpiece of compelling texts that work in unison to capture the humanity Molly and

Bannaky bring to their situation. Visual texts successfully represent many critical factors in the life of this very unique interracial family.

Yet think about what this means to the representation of white antiracism activism. Only one book in ten years is considered of high enough caliber to have been awarded an honor. In other words, of ninety-one picture books, over a recent ten year period, that contained two or more representations of white antiracism activism, only 1% of these was a picture storybook which had a white ally as the main character and included other white activists in the story, that was of award winning quality. One book in one decade.

Study Limitations

Research is messy, but it is important. Certainly there are limitations in the way this study was conducted. Adding to the challenges here are some inherent tensions between CRT

148 and ARE in the context of white activism. For example, Applebaum (2010) speaks about the dangers of recentering and normalizing whiteness when using the term white ally. Instead, promoting the concept of an alliance identity which depends more on an ability to acknowledge white complicity than the freedom from guilt that developing a positive white identity professes.

Here, Applebaum specifically criticizes Tatum's use of white identity development for seeking to relieve white students of guilt, and why such attempts are dangerous and only serve to recenter and normalize whiteness.

Although recognizing the desire to move in this direction, positive white identity is at

least partially defined as a non-racist identity and this assumes that whites can move

themselves outside of racist systems just by a willingness to do so (p. 182).

White complicity pedagogy as explained by Applebaum, draws on examples of older students and college level classroom dynamics. Generally, CRT has not focused attention on early childhood education to the degree that ARE has. While I have drawn heavily on ARE studies promoting the value of exploring the white identity development of white alliance identities, there are other ways to think about the situation. CRT promotes the importance of whites listening to people of color and the power of counter narratives. White complicity pedagogy seeks to improve the ability of whites for this kind of listening. Critical Race theorists would undoubtedly critique my decision for looking closely at books having white activists as the main character, explaining the inherent dangers functioning to recenter and normalize whiteness. I agree, this danger exists. And I too am questioning my choice in this regard.

When I began to search for a research topic, several areas tempted me. I wanted to work with children's literature on issues of race. I struggled with how to appropriately take part in an in depth discussion along these lines, and decided that because of my race I should look at and

149 talk about white people. Therefore, it was exciting to discover the work of Beverly Tatum, an

African American scholar promoting the value of stories about white allies for all children.

Immediately I realized this was what I'd been looking for. Tatum (1999a) inspired me with her perspectives about stories of white antiracism activism, because she said "these narratives are a gift of light, illuminating the possibility of coalitions and cross-racial partnerships in the journey for justice for both White people and people of color alike" (p. 62). According to Tatum, it can be frustrating for people of color to help white people understand racism. Narratives of white allyship can offer proof and inspiration that "one well timed truth-telling sentence from a person of color to a White-person-in-progress can make a tremendous impact" (p. 63). Coincidently,

Tatum was also fully aware of and spoke to the concerns about recentering and normalizing whiteness.

There is certainly a risk of that, but my own experience is that offering the stories of

White antiracist activists to students of color serves an important purpose. They need to

know it is possible to have White allies (p. 62).

In regard to historic stories of cross-racial collaborations in picture books for young children and the need for teachers to find a way to frame classroom discussions of racism, Tatum (1999b) recommends using these materials for showing children real examples of how people have worked together and changed things. "For young children, examples can be found in picture books. Let students see themselves as agents of change and healing" (p. 29). These recommendations, along with Malcolm X's reminder to go help other whites and then join together in collaborative resistance, have motivated me throughout this study.

Tensions among scholars in the broader conversation and understandings of race definitely exist. I think David Gillborn (2006) says it best, "This is a field where perspectives

150 can become quickly confused and misunderstood" (p. 26). It's not easy to know the best strategies for helping students or even ourselves address the complexities of these topics. But ignoring them through colorblind and colormute perspectives is much worse. As David Pilgrim

(2008) puts it, "I'm not afraid to talk about racism, I'm afraid not to talk about racism" (p. 1).

Despite of and amidst these tensions, it is still important to take part in and make contributions to resisting racism. The main thing in research and teaching practice, is to stay open and reflective.

For example, even Barbara Applebaum (2010) admits,

I have not offered any lesson-plans or concrete pedagogical suggestions. There is,

however, no formula for how to do white complicity pedagogy. I encourage others to

share their attempts (p. 197).

One of the purposes of research is to educate the researcher. I see now that my initial concern for looking more exclusively at whites probably clouded my perspectives. Hyper-segregation of schools affects all races of students, especially whites. In consideration of white students beginning to grapple with concepts of race, I felt that books highlighting white characters might be a powerful way for seeing themselves as agents of change. My tacit sense about the choice for focusing on white main characters was also in regard to the scope of life experiences and critical factors that there would be room for within the story of one character. After all, children's picture books are short, usually between thirty to sixty pages long.

In hindsight, focusing more intently upon cross-race resistance collaborations through sets of main characters might have been a better choice. Alternatively, this study could have been conducted by looking only at these collaborations in order to focus white allyship within a more mutualistic framework. Wonderful books within Corpus One such as Lincoln and

Douglass: An American Friendship (Giovanni, 2008) and As Good as Anybody: Martin Luther

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King Jr. and Abraham Joshua Heschel's Amazing March Toward Freedom (Michelson, 2008) provide rich opportunities in this regard. Each book includes childhood information for the main characters involving critical factors contributing to their collaborative acts of resistance. The good news is this conversation is ongoing, and by using these types of materials and procedures it can easily be taken in that direction.

Implications for Further Study

Encompassing a variety of issues in education as revealed by the related research studies, there are many implications for further research using the topic of antiracism activism and allyship in children's literature.

Visual research strategies. Studies working with young students making sense out of the imagery in picture books with antiracism themes would be valuable. Images are powerful tools for developing critical thinking skills. But it is important to understand how children are interpreting the visual texts. Teachers rarely think of kids not being able to make sense out of the picture. Something as important as looking at a picture and seeing a white ally, or seeing white collaboration may be at stake. It's important to work Socratically, that is to teach by asking questions where images are involved. Additionally, peer mentoring among students is also an important aspect of interpreting imagery. In cases where information has been visually omitted, children can be asked to imagine possibilities. For instance, Wes' story stated that he

"ran home from school, bloody and crying. His classmates had beaten and stoned him" (Ray,

2007, p. 2). In cases like this, kids could be asked, "if we were going to make a picture, what would we put in the picture?"

Housen (2002) conducted a five year longitudinal study in the mid 1990s, in which second graders and fourth graders were analyzed to see how they made sense out of visuals

152 through a specially designed curriculum, that focused around three questions to prompt the viewers, "What is going on here?", "What do you see that makes you say that?", and "What more can you find?" (p. 100). This process, called Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) has been found to accelerate transfers or shifts of information. In fact, according to Housen, critical thinking

"...may not be critical thinking unless it shows signs of transfer... transfer of context and transfer of content" (p. 100). Peer collaboration around these tasks not only facilitates, it supercharges these shifts in, and transfers of, critical thoughts. VTS provides powerful frameworks for working with race and activism in children's literature.

Picture book studies. Educators can study the use of picturebooks with portrayals white antiracism activism in the classroom to look at how young students interpret and make sense of cross-race collaborations for resisting racism. Contrasting portrayals of pro-racism whites with anti-racism whites, such as slave owners versus abolitionists, was suggested by Tatum (1999b).

"This dual representation is important for all children, regardless of color" (p. 1). After all, one telling finding in the Copenhaver et al. (2007) research was that both black and white second grade students wanted to know where the white people were in the civil rights stories. Similarly, second grade students in Rogers and Mosley's (2006) racial literacy research were also able to think critically about race. Both black and white students asked about the African American police officer standing in the background of the police station scene, in which a Black girl was being held for refusing to give up her seat to a white person on a segregated bus, in The Bus Ride

(Miller, 1998). New research could use picturebooks with collaborative antiracism activism content to generate and analyze student discussions about race, privilege, and activism. One of my friends who teaches third grade told me that when her class studies stories of the Civil Rights

153 movement, white children emphatically explain how they would have fought hard for racial justice too, if they could have lived during those times.

Parents and Teachers can use the resources in this study to talk with kids about race.

Close to one hundred books in corpus one, portray activists and interracial collaborations.

Moreover, new books are being written every day. These picture books with stories of change agents will help students engage with and talk about issues of racism from a structural perspective.

Caldwell and Vera (2010) discuss social justice orientation in the field of counseling psychology, finding only one model (Buckley, 1998) which actually conceptualizes a process for it. Caldwell and Vera explain that this model requires students to develop:

[1] an affective dimension of social justice, which involves developing an emotional

understanding of the experiences of marginalized and oppressed individuals... [2] an

intellectual understanding of oppression and social justice, which involves understanding

the causes and conditions that maintain and perpetuate oppression... [and 3] a pragmatic

or volitional dimension of justice. This dimension involves learning actual skills that aim

to dismantle oppression and promote equality and justice (pp. 164-165).

Additionally noting that "no studies to date have validated this model or its tenets" (p. 164). Yet, these tenets of social justice orientation can be located through critical factor analysis in the stories of social justice allies in picture books. By looking at how a character develops an emotional connection to and understanding of marginalized peoples, how the character learns about the causes of these injustices, and then how the character learns skills to dismantle oppression through acts of resistance.

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Teachers can guide students to question representations, locate missing information, and help students learn how to do it too. Racial literacy for young children is possible. Parents can practice talking about race early, develop vocabulary, and allow children to voice racial concepts. Educators can focus on the young child's comfort regarding conversations about race.

It is more important in the beginning for young children to feel safe, to be listened to. Students need help to understand the difference between a cultural construct that needs attention versus an inaccurate biological one. Parents especially can back up antiracism perspectives with significant friendships across racial lines. These speak louder to a young child than verbal dialogue.

