rban India’s middle and upper class women have Uexperienced a veritable revolution in commercial beauty products and beauty culture since liberalization in 1991. Prior to liberalization, these women had two brands of lipstick and cold cream from which to choose. In the last five years, however, zaibatsu giant Hindustan Lever, Ltd., released 250 new beauty products, and international corporations have been heavily involved in marketing beauty products in India. French cosmetics giant L’Oreal, for example, has spent over thirty million dollars on local manufacturing since 1994. During an interview, S. Jayabalan, Managing Director of Kalinga Cosmetics, which The Beauty Obsession handles international brands such as International Standards for Fair and Lovely Kenzo, stressed the importance of international trends in Indian Susan Runkle consumption patterns:”Indians are very brand conscious. They are well aware of all the popular brands abroad contemporary classic which evokes Editor’s note to ‘Skin,” appeal to like Issey Miyake and Lancome. purity and transparency” (February women: What’s popular abroad is very popular 2001). An important aspect that Indian here.” The use of such language to women just cannot choose to Femina magazine was quick to describe fragrance was complicated ignore today is the overwhelming capitalize on the rapidly expanding by a sophisticated analysis of which number of beauties our country is throwing up at international beauty culture with the publication of Christian Dior lotions work best with pageants. Aishwarya Rai, numerous fragrance and beauty which skin types. The back of the Sushmita Sen, Diana Hayden, books. In addition, Femina features magazine carried a price list, and I was Lara Dutta, Priyanka Chopra, Diya inserts in the magazine every few quick to note that a bottle of L’eau Mirza: they’re world players on months with titles like “Skin” and D’issey cost about as much as the an international stage. Couple subeditors at Femina, where I worked “Scent.” In these inserts, which that with the superpower India is number about twenty graphic and for a whole year, earned in