There's always room for something new. Analyzing a character's life for the critical factors of a social justice orientation is an activity which can be applied to picture books. Such an activity provides doors into the critical issues of race, and opportunities for expanding understandings. Teachers can use strategies to compensate for existing materials. Locate missing information about what has been silenced and help students learn to read post-colonially or multiculturally across the grain for social change. Picture books have the power to provide models for resisting racism. So, until a critical mass of parents and teachers are modeling authentic cross-racial friendships for young children, picture books remain one of the more promising venues.

Analyze higher reading levels. Looking at young adult literature and higher reading levels for cross-race resistance collaborations for social justice in books with racial themes would be an important analysis. Additionally it would be interesting to work with older students using picture books from this study. This could give insight into racial literacies for more advanced levels. After all, even Harriet Beecher Stowe (1889) tells us why her work had the

155 power to enact change. "It was, as we have already said, an appeal to the imagination through a series of pictures. People are like children, and understand pictures better than words" (p.155).

Investigate classification. It has already been shown that the way children's literature is classified can play into the structures of racism (McNair, 2008). Molly Bannaky wasn't classified as juvenile literature, in the way each of the other Corpus Three picture storybooks were. To classify Molly Bannaky as juvenile fiction not only does a disservice to this magnificent powerful counterstory, one which greatly benefits our racial understandings about cross-race resistance collaboration in U.S. history during the colonial era. This misclassification functions a way of hiding important factual knowledge about interracial marriage, cross-racial solidarity, and civil disobedience a successful form of resistance to white supremacy and historic foundational structures of racism. Classification as fiction dismisses this history and thus diminishes it's access to students, and thus it's educational value. Researchers need to look at these processes and consider what they mean in the context of race.

Conclusion

Authors of children's literature do to some degree represent white antiracism activism to children through picturebooks. Yet, this study finds that when trying to locate books which can provide substance and rich details about the lives of white antiracism activists and their activism, there are few. Ninety-one picture books in ten years do include representations of white antiracism activism and activists, yet only five of these are stories showing the rich life development of a particular activist and their interrelated resistance networks for activism.

Additionally, because these five are picture storybooks, the stories are condensed and often missing information. None included examples of cross-racial interactions for resisting racism to the levels in which these actually existed. Many critical factors were somewhat represented, but

156 not to the degree of the actual people's lives, and poorly in regard to the extent of their cross- racial resistance collaborations and coalitions.

Offering children information about resistance to racism is essential. Even though the third corpus books contained only historic biographies of five white activists, these stories still provide examples of the critical factors in a character's social justice orientation, and model ways to learn about injustice and strategies to resist it. Finding these types of examples and critiquing them is essential. Visual learning strategies and additional historic materials enhance and supplement picture book information to help students understand more about both what is represented and alternately what may be silenced in the stories.

Many scholars call for teaching the stories of historic white antiracism to children. Some worry that placing a focus too specifically on the white ally will recenter and normalize whiteness, yet all agree is important to promote quality cross-race collaboration. Therefore we need stories of the change agents that collaborate. These important literacy materials are a form of property all children need access to. Students growing up in a colorblind colormute society filled with ongoing racial inequities require role models for standing up against taken-for-granted systems of oppression. Although some can be found in children's picture books, these barely scratch the surface for literally thousands of inspiring examples which do exist within this nation's rich history of multiracial solidarity.

157

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Some Historic and Contemporary White Allies

White Anti-Racism Activists

1500s

Antonio de Montesinos Bartolomé de Las Casas

1600s

Abraham up de Graef Francis Daniell Pastorius Roger Williams

Mary Walsh Garret Henderich William Penn

Derick up de Graeeff Reverend Cotton Mather

1700s

Abigail Adams Dean George Berkeley John Woolman

Anthony Benezet George Keith Ralph Sandiford

Benjamin Franklin George Whitefield Reverend Samuel Willard

Benjamin Lay Moses Brown Samuel Hopkins

Bishop Fleetwood John Wesley William Southeby

1800s

Alexander H. Everett James Cowles Prichard Myrtilla Miner

Anjelina Grimké James Fountain Nathaniel Peabody Rogers

Anthony Benezet James Cowles Prichard Nathanial Barney

183

Brodie Cruickshank James Russell Lowell Penrose Hallowell

Charles Augustus Hill Jessie Daniel Ames Ralph Waldo Emerson

Captain Lambson John Brown Reverend Samuel J. May

Charles Olcott John Collins Richard Dillingham

Charles Schurz John G. Fee Robert Gould Shaw

Charles Stevens John Hunn Sarah Grimké

Charles Stuart John Kenrick Thaddeus Stevens

Charles Sumner John Marshall Harlan Theodore Weld

David Livingstone John Prentiss Matthews Thomas Earle

Donald G Mathews John R. McKivingan Thomas Garrett

Dr. Burt G. Wilder John Wesley Powell Thomas Garrett

Dr. John Phillips Judge Ariel S. Thurston Thomas J. Durant

Eduard Degener Judge C.C. Pratt T. Wentworth Higginson

Florence Kelley Julius R. Ames Thoreau

General John M. Palmer Laura S. Haviland Wendell Phillips

Harold LeClaire Ickes Louis Ruchames William Darrah Kelley

Harriet Beecher Stowe Lucretia Mott William Ellery Channing

Helen Hunt Jackson Lucy Randolpf Mason William Gaston

Hiram H. Kellogg Lydia Maria Child William Jay

Horace Bumstead Major-General David Hunter William Lloyd Garrison

Hugh Lennox Bond Marshall Harvey Twitchell William Lyman

Isaac C. Parker Mary Putnam William R. Weeks

184

J. Peter Leslie Morrow B. Lowry William Still

J.C. Houzeau Mrs. Nathaniel Smith William Tecumseh Sherman

1900s - Present

"Big Bill" Haywood Herman Liveright Mike Davis

A.T. Miller Holly Near Mike Lawrence-Riddell

Adrienne Rich Horace Seldon Mike Mahon

Amy Goodman Howard Zinn Minnie Bruce Pratt

Anne Bishop James W. Loewen Monte Piliawsky

Anne Braden Jan Adams Morris Dees

Anne Litwin Jane Ariel Myles Falls Horton

Anne Litwin Jason Wallach Myles Horton

Anne Romaine Jeanine Cohen Naomi Jaffe

Ann Russo Jennifer Dorhn Nat Yalowitz

Art Branscombe Jesse Wimberley Nibs Stroupe

Aubrey Willis Williams Jessie Daniel Ames Noelle Hanrahan

Bernardine Dohrn Jim Corcoran Orlan J. Svingen

Betty Liveright Jim Hanson Pat Cusick

Bill Bigelow JLove Calderón Paul Kivel

Bill Johnston Joanie Mayer Peggy McIntosh

Bill Vandenberg Joe Fahey Ray Luc Levasseur

Bill Walsh John Allocca Rebecca Gordon

Billy Yalowitz John Capitman Reebee Garafalo

185

Bob Zellner John Collier Ricky Sherover-Marcuse

Bonnie Kerness John Minor Wisdom Rose Marie Cummins

Bradley Angel Joseph Gelders Roxeanne Dunbar Ortiz

Branch Rickey Judy Clark Ruth Frankenberg

Carl Braden Julie Light Sabina Virgo

Casey Hayden Juliet Ucelli Sarah Stearns

Charles Morgan, Jr. Juliette Hampton Morgan Sean Cahill

Chelsea Manning Kathy Boudin Selma James

Chip Berlet Kathy Obear Si Kahn

Cooper Thompson Ken Kimerling Stan Markowitz

Cynthia Stokes Brown Laura Whitehorn Stephanie Ruby

David Attyah Laurie Holmes Stetson Kennedy

David Billings Laurie Schecter Steve Baily

David Gilbert Lawrence D. Duke, Sr. Stuart Hanlon

David Wellman Lee Formwalt Sue Thrasher

Dawn Gomes Lian Hurst Mann Susan Burnett

Dennis Bernstein Lillian Eugenia Smith Susan Pharr

Diana Dunn Linda Christensen Susan Rosenberg

Dorothy Stoneman Lisa Weiner-Mahfuz Susan Ross

Dottye Burt-Markowitz Lois Mark Stalvey Sylvia Baraldini

Elaine Delott Baker Lonnie Lusardo Ted Allen

Eleanor Roosevelt Lyndon Baines Johnson Terry Berman

186

Emily Goldfarb Mab Segrest Terry Kupers

Emmie Schrader Adams Maggie Nolan Donovan Tim Wise

Eric Mann Marge Gelders Franz Tobin Miller Shearer

Fran Smith Margo Adair Tom Hayden

Frances E. Kendall Marilyn Buck Tom Roderick

Frank M. Johnson, Jr. Matt Reese Tony Ward

Frank Wilkinson Meck Groot Viola Gregg Liuzzo

Herbert Aptheker Michael Novack Virginia Foster Durr

Herbert Kohl Michael Williams Waties Waring

References

Aptheker, H. (1992). Anti-racism in U.S. history – The first two hundred years. Westport,

CT: Greenwood Press.

Brown, C.S. (2002). Refusing racism: White allies and the struggle for civil rights. New

York: Teachers College Press.

Foner, P. S. (1975). History of Black Americans. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press.

Kivel, P. (2002). How white people can serve as allies to people of color in the struggle to

end racism. In Rothenberg, P.S. (Ed.), White privilege: Essential readings on the

other side of racism (pp. 127–136). New York: Worth.

Thompson, B. (2001). A promise and a way of life: white antiracist activism. Minneapolis:

University of Minnesota.

Thompson, C., Schaefer, E., & Brod, H. (2003). White men challenging racism: 35 personal

stories. Durham, NC: Duke University.

187

Appendix B

Code of Ethics Categories

Code of Ethics for AntiRacist White Allies (category titles)

1 "Acknowledge our racial privilege" (p. 171).

"Develop interpersonal connections and structures to help maintain antiracist 2 accountability" (p. 171).

"Be prepared to alter our methods and practices when and if people of color give 3 feedback or offer criticism about our current methods and practices" (p. 171).

4 "Listening to constructive feedback from other white people, too" (p. 172).

"If we speak out about white privilege, racism, and/or white supremacy, whether in a

public forum or in private discussions with friends, family, or colleagues, we should 5 acknowledge that people of color have been talking about these subjects for a long

time and yet have been routinely ignored in the process" (p. 172).

6 "Share access and resources with people of color whenever possible" (p. 173).

"If you get paid to speak out about white privilege, racism, and/or white supremacy or

7 in some capacity make your living from challenging racism, donate a portion of your

income to organizations led principally by people of color" (p. 173).

8 "Get involved in a specific, people of color-led struggle for racial justice" (p. 174).

188

9 "Stay Connected to White Folks, Too" (p. 174).

"Connect antiracism understanding to current political struggles, and provide 10 suggestions or avenues for white people to get involved" (p. 174).

Reference

Calderón, J. (2012). Occupying privilege: Conversations on love, race & liberation. San

Bernardino, CA: Jennifer Calderón.

189

Appendix C

White Benefits Checklist

□ My ancestors were legal immigrants to this country during a period when immigrants from Asia, South and Central America or Africa were restricted.

□ My ancestors came to this country of their own free will and have never had to relocate unwillingly once here

□ I live on land that formerly belonged to Native Americans.

□ My family received homesteading or land staking claims from the federal government

□ I or my family or relatives receive or received federal farm subsidies, farm price supports, agricultural extension assistance or other federal benefits.

□ I lived or live in a neighborhood that peoples of color were discriminated from living in.

□ I lived or live in a city where red-lining discriminates against people of color getting housing or other loans.

□ I or my parents went to racially segregated schools.

□ I live in a school district or metropolitan area where more money is spent on the schools that white children go to than on those that children of color attend.

□ I live in or went to a school district where children of color are more likely to be disciplined than white children, or more likely to be tracked into nonacademic programs.

190

□ I live in or went to a school district where the textbooks and other classroom materials reflected my race as normal, heroes and builders of the United States, and there was

little mention of the contributions of people of color to our society.

□ I was encouraged to go on to college by teachers, parents or advisors.

□ I attended a publicly funded university, or a heavily endowed private university or college, and/or received student loans.

□ I served in the military when it was still racially segregated, or achieved a rank where there were few people of color, or served in a combat situation where there were large

numbers of people of color in dangerous combat positions.

□ My ancestors were immigrants who took jobs in railroads, streetcars, construction, shipbuilding, wagon and coach driving, house painting, tailoring, longshore work, brick

laying, table waiting, working in the mills furriering, dressmaking or any other trade or

occupation where people of color were driven out or excluded.

□ I received job training in a program where there were few or no people of color.

□ I have received a job, job interview, job training or internship through personal connections of family or friends.

□ I worked or work in a job where people of color made less for doing comparable work or did nor menial jobs.

□ I have worked in a job where people of color were hired last, or fired first.

191

□ I work in a job, career or profession or in an agency or organization in which there are few people of color.

□ I received small business loans or credits, government contracts or government assistance in my business.

□ My parents were able to vote in any election they wanted without worrying about poll taxes, literacy requirements or other forms of discrimination.

□ I can always vote for candidates who reflect my race.

□ I live in a neighborhood that has better police protection, municipal services and is safer than that where people of color live.

□ The hospital and medical services close to me or which I use are better than that of most people of color in the region in which I live.

□ I have never had to worry that clearly labeled public facilities, such as swimming pools, restrooms, restaurants, and nightspots were in fact not open to me because of my skin

color.

□ I see people who look like me in a wide variety of roles on television and in movies.

□ My skin color needn’t be a factor in where I choose to live.

□ A substantial percentage of the clothes I wear are made by poorly paid women and children of color in the US and abroad.

192

□ Most of the food I eat is grown, harvested, processed and/or cooked by poorly paid people of color in this country and abroad.

□ The house, office building, school, hotels and motels or other buildings and grounds I use are cleaned or maintained by people of color.

□ Many of the electronic goods I use, such as TVs, cell phones and computers, are made by people of color in the US and abroad.

□ People of color have cared for me, other family members, friends or colleagues of mine either at home or at a medical or convalescent facility.

□ I don't need to think about race and racism every day.

□ I can choose when and where I want to respond to racism.

Kivel, P. (2011). Uprooting racism: How white people can work for racial justice. (p. 40).

193

Appendix D

Children's Literature Genre Ontology

Reference

Tunnell, M. O., Jacobs, J. S., Young, T. A., & Bryan, G. W. (2012). Children's Literature,

Briefly (5th ed.). New York: Pearson. (p. 57)

194

Appendix E

Book Award Definitions and References

Book award/s Annual award criteria

Caldecott Given for the artist (medal) who illustrated the most distinguished picture

Medal and book, and other artists (honor) of distinguished picture books in the U.S.

Honor (American Library Association, 2010b).

Carter G. Given for the outstanding book which respectfully portray ethnic and racial

Woodson individuals and groups in the U.S., providing insights regarding experiences

Book Award and interactions (National Council for the Social Studies, 2010).

Given for inspiring educational books written and illustrated by African Coretta Scott Americans, that "promote understanding and appreciation of the cultures of King Award all peoples and their contribution to the realization of the American dream of and Honor a pluralistic society" (American Library Association, 2010a, p. 1).

Ezra J. Keats Given to "recognize and encourage authors and illustrators starting out in the

Award field of children’s books" (Ezra Jack Keats Foundation, 2014, p. 1).

195

Given for books addressing how diverse peoples settle disputes and live Jane Addams peacefully, think about injustice more humanely, youth participates in Book Award solutions to forms of oppression, or promote equity for women (Jane Adams and Honor Peace Association, 2010).

Given for new writers and illustrators with three or less books published, this John Steptoe award is associated with the Coretta Scott King Task Force. (American Award Library Association, 2010c).

John Newbery Given for the most distinguished (medal) and other distinguished (honor)

Medal and original children's books in English, in the U.S. (Association for Library

Honor Service to Children, 2010).

Orbis Pictus For the most outstanding (award) and other distinguished (honor) factually

Award and accurate works of non-fiction (National Council of the Teacher’s of English,

Honor 2010).

National For outstanding books with Jewish content, the award is given in eighteen

Jewish Book separate categories, including "illustrated children's literature" (Jewish Book

Award Council, 2014. p. 1).

196

Pura Belpré Given for outstanding works of children's literature, to Latino/Latina writers

Award and and illustrators "whose work best portrays, affirms, and celebrates the Latino

Honor cultural experience" (American Library Association, 2010e, p.1)

Scott O’Dell For the most meritorious children's book of historical fiction (American

Award Library Association, 2010d).

Book Award References

American Library Association (2010a). About the Coretta Scott King Awards, ALA. Retrieved

from www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/rts/emiert/cskbookawards.

American Library Association (2010b). Randolph Caldecott Medal. Retrieved

www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/caldecottmedal.

American Library Association (2010c). The John Steptoe Award for New Talent. Retrieved from

www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/rts/emiert/cskbookawards/johnsteptoe.

American Library Association (2010d). The Scott O’Dell Award for Historical Fiction.

Retrieved from www.scottodell.com/odellaward.

American Library Association (2010e). About the Pura Belpré Award. Retrieved from

www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/belpremedal.

Association for Library Service to Children (2010). John Newbery Medal. Retrieved from

www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/newberymedal.

Ezra Jack Keats Foundation (2014). Ezra Jack Keats New Writer and New Illustrator Awards

For Children’s Books. Retrieved from www.ezra-jack-keats.org/ezra-jack-keats-award.

197

Jane Adams Peace Assoc. (2010). What are the Jane Adams Children’s Book Awards? JAPA.

Retrieved from www.janeaddamspeace.org/jacba.

Jewish Book Council (2014). National Jewish Book Award. Retrieved from

www.jewishbookcouncil.org/awards/national-jewish-book-award.

National Council for the Social Studies (2010). Carter G. Woodson Book Awards. NCSS.

Retrieved from www.socialstudies.org/awards/woodson.

National Council of the Teacher’s of English (2010). NCTE Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding

Nonfiction for Children. Retrieved from www.ncte.org/awards/orbispictus.

198

Appendix F

Corpus #1 Matrix (91 books) & Corpus #1 Codes

Picture Book Title

enre

ward MC

Author (Date). Illustrator, Publisher WA

g a

A Boy Named Beckoning: The True Story of Dr. Carlos

Montezuma, Native American Hero 33 NF W --

Capaldi, G. (2008). Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

A Picture Book of Harriet Beecher Stowe

Adler, D. A., (2003). Bootman, C. (Illus.). New York: Holiday 32 NF -- 

House.

A Taste of Colored Water 48 HF -- -- Faulkner, M. (2008). New York: Simon and Schuster.

Abe's Honest Words: The Life of Abraham Lincoln

Rappaport, D. (2008). Nelson, K. (Illus.). New York: Hyperion 40 NF -- 

Books for Children.

Abraham Lincoln: Sixteenth President 32 NF --  Venezia, M. (2005). New York: Children's Press.

199

Alec's Primer

Walter, M. P. (2004). Johnson, L. (Illus.). Middlebury, VT: 32 NF W --

Vermont Folklife Center.

American Boy: The Adventures of Mark Twain 32 NF --  Brown, D. (2003). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

An Apple for Harriet Tubman

Turner, G. T. (2006). Keeter, S. (Illus.). Morton Grove, IL: Albert 32 NF -- --

Whitman.

Angel Island 48 NF -- -- Flanagan, A.K. (2006). Minneapolis: Compass Point Books.

Annie Oakley: Wild West Sharpshooter 32 NF --  Porterfield, J. (2004). New York: Rosen Publishing Group.

As Good As Anybody: Martin Luther King Jr. and Abraham

Joshua Heschel's Amazing March Toward Freedom. 40 NF -- --

Michelson, R. (2008). Col n, R. (Illus.). New York: A.A. Knopf.

200

Bad news for Outlaws: The Remarkable Life of Bass Reeves,

Deputy U.S. Marshal K 40 NF -- Nelson, V. M. (2009). Christie, R.G. (Illus.). Minneapolis: W

Carolrhoda Books.

Bull's Eye: A Photobiography of Annie Oakley

Macy, S. (2006). Washington, D.C.: National Geographic 64 NF -- 

Society.

C sar Ch ve : The Struggle for Justice C sar Ch ve : la lucha por la justicia. 32 NF W -- Griswold, C. R. (2002). Accardo, A. (Illus.). Houston, Tex: Pi ata

Books.

Children of the Civil Rights Era 48 NF W -- Welch, C.A. (2001). Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Children of the Relocation Camps 48 NF W -- Welch, C. A. (2000). Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Come On, Rain 32 F N -- Hesse, K. (1999). Muth, J. J. (Illus.). New York: Scholastic Press.

201

Coretta Scott

Shange, N. (2009). Nelson, K. (Illus.). New York: Katherine 32 NF -- --

Tegen Books.

Delivering Justice: W.W. Law and the Fight for Civil Rights

Haskins, J. (2005). Andrews, B. (Illus.). Cambridge: Candlewick 32 NF JA --

Press.

Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, the One-Armed

Explorer 48 NF --  Ray, D. K. (2007). New York: Frances Foster Books/Farrar,

Straus and Giroux.

Eleanor, Quiet No More: The Life of Eleanor Roosevelt

Rappaport, D. (2009). Kelley, G. (Illus.). New York: 48 NF -- 

Disney/Hyperion Books.

Elegy on the Death of C sar Ch ve

Anaya, R. A. (2000). Enriquez, G. (Illus.). El Paso, Tex: Cinco 40 NF -- --

Puntos Press.

Escape North!: The Story of Harriet Tubman

Kulling, M. (2000). Flavin, T. (Illus.). New York: Random 48 NF -- --

House.

202

Finding Lincoln

Malaspina, A. (2009). Bootman, C. (Illus.). Morton Grove, IL: 32 HF -- --

Albert Whitman.

Fishing Day 32 HF -- -- Pinkney, A.D. (2003). Evans, S.W. (Illus.). New York: Hyperion.

Frederick Douglass: Leader Against Slavery

McKissack, P. (2002). McKissack, F. (Illus.). Berkeley Heights, 32 NF -- --

NJ: Enslow Pub.

Free at Last: The Story of Martin Luther King, Jr. 48 NF -- -- Bull, A. (2009). New York: DK Children.

Freedom on the Menu: the Greensboro Sit-ins

Weatherford, C. B. (2005). Lagarrigue, J. (Illus.). New York: Dial 32 NF -- --

Books for Young Readers.

Freedom School, Yes!

Littlesugar, A. (2001). Cooper, F. (Illus.). New York: Philomel 40 NF -- --

Books.

203

Freedom Summer EKW Wiles, D., & Lagarrigue, J.(2001). Bobco, A. (Illus.). New York: 32 HF -- EKI Atheneum Books for Young Readers.

George Washington Carver: Ingenious Inventor

Olson, N. (2006). Tucker, K. (Illus.). Mankato, MN: Capstone 32 NF -- --

Press.

Going to School During the Civil Rights Movement 32 NF -- -- Koestler-Grack, R.A. (2001). Mankato, MN: Blue Earth Books.

Gordon Parks: No Excuses 32 NF W -- Parr, A. (2006). Parks, G. (Illus.). Gretna, LA: Pelican Pub. Co

Hail to the Chief: The American Presidency

Robb, D. (2000). Witschonke, A. (Illus.). Watertown, MA: 32 NF -- --

Charlesbridge Publishing.

W Harvesting Hope: The Story of Cesar Chavez 48 NF PB -- Krull, K. (2003). Morales, Y. (Illus.). San Diego: Harcourt, Inc. JA

204

Henry's Freedom Box: A True Story from the Underground

Railroad 40 NF K -- Levine, E.,& Dixon, J. (2009). Nelson, K. (Illus.). Norwalk, CN.:

Weston Woods.

Heroes for Civil Rights

Adler, D. A. (2008). Farnsworth, B. (Illus.). New York: Holiday 32 NF -- --

House.

I Am Quaker (Religions of the World) 24 NF -- -- Blanc, F. (1999). New York: PowerKids Press.

I, Matthew Henson: Polar Explorer 32 NF -- -- Weatherford, C. B. (2008). Velasquez, E. (Illus.). York: Walker.

Ida B. Wells: Let the Truth Be Told

Myers, W. D. (2008). Christensen, B. (Illus.). New York: 40 NF -- --

Amistad/Collins.

If a Bus Could Talk: The Story of Rosa Parks

Ringgold, F. (1999). New York: Simon & Schuster Books for 32 NF -- --

Young People.

205

If You Lived When There Was Slavery in America 80 NF -- -- Kamma, A. (2004). New York: Scholastic, Inc.

In America's Shadow

Maki, M. T., Komatsu, K., Komatsu, K., & Starr, K. (2002). Los 96 NF W --

Angeles, CA: Thomas George Books.

Jim Thorpe's Bright Path

Bruchac, J. (2004). Nelson, S. D. (Illus.). New York: Lee & Low 40 NF W --

Books.

Jimmy Carter: Thirty-Ninth President 32 NF --  Venezia, M. (2008). New York: Children's Press/Scholastic..

John Brown

Streissguth, T. (1999). Ramstad, R.L. (Illus.). Minneapolis: 48 NF -- 

Carolrhoda Books.

John Brown: Putting Actions Above Words 64 NF --  Horn, G. M. (2010). St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree.

Life and Times: Martin Luther King Jr.

Lynch, J., & Victory, S. (2005). Edwards, J. (Illus.). Chicago: 32 NF -- --

Heinemann

206

Lincoln and Douglass: An American Friendship 40 NF W -- Giovanni, N. (2008). Collier, B. (Illus.). New York: Henry Holt.

Louis Sockalexis: Native American Baseball Pioneer

Wise, B. (2007). Farnsworth, B. (Illus.). New York: Lee & Low 32 NF W --

Books.

Lyndon B. Johnson: Thirty-sixth President 32 NF --  Venezia, M. (2007). New York: Children's Press.

March On: The Day My Brother Martin Changed the World 32 NF -- -- Farris, C.K. (2008). Ladd, L. (Illus.). New York: Scholastic Press.

Marian Anderson 48 NF -- -- Sutcliffe, J. (2008). Lerner Pub. Group.

Martin Luther King Jr. 48 NF -- -- Winget, M. (2003). Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Co.

Martin Luther King Jr: Great Civil Rights Leader 32 NF -- -- Fandel, J. (2007). Mankato, MN: Capstone Press.

207

Miss Crandall's School for Young Ladies and Little Misses of

Color 47 NF -- -- Alexander, E., & Nelson, M. (2007). Cooper, F. (Illus.).

Honesdale, PA: Wordsong.

Molly Bannaky

McGill, A. (1999). Soentpiet, C. K. (Illus.). Boston, MA: 32 NF JA 

Houghton Mifflin.

Moses: When Harriet Tubman led her People to Freedom

Weatherford, C. B. (2006). Nelson, K. (Illus.). New York: 48 NF K --

Hyperion Books for Children.

Mr. George Baker

Hest, A. (2004). Muth, J. J. (Illus.). Cambridge, MA: Candlewick 32 FF -- --

Press.

My Brother Martin: A Sister Remembers Growing Up with the

Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. 40 NF -- -- Farris, C. K. (2003). Soentpiet, C. K. (Illus.). New York: Simon

& Schuster Books for Young Readers.

208

My Name is Yoon

Recorvits, H. (2003). Swiatkowska, G. (Illus.). New York: 32 FF EKI --

Frances Foster Books.

Polly Bemis: A Chinese American Pioneer 26 NF -- -- Wegars, P. (2003). Cambridge, ID: Backeddy Books.

Promises to Keep: How Jackie Robinson Changed America 64 NF -- -- Robinson, S. (2004). New York: Scholastic Press.

Quakers in Early America 24 NF -- -- Lillly, M. (2003). Diaz, Y. (Illus.). Vero Beach: Rourke.

Remember: The Journey to School Integration 80 NF K -- Morrison, Toni. 2004. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Rosa K 40 NF -- Giovanni, N. (2005). Collier, B. (Illus.). New York: Henry Holt C

Sacagawea

Erdrich, L. (2003). Buffalohead, J. (Illus.). Minneapolis: 40 NF W --

Carolrhoda Books

209

Sojourner Truth: Preacher for Freedom and Equality

Slade, S. (2008). Blanks, N. A. (Illus.). Minneapolis, MN: Picture 24 NF -- --

Window Books.

Sojourner Truth's Step-Stomp Stride

Pinkney, A. D. (2009). Pinkney, J. B. (Illus.). New York: Disney, 40 NF -- --

Jump at the Sun Books.

Surfer of the Century: The Life of Duke Kahanamoku

Crowe, E. (2007). Waldrep, R. (Illus.). New York: Lee & Low 48 NF W --

Books.

The 1963 Civil Rights March

Creewe, S. (2005). Ingram, S. (Illus.). Milwaukee, WI: Gareth 32 NF -- --

Stevens Publishing.

The Civil Rights Movement in America 48 NF -- -- Landau, E. (2003). New York: Children's Press.

The Civil Rights Movement: Journey to Freedom 32 NF -- -- Venable, R. (2002). Chanhassen, MN: Child's World.

210

The Daring Escape of Ellen Craft

Moore, C. (2002). Young, M. O. K. (Illus.) Minneapolis, MN: 48 NF W --

Carolrhoda Books.

The Hello, Goodbye Window

Juster, N. (2005). Raschka, C. (Illus.). New York: Hyperion 32 CF C --

Books for Children.

The Name Jar 32 FF -- -- Choi, Y. (2001). New York: Knopf.

The Other Side 40 FF -- -- Woodson, J. (2001). Lewis, E. B. (Illus.). New York: Putnam's.

The School is Not White! A True Story of the Civil Rights

Movement 32 NF -- --

Rapaport, D. (2005). James, C. (Illus.). New York: Hyperion.

Through My Eyes W 64 NF -- Bridges, R. (1999). New York: Scholastic Press. JA

Under the Quilt of Night

Hopkinson, D. (2005). Ransome, J.E. (Illus.). New York: 40 FF -- --

Aladdin.

211

Up the Learning Tree

Vaughan, M. K. (2003). Blanks, D. (Illus.). New York: Lee & 32 HF -- --

Low Books

We Are the Ship: The Story of Negro League Baseball

Nelson, K. (2008). New York: Jump at the Sun/Hyperion Books 96 NF K -- for Children.

We are One: The Story of Bayrad Rustin 48 NF JA -- Brimner, L.D. (2007). Honesdale, PN: Calkins Creek.

William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania 32 NF --  Kroll, S. (2000). Himler, R. (Illus.). New York: Holiday House

What Makes Me A Quaker? 48 NF -- -- Woog, A. (2005). Farmington Hills, MI: Thompson Gale.

When Marian Sang: The True Recital of Marian Anderson: The

Voice of a Century 40 NF -- -- Ryan, P. M., Saylor, D., & Scholastic Press (2002). Selznick, B.

(Illus.). New York: Scholastic Press

Yo! Yes? 32 FF -- -- Raschka, C. (1993). New York: Orchard Books.

212

Yoon and the Jade Bracelet

Recorvits, H. (2008). Swiatkowska, G. (Illus.). New York: Farrar 32 FF -- --

Straus Giroux.

You and Me and Home Sweet Home

Lyon, G. E., & Anderson, S. (2009). Bobco, A. (Illus.). New 48 CF JA --

York: Atheneum Books for Young Readers.

Young Rosa Parks: Civil Rights Heroine

Benjamin, A. (1995). Ellen, B. (Illus.). Mahwah, NJ: Troll 32 NF -- --

Associates.

Yours for Justice, Ida B. Wells: The Daring Life of a Crusading

Journalist 48 NF -- -- Dray, P. (2008). Alcorn, S. (Illus.). Atlanta, GA: Peachtree

Publishers.

Corpus #1 Codes

Genre category codes CF Contemporary Fiction

F Fiction

HF Historical Fiction

NF Non-Fiction

213

Award /Honor category codes C Caldecott Medal and Honor

W Carter G. Woodson Book Awards

K Coretta Scott King Award and Honor

EKI Ezra J. Keats (New Illustrator)

EKW Ezra J. Keats (New Writer)

JA Jane Addams Book Award and Honor

JN John Newbery Medal and Honor

JS John Steptoe Award

NJ National Jewish Book Awards and Honor

OP Orbis Pictus Award and Honor

PB Pura Belpré Award and Honor

-- no award

Character category code MC A white ally is the main character.

-- A white ally is not the main character.

214

Appendix G

Corpus #1 Picture Book Descriptions (91 books)

A Boy Named Beckoning: The True Story of Dr. Carlos Montezuma, Native American Hero. The

story of a Yawapati American Indian boy who is kidnapped and sold to a white man who

helps him. He eventually becomes a doctor and helps Native Americans.

A Picture Book of Harriet Beecher Stowe. The story of Harriet Beecher Stowe, who wrote Uncle

Tom's Cabin, a book revealing the horrors of slavery.

A Taste of Colored Water. The story of two children who inadvertently witness a civil rights

demonstration on their trip to town, something they had never known about before.

Abe's Honest Words: The Life of Abraham Lincoln. A story of Abraham Lincoln's life.

Abraham Lincoln: Sixteenth President. A story of Abraham Lincoln's life.

Alec's Primer. The story of an enslaved African American boy who is taught to read by the

white daughter of the enslavers.

American Boy: The Adventures of Mark Twain. A story of Mark Twain's childhood.

An Apple for Harriet Tubman. A story of the life of Harriet Tubman, famous abolitionist.

Angel Island. A story of the California immigration port where Asian people entered the U.S.

Annie Oakley: Wild West Sharpshooter. A story of the life of Annie Oakley.

As Good As Anybody: Martin Luther King Jr. and Abraham Joshua Heschel's Amazing March

Toward Freedom. The story of an interracial collaboration to resist racism.

Bad news for Outlaws: The Remarkable Life of Bass Reeves, Deputy U.S. Marshal. The true

story of Bass Reeves, a heroic African American lawman in the old west.

Bull's Eye: A Photobiography of Annie Oakley. A story of the life of Annie Oakley.

215

C sar Ch ve : The Struggle for Justice C sar Ch ve : la lucha por la justicia. A story of

C sar Ch vez and his heroic resistance work for the United Farm Workers Movement.

Children of the Civil Rights Movement. A unique collections of stories from people who were

children during the 1960s Civil Rights movement.

Children of the Relocation Camps. A story of the Japanese American internment camps from the

perspective of the children who were forced to live there.

Come On, Rain. A story about mothers and daughters from an interracial neighborhood who

play in the rain together.

Coretta Scott. A story of the life of Coretta Scott and her life with the Reverend Dr. Martin

Luther King, Jr.

Delivering Justice: W.W. Law and the Fight for Civil Rights. The story of a local boycott led by

an African American postal delivery man.

Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, the One-Armed Explorer. A story of the life of Wes

Powell, the famous explorer of the Grand Canyon.

Eleanor, Quiet No More: The Life of Eleanor Roosevelt. A story of the life of Eleanor

Roosevelt.

Elegy on the Death of C sar Ch ve . A story of the life of C sar Ch vez, famous United Farm

Workers Movement leader.

Escape North!: The Story of Harriet Tubman. A story of the life of Harriet Tubman, famous

abolitionist.

Finding Lincoln. A story of an African American boy who uses a library, even though it is

against the law in the Jim Crow south.

216

Fishing Day. The story of the an interracial friendship which begins between a Black girl and a

white boy in the Jim Crow south.

Frederick Douglass: Leader Against Slavery. A story of the life of Frederick Douglass, famous

abolitionist.

Free at Last: The Story of Martin Luther King, Jr. A story of the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther

King, Jr.

Freedom on the Menu: the Greensboro Sit-ins. A story of the sit-in protest demonstrations in

Greensboro, North Carolina, an how life changes for one girl's family.

Freedom School, Yes! The story of a young white woman and an African American girl who

work together in a Freedom School during the Civil Rights Movement.

Freedom Summer. The story of an interracial friendship between two boys in the Jim Crow

south.

George Washington Carver: Ingenious Inventor. A story of George Washington Carver, famous

African American genius and inventor.

Going to School During the Civil Rights Movement. A story about the movement to end racial

segregation in schools in 1950s, from the perspective of students.

Gordon Parks: No Excuses. The true story of Gordon Parks, famous African American

photographer.

Hail to the Chief: The American Presidency. A collection of information about being the

president of the U.S., through different presidential administrations.

Harvesting Hope: The Story of Cesar Chavez. A story of the life of C sar Ch vez, including his

childhood and family life.

217

Henry's Freedom Box: A True Story from the Underground Railroad. The incredible true story

of an enslaved African American boy who actually mails himself to freedom.

Heroes for Civil Rights. The stories of an assortment of famous and heroic Civil Rights leaders.

I Am Quaker (Religions of the World). The story of a Quaker girl and her religion.

I, Matthew Henson: Polar Explorer. The true story of the famous African American arctic

explorer who made it to the North Pole.

Ida B. Wells: Let the Truth Be Told. A story of the heroic famous African American resistance

leader who is famous for her protest work to end the horrors of lynching.

If a Bus Could Talk: The Story of Rosa Parks. A story of Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus

Boycott in Alabama.

If You Lived When There Was Slavery in America. Lots of questions, answers, and detailed

information about the institution of chattel slavery in the U.S.

In America's Shadow. A story of a young girl, her grandfather, and their Japanese American

experiences including those life in a WWII internment camp.

Jim Thorpe's Bright Path. A story of Jim Thorpe, famous Native American Sac and Fox

Olympic athlete.

Jimmy Carter: Thirty-Ninth President. A story of Jimmy Carter's life and presidency.

John Brown. A story of the heroic white abolitionist and resistance leader.

John Brown: Putting Actions Above Words. A life story of the famous white abolitionist.

Life and Times: Martin Luther King Jr. A story of the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Lincoln and Douglass: An American Friendship. A story about the interracial friendship of two

heroic colleagues in the abolitionist movement to end slavery.

218

Louis Sockalexis: Native American Baseball Pioneer. The true story of the famous Native

American Penobscot baseball player, who played baseball in the late 1800s.

Lyndon B. Johnson: Thirty-sixth President. A story of the life of Lyndon Johnson.

March On!: The Day My Brother Martin Changed the World. A story of the life of the Reverend

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. from the special insight of his older sister Christine.

Marian Anderson. A story of the life of Marian Anderson, the famous African American opera

singer who performed at the Lincoln Memorial on Easter Sunday 1939, to a huge crowd

and national radio audience.

Martin Luther King Jr. A story of the life of Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Martin Luther King Jr: Great Civil Rights Leader. A story about the life of Reverend Dr. Martin

Luther King, Jr. and his heroic non-violent resistance leadership against racism.

Miss Crandall's School for Young Ladies and Little Misses of Color. A book of poems dedicated

to Prudence Crandall and her students for their historic heroic work resisting racism.

Molly Bannaky. The important counterstory of famous African American astronomer Benjamin

Banneker 's heroic white grandmother and his African grandfather in colonial Maryland.

Moses: When Harriet Tubman led her People to Freedom. A story about Harriet Tubman, the

heroic African American abolitionist.

Mr. George Baker. The story of the friendship between an elder African American man and a

young white boy who are both learning to read.

My Brother Martin: A Sister Remembers Growing Up with the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

A story of the childhood of the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. from the

perspective of his sister Christine.

219

My Name is Yoon. The story of Yoon, a young Korean-American immigrant girl who considers

changing her name, and makes a decision through the power of imagination.

Polly Bemis: A Chinese American Pioneer. The incredible true counterstory of an enslaved

Chinese American immigrant who lived a pioneer life on the Salmon River in Idaho.

Promises to Keep: How Jackie Robinson Changed America. A story of the heroic life of the first

African American baseball player to resist racial barriers during the Jim Crow era.

Quakers in Early America. A story about the Quakers, their religion and life in colonial

Pennsylvania.

Remember: The Journey to School Integration. A story about the history and tribute to the era of

racial desegregation in U.S. Schools after the Brown decision.

Rosa. A story about the life of Rosa Parks, famous African American civil rights activist who

helped enact the Montgomery bus boycott to for resisting segregated transportation.

Sacagawea. A story about the life of Sacagawea, famous Native American woman who guided

the Lewis and Clark mission across the northwest.

Sojourner Truth: Preacher for Freedom and Equality. A story of Sojourner Truth, the famous

and heroic African American abolitionist, conductor on the Underground Railroad

Sojourner Truth's Step-Stomp Stride. A story about Sojourner Truth, the famous African

American abolitionist, and heroic Underground Railroad conductor.

Surfer of the Century: The Life of Duke Kahanamoku. A story about Duke Kahanamoku the

famous Native Hawaiian Olympic swimming champion, and his inspirational life.

The 1963 Civil Rights March. A story about the famous Civil Rights March on Washington.

The Civil Rights Movement in America. A story about the 1960s Civil Rights movement.

The Civil Rights Movement: Journey to Freedom. A story about the Civil Rights movement.

220

The Daring Escape of Ellen Craft. The true story of two enslaved African Americans, husband

and wife, who devise an ingenious plan involving a unique performance and disguise.

The Hello Goodbye Window. The lighthearted story of an interracial family from the perspective

of a grandchild.

The Name Jar. A young Korean American immigrant girl hesitates to say her name at her new

school, until both family and new friends help empower her.

The Other Side. The story of an interracial friendship that develops despite the spacial

restrictions set by parents and peer pressure.

The School is Not White! A True Story of the Civil Rights Movement. The true story of an

African American family that sends their children to a white school because their local

community still has not desegregated ten years after the Brown legislation.

Through My Eyes. Ruby Bridges own true story as the first African American girl to attend a

white school in 1960 New Orleans, amidst vicious opposition from the public.

Under the Quilt of Night. A story of the Underground Railroad and escape from enslavement.

Up the Learning Tree. The story of an enslaved African American boy who is secretly taught to

read by a white teacher.

We Are the Ship: The Story of Negro League Baseball. The true story of the Negro League

Baseball teams, when baseball was a segregated sport during Jim Crow America.

We are One: The Story of Bayard Rustin. A true story of Bayard Rustin, the heroic African

American activist who helped organize the 1963 Civil Rights March on Washington.

William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania. A story of William Penn, religious freedom activist,

pacifist, Quaker, and founder of the British colony of Pennsylvania in the 1600s.

What Makes Me A Quaker? Contemporary and historic overview of the Quaker religion.

221

When Marian Sang: The True Recital of Marian Anderson: The Voice of a Century. The story of

Marian Anderson, famous opera singer and activist who broke many racial barriers.

Yo! Yes? The story of an interracial friendship that begins with shyness.

Yoon and the Jade Bracelet. A story about a Korean-American child who experiences a problem

with one of her friends at school.

You and Me and Home Sweet Home. The story of community support that helps an African

American girl and her mother, by helping them build a house to live in.

Young Rosa Parks: Civil Rights Heroine. The story of Rosa Parks including early years with her

family and the social structures of racism in the Jim Crow south which she grew up with.

Yours for Justice, Ida B. Wells: The Daring Life of a Crusading Journalist. The life story of the

famous African American journalist and antiracism activist Ida B. Wells.

William Penn: Founder of Pennsylvania. A story of William Penn, the famous Quaker and

religious freedom activist, who founded Pennsylvania as a British colony in the 1600s.

222

Appendix H

Picture Book References

Adler, D. A. (2003). A picture book of Harriet Beecher Stowe. C. Bookman (Illus.). New York:

Holiday House.

Adler, D. A. (2008). Heroes for civil rights. B. Farnsworth (Illus.). New York: Holiday House.

Alexander, E., & Nelson, M. (2007). Miss Crandall's school for young ladies and little misses of

color: Poems. F. Cooper (Illus.). Honesdale, PA: Wordsong.

Anaya, R. A. (2000). Elegy on the death of C sar Ch ve . G. Enriquez (Illus.). El Paso, TX:

Cinco Puntos Press.

Benjamin, A. (1995). Young Rosa Parks: Civil Rights heroine. E. Beier (Illus.). Mahwah, NJ:

Troll Associates.

Blanc, F. (1999). I am Quaker. New York: PowerKids Press.

Bolden, T., & Field Museum of Natural History. (2008). George Washington Carver. New York:

Abrams Books for Young Readers.

Bridges, R. (1999). Through my eyes. New York: Scholastic Press.

Brown, D. (2003). American boy: The adventures of Mark Twain. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Bruchac, J. (2004). Jim Thorpe's bright path. S.D. Nelson (Illus.). New York: Lee & Low Books.

Bull, A. (2009). Free at last: The story of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: DK Children.

Butler, M. G. (2003). Sojourner Truth: From slave to activist for freedom. New York: PowerPlus

Books.

Capaldi, G. (2008). A boy named Beckoning: The true story of Dr. Carlos Montezuma, Native

American hero. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Choi, Y. (2001). The name jar. New York: Knopf.

223

Crewe, S., & Ingram, S. (2005). The 1963 civil rights march (Events That Shaped America). S.

Ingram (Illus.). Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens Publishing.

Crowe, E. (2007). Surfer of the century: The life of Duke Kahanamoku. R. Waldrep (Illus.). New

York: Lee & Low Books.

Draper, S. M. (1994). Ziggy and the Black Dinosaurs. J. Ransome (Illus.). Orange, N.J: Just Us

Books.

Dray, P. (2008). Yours for justice, Ida B. Wells: The daring life of a crusading journalist. S.

Alcorn (Illus.). Atlanta, GA: Peachtree Publishers.

Erdrich, L. (2003). Sacagawea. Illus. by J. Buffalohead. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books

Fandel, J. (2007). Martin Luther King, Jr: Great civil rights leader. Mankato, MN: Capstone

Press

Farris, C. K. (2003). My brother Martin: A sister remembers growing up with the Rev. Dr.

Martin Luther King, Jr. C.K. Soentpiet (Illus.). New York: Simon & Schuster Books for

Young Readers.

Farris, C.K. (2008). March on: The day my brother Martin changed the world. L Ladd (Illus.).

New York: Scholastic Press.

Faulkner, M (2008). A Taste of Colored Water. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc.

Flanagan, A.K. (2006). Angel Island. Minneapolis: Compass Point Books.

Giovanni, N. (2005). Rosa. Illus. by B. Collier. New York: Henry Holt

Giovanni, N. (2008). Lincoln and Douglass: An American friendship. Illus. by B. Collier. New

York: Henry Holt.

Graham, T. (1973). Harriet Beecher Stowe and the question of race. The New England

Quarterly, 46(4), 614-622.

224

Griswold, C. R. (2002). C sar Ch ve : The struggle for ustice C sar Ch ve : la lucha por la

justicia. A. Accardo (Illus.). Houston, Tex: Pi ata Books.

Haskins, J. (2005). Delivering justice: W.W. Law and the fight for civil rights. Illus. by B.

Andrews. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.

Hesse, K. (1999). Come on, rain. J.J. Muth (Illus.). New York: Scholastic Press.

Hest, A. (2004). Mr. George Baker. J.J. Muth (Illus.). Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.

Hopkinson, D. (2005). Under the quilt of night. J.E. Ramsome (Illus.). New York: Aladdin.

Horn, G. M. 2010. John Brown: Putting actions above words. St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree.

Juster, N. (2005). The hello, goodbye window. C. Raschka (Illus.). New York: Michael di Capua

Books/Hyperion Books for Children.

Kamma, A. (2004). If you lived when there was slavery in America. New York: Scholastic, Inc.

Koestler-Grack, R.A. (2001). Going to school during the civil rights movement. Mankato, MN:

Blue Earth Books.

Kroll, S. (2000). William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania. R. Himler (Illus.). New York: Holiday

House.

Krull, K. (2003). Harvesting hope: The story of Cesar Chavez. Y. Morales (Illus.). San Diego:

Harcourt, Inc.

Kulling, M. (2002). Escape north: the story of Harriet Tubman. T. Flavin (Illus.). New York:

Random House.

Landau, E. (2003). The civil rights movement in America: 1954-1968. New York: Children's

Press.

Levine, E. (2009). Henry's freedom box: A true story from the Underground Railroad. K. Nelson

(Illus.). Norwalk, CN: Weston Woods.

225

Littlesugar, A. (2001). Freedom school, yes!. F. Cooper (Illus.). New York: Philomel Books.

Lowe, A. (2008). Come and play: Children of our world having fun. New York: Bloomsbury.

Lynch, J. (2005). Life and times: Martin Luther King Jr. Chicago: Heinemann

Lyon, G. E. (2009). You and me and home sweet home. S. Anderson (Illus.). New York:

Atheneum Books for Young Readers.

Macy, S. (2006). Bull's-eye: a photobiography of Annie Oakley. Washington, DC: National

Geographic Society.

Maki, M. T., Komatsu, K., Komatsu, K., & Starr, K. (2002). In America's shadow. Los Angeles,

Calif: Thomas George Books.

Malaspina, A. (2009). Finding Lincoln. C. Bootman (Illus.). Morton Grove, IL: Albert Whitman.

Mayer, R. H. (2008). When the children marched: The Birmingham civil rights movement.

Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers.

McGill, A. (1999). Molly Bannaky. C.K. Soentpiet (Illus.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

McKissack, P., & McKissack, F. (2002). Frederick Douglass: Leader against slavery. Berkeley

Heights, NJ: Enslow.

Michelson, R. (2008). As good as anybody: Martin Luther King Jr. and Abraham Joshua

Heschel's amazing march toward freedom. R. Col n (Illus.). New York: A.A. Knopf.

Miller, W. (1998). The bus ride. J. Ward (Illus.), Parks, R. (intro.). New York: Lee & Low.

Moore, C. (2002). The daring escape of Ellen Craft. M. O'Keefe Young (Illus.). Minneapolis,

MN: Carolrhoda Books.

Morrison, T. 2004. Remember: The journey to school integration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Myers, W. D. (2008). Ida B. Wells: Let the truth be told. B. Christensen (Illus.). New York:

Amistad/Collins.

226

Nelson, K. (2008). We are the ship: The story of Negro League baseball. New York: Jump at the

Sun/Hyperion Books for Children.

Nelson, V. M. (2009). Bad news for outlaws: The remarkable life of Bass Reeves, deputy U.S.

marshal. R.G. Christie (Illus.). Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Olson, N. (2006). George Washington Carver: Ingenious inventor. K. Tucker (Illus.). Mankato,

MN: Capstone Press.

Parr, A. (2006). Gordon Parks: No excuses. Gretna, La: Pelican Pub. Co

Parr, T. (2003). The family book. New York: Little, Brown.

Pinkney, A. D. (2009). Sojourner Truth's step-stomp stride. B. Pinkney (Illus.). New York:

Disney, Jump at the Sun Books.

Pinkney, A.D. (2003). Fishing day. S.W. Evans (Illus.). New York: Hyperion.

Porterfield, J. (2004). Annie Oakley: Wild west sharpshooter. New York: Rosen Publishing

Group.

Rappaport, D. (2005). The school is not white! A true story of the civil rights movement. C.

James (Illus.). New York: Hyperion.

Rappaport, D. (2001). Martin’s big words: The life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. New York:

Scholastic.

Rappaport, D. (2008). Abe's honest words: The life of Abraham Lincoln. K. Nelson (Illus.). New

York: Hyperion Books for Children.

Rappaport, D. (2009). Eleanor, quiet no more: The life of Eleanor Roosevelt. G. Kelley (Illus.).

New York: Disney/Hyperion Books.

Raschka, C. (1993). Yo! Yes?. New York: Orchard Books.

227

Ray, D. K. (2007). Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, the one-armed explorer. New

York: Frances Foster Books/Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Recorvits, H. (2003). My name is Yoon. G. Swiatkowska (Illus.). New York: Frances Foster

Books.

Recorvits, H. (2008). Yoon and the jade bracelet. G. Swiatkowska (Illus.). New York: Farrar

Straus Giroux.

Richardson, J., & Parnell, P.(2005). And Tango makes three. H. Cole (Illus.) New York: Simon

& Schuster.

Ringgold, F. (1999). If a bus could talk: The story of Rosa Parks. New York: Simon & Schuster

Books for Young People.

Robb, D. (2000). Hail to the chief: The American presidency. A. Witschonke (Illus.). Watertown,

MA: Charlesbridge Publishing.

Robbins, J. (2006). The New Girl and Me. M. Phelan (Illus.). New York: Atheneum/Richard

Jackson Books

Robinson, S. (2004). Promises to keep: How Jackie Robinson changed America. New York:

Scholastic Press.

Rosales, M. (1996). ‘Twas the night b’fore Christmas. New York: Scholastic.

Ryan, P. M. (2002). When Marian sang: The true recital of Marian Anderson: the voice of a

century. B. Selznick (Illus.). New York: Scholastic Press

Shange, N. (2009). Coretta Scott. K. Nelson (Illus.). New York: Katherine Tegen Books.

Shannon, D. (1998). No, David! New York: Blue Sky.

Shannon, D. (1999). David Goes to School. New York: Blue Sky.

Sheth, K. (2007). My dadima wears a sari. Y. Jaeggi (Illus). Atlanta, Georgia: Peachtree.

228

Slade, S. (2008). Sojourner Truth: Preacher for freedom and equality. N.A. Blanks (Illus.).

Minneapolis, MN: Picture Window Books.

Streissguth, T. (1999). John Brown (On My Own Biographies). R.L Ramstad (Illus.).

Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Sutcliffe, J. (2008). Marian Anderson. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications.

Turner, G. T. (2006). An apple for Harriet Tubman. S. Keeter (Illus.). Morton Grove, IL: Albert

Whitman

Vaughan, M. K. (2003). Up the learning tree. D. Blanks (Illus.). New York: Lee & Low Books

Venable, R. (2002). The Civil Rights Movement (Journey to Freedom). Chanhassen, MN: Child's

World.

Venezia, M. (2005). Abraham Lincoln. New York: Children's Press.

Venezia, M. (2007). Lyndon B. Johnson: Thirty-sixth president, 1963-1969. New York:

Children's Press.

Venezia, M. (2008). Jimmy Carter: Thirty-ninth president, 1977-1981. New York: Children's

Press/Scholastic..

Walter, M. P. (2004). Alec's primer. L. Johnson (Illus.). Middlebury, VT: Vermont Folklife

Center.

Weatherford, C. B. (2005). Freedom on the menu: The Greensboro sit-ins. J. Lagarrique (Illus.).

New York: Dial Books for Young Readers.

Weatherford, C. B. (2006). Moses: When Harriet Tubman led her people to freedom. K. Nelson

(Illus.). New York: Hyperion Books for Children.

Weatherford, C. B., & Velasquez, E. (2008). I, Matthew Henson: Polar explorer. E. Velasquez.

(Illus.). New York: Walker.

229

Wegars, P. (2003). Polly Bemis, a Chinese American pioneer. Cambridge, ID: Backeddy Books.

Welch, C. A. (2000). Children of the relocation camps. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Welch, C.A. (2001). Children of the civil rights era. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Wesley, V. W. (2007). Willimena Rules (series. New York: Jump at the Sun.

Wiles, D. (2001). Freedom Summer. J. Lagarrique (Illus.). New York: Atheneum Books for

Young Readers.

Winget, M. (2003). Martin Luther King Jr. (History Maker Biographies). Minneapolis: Lerner

Publications Co.

Winter, J. (2008). Wangaris’s Trees of Peace. Orlando: Harcourt.

Wise, B. (2007). Louis Sockalexis: Native American baseball pioneer. B. Farnsworth (Illus.).

New York: Lee & Low Books.

Woodson, J. (2001). The other side. E.B. Lewis (Illus.). New York: Putnam's.

Woog, A. (2005). What makes me a Quaker? Farmington Hills, MI: Thompson Gale.

230

Appendix I

Corpus #2 Matrix (14 books) & Corpus #2 Codes

Picture Book Title

Author, (Date). Illustrator. Publisher.

genre

pages

award additional white allies white additional

A Picture Book of Harriet Beecher Stowe NC Adler, D. A. (2003). C. Bootman (Illus.). New 32 NF -- WW York: Holiday House.

Abe's Honest Words: The Life of Abraham Lincoln

Rappaport, D. (2008). K. Nelson (Illus.). New 40 NF W --

York: Hyperion Books for Children.

Abraham Lincoln: Sixteenth President 32 NF -- -- Venezia, M. (2005). New York: Children's Press.

American Boy: The Adventures of Mark Twain 32 NF -- -- Brown, D. (2003). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Annie Oakley: Wild West Sharpshooter

Porterfield, J. (2004). New York: Rosen Publishing 32 NF -- --

Group.

231

Bull's Eye: A Photobiography of Annie Oakley

Macy, S. (2006). Washington, D.C.: National 64 NF -- --

Geographic Society.

NC Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, the One-Armed WW Explorer 48 NF -- WW Ray, D. K. (2007). New York: Frances Foster ICS Books/Farrar, Straus and Giroux. NC

Eleanor, Quiet No More: The Life of Eleanor Roosevelt

Rappaport, D. (2009). G. Kelley (Illus.). New 48 NF -- --

York: Disney/Hyperion Books.

Jimmy Carter: Thirty-Ninth President

Venezia, M. (2008). New York: Children's 32 NF -- --

Press/Scholastic..

NC John Brown ICS Streissguth, T. (1999). R.L. Ramstad (Illus.). 48 NF -- ICS Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books. NC

232

ICS

John Brown: Putting Actions Above Words ICS 64 NF -- Horn, G. M. (2010). St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree. NC

ICS

NCS

Lyndon B. Johnson: Thirty-sixth President 32 NF -- -- Venezia, M. (2007). New York: Children's Press.

Molly Bannaky IC

McGill, A. (1999). C. K. Soentpiet (Illus.). Boston, 32 NF JA NC

MA: Houghton Mifflin. WW

William Penn, Founder of Pennsylvania WW

Kroll, S. (2000). R. Himler (Illus.). New York: 32 NF -- ICS

Holiday House ICS

233

Corpus #2 Codes

Genre category codes CF Contemporary Fiction

F Fiction

HF Historical Fiction

NF Non-Fiction

Award /Honor category codes C Caldecott Medal and Honor

W Carter G. Woodson Book Awards

K Coretta Scott King Award and Honor

EKI Ezra J. Keats (New Illustrator)

EKW Ezra J. Keats (New Writer)

JA Jane Addams Book Award and Honor

JN John Newbery Medal and Honor

JS John Steptoe Award

NJ National Jewish Book Awards and Honor

OP Orbis Pictus Award and Honor

PB Pura Belpré Award and Honor

-- no award

Additional white allies WW white/white activist exchange

NC/S additional named character/s

IC/S identified character/s

234

Appendix J

Corpus #3 Matrix (5 books) & Corpus #3 Codes

Picture Book Title

Author, (Date). Illustrator. Publisher. genre

pages award

A Picture Book of Harriet Beecher Stowe

Adler, D. A. (2003). C. Bootman (Illus.). New York: Holiday 32 NF -

House.

Down the Colorado: John Wesley Powell, the One-Armed Explorer

Ray, D. K. (2007). New York: Frances Foster Books/Farrar, 48 NF -

Straus and Giroux.

John Brown

Streissguth, T. (1999). R.L. Ramstad (Illus.). Minneapolis: 48 NF -

Carolrhoda Books.

Molly Bannaky

McGill, A. (1999). C. K. Soentpiet (Illus.). Boston, MA: 32 NF JA

Houghton Mifflin.

William Penn, Founder of Pennsylvania 32 NF - Kroll, S. (2000). R. Himler (Illus.). New York: Holiday House

235

Corpus #3 Codes

Genre category codes CF Contemporary Fiction

F Fiction

HF Historical Fiction

NF Non-Fiction

Award /Honor category codes C Caldecott Medal and Honor

W Carter G. Woodson Book Awards

K Coretta Scott King Award and Honor

EKI Ezra J. Keats (New Illustrator)

EKW Ezra J. Keats (New Writer)

JA Jane Addams Book Award and Honor

JN John Newbery Medal and Honor

JS John Steptoe Award

NJ National Jewish Book Awards and Honor

OP Orbis Pictus Award and Honor

PB Pura Belpré Award and Honor

-- no award

236

Appendix K

Critical Factor Definitions and Codes

Critical Factors and Social Justice definitions

The "experiences that facilitate social justice orientation development" (Caldwell,

Critical 2008). These can be either: (a) critical incidents causing "a more immediate

Factors cognitive dissonance and shift in awareness" (Harro, 1997, p. 464); or (b) part of definition a long slow evolutionary process contributing to liberation from oppression

(Harro, 1997).

Social The "full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped

Justice to meet their needs... in which the distribution of resources is equitable and all definition members are physically and psychologically safe and secure" (Bell, 1997, p. 3).

Critical Factors Code definitions and examples code category definition examples

"senior experienced colleagues who

"influence of significant provide support, guidance, direction,  tutors

persons" role-modeling, and feedback to less  leaders IM (Caldwell, 2008, p. 82) experienced junior colleagues"  famous person

Mentors, Roll Models (Caldwell, 2008, p. 83), that positively

influences social justice orientation

237

"family members teach the value of "influence of significant  parent social justice, model social justice persons"  family IF actions and behavior, share stories (Caldwell, 2008, p. 82) member about oppression and social justice" Parent/s, Family (Caldwell, 2008, p. 85)

Peers belong "to the same age group

or social group as someone else"

(merriam-webster.com). Peer support  friends "influence of significant "includes collegial relationships with  colleagues persons" IP colleagues, friends, co-workers, and  neighbors (Caldwell, 2008, p. 82) classmates committed to social justice Peer Support values and active involvement in

social justice work" (Caldwell, 2008,

p. 87).

Personally and directly experiencing a

"exposure to injustice" form of injustice such as: stereotypes,  poverty

XP (Caldwell, 2008, p. 88) prejudice, discrimination, or  threats/ duress

Personal institutional oppression. (Caldwell,  bondage

2008, p. 89)

238

Directly observing or witnessing  poverty

"exposure to injustice" injustice experiences of other's (i.e.  physical abuse

XW (Caldwell, 2008, p. 88) stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination,  enslavement

Witnessed/ Observed institutional oppression) (Caldwell,  forced

2008, p. 91-92). relocation

"formal and informal education and  grammar "education/ learning" learning that encouraged participants' school ES (Caldwell, 2008, p. 92) social justice orientation development"  private school School/ Coursework (Caldwell, 2008, p. 92).  college

"Independent readings or research  literature

"education/ learning" involves books, empirical studies, and  cultural

(Caldwell, 2008, p. 92) conceptual articles that examine research EI Independent Readings/ oppression and social justice or  documents

Research involve accounts of oppression"  religious

(Caldwell, 2008, p. 92) information

"refusal to obey laws as a way of

resistance activities forcing the government to do or  breaking an CD Civil Disobedience change something" (merriam- unjust law

webster.com).

239

Teaching by speaking, writing,  political actions, and/or advocacy: "any action debating resistance activities that speaks in favor of, recommends, TA  writing articles Teaching/ Advocacy argues for a cause, supports or  religious defends, or pleads on behalf of others" perspectives (allianceforjustice.org).

Factors of significance to social justice  religious O Other Factors orientation development, unique to convictions any of the other code category.

Cross-Racial Interaction Code (*secondary code if applicable) code category definition examples

A direct experience with a person or

people of a different race or races.

Interracial: "Relating to, involving, or  collaboration Cross-Racial CR representing different races" (The  friendship Interaction American Heritage® Dictionary of the  marriage

English Language). A mutually

interactive interracial experience.

240

Childhood Experience Code (*secondary code if applicable) code category definition examples

An experience during childhood or  family Childhood adolescence, as a minor, "the period of CH experience Experience time when a person is a child" (merriam-  work experience webster.com), therefore, not an adult yet.

241

Appendix L

Corpus #3 Analysis Matrix

*secondary Critical Factor Analysis Matrix for Corpus #3 books codes

Critical IM IF IP XP XW ES EI CD TA O CR CH Factors

Molly (37) (0) (8) (8) (9) (4) (0) (1) (3) (4) (0) (19) (8)

percentages 0.0 21.6 21.6 24.3 10.8 0.0 2.7 8.1 10.8 0.0 51.4 21.6

Harriet (11) (1) (0) (0) (0) (1) (0) (4) (0) (5) (0) (0) (5)

percentages 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 0.0 36.4 0.0 45.5 0.0 0.0 45.5

Wes (30) (4) (3) (6) (6) (3) (0) (3) (0) (5) (0) (6) (13)

percentages 13.3 10.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 16.7 0.0 20.0 43.3

John (55) (5) (5) (2) (12) (4) (0) (0) (19) (7) (1) (18) (9)

percentages 9.1 9.1 3.6 21.8 7.3 0.0 0.0 34.6 12.7 1.8 32.7 16.4

William (65) (8) (1) (8) (15) (1) (4) (1) (8) (17) (2) (3) (10)

percentages 12.3 1.5 12.31 23.1 1.5 6.2 1.5 12.3 26.1 3.1 4.6 15.4

Total (198) (18) (17) (24) (42) (13) (4) (9) (30) (38) (3) (46) (49)

percentages 9.1 8.6 12.1 21.2 6.6 2.0 4.6 15.2 19.2 1.52 23.2 24.8

The above chart reports both total frequency and relative frequency (as a percentage) for each critical factor code, for each book analyzed. All percentages are reported to within one tenth of one percent.

242

Appendix M

Corpus #3 Books' Classification Comparison

Book Classification information included in the book

Molly Bannaky 1. Banneker, Benjamin, 1731-1806 -- Family-- Juvenile fiction

(McGill, 1999) [1. Banneker, Benjamin. 1731-1806 -- Family-- Fiction. 2. Farm life

-- Fiction.]

A Picture Book of 1. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 1811-1896 -- Juvenile literature.

Harriet Beecher 2. United States -- History-- Civil War, 1861-1865 -- Literature and

Stowe the war-- Juvenile literature.

(Adler, 2003) 3. Authors, American --19th century-- Biography-- Juvenile

literature. 4. Abolitionists -- United States -- Biography -- Juvenile

literature.

[1. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 1811-1896. 2. Authors, American. 3

Abolitionists. 4. Women -- Biography.]

Down the Colorado: 1. Powell, John Wesley, 1834-1902-- Juvenile literature.

John Wesley Powell, 2. Explorers -- West (U.S.) -- Biography-- Juvenile literature. the One-Armed 3. Colorado River (Colo.-- Mexico) --Discovery and exploration--

Explorer Juvenile literature.

(Ray, 2000) 4. West (U.S.) -- Discovery and exploration -- Juvenile literature.

243

John Brown 1. Brown, John, 1800-1859 -- Juvenile literature.

(Streissguth, 1999) 2. Abolitionists -- United States -- Biography -- Juvenile literature.

[1. Brown, John, 1800-1859. 2. Abolitionists]

William Penn: 1. Penn, William, 1644-1718-- Juvenile literature.

Founder of 2. Pioneers -- Pennsylvania-- Biography-- Juvenile literature.

Pennsylvania 3. Quakers --Pennsylvania --History-- Colonial period, ca. 1600-

(Kroll, 2000) 1775 -- Juvenile literature.

[1. Penn, William, 1644-1718. 2. Quakers. 3. Pennsylvania--

History-- Colonial period, ca 1600-1775]

244

Appendix N

Missing Critical Factors

Missing or underrepresented Ally Missing Critical Factors Critical Factor category

Molly cross-racial interactions Black indentured servants

Bannaky significant influence of peers white indentured servants

childhood experience Black enslaved laborers

resistance acts of civil disobedience fraternization/ marriages

collaborative resistance

Harriet significant influence of family father/ brothers abolitionists

Beecher personal experiences of oppression poverty as child and adult

Stowe cross-racial interactions teaching/ neighbors/ resistance

resistance acts of civil disobedience underground railroad station

teaching advocacy (literature) many anti-slavery articles,

additional books

John significant influence of peers local Winnebago hunters

Wesley cross-racial interaction coincidental meeting in woods

Powell childhood experience twelve years old

cross-racial interactions tribal collaborations

245

John significant influence of mentors the 'Secret Six' supporters

Brown cross-racial interactions Harriet Tubman's alliance

resistance acts of civil disobedience Canadian Free Black alliance

William exposure to injustice - witnessing Native Americans' situation

Penn learning of injustice - independently Quaker slavery policies

cross-racial interactions Quaker anti-slavery policies

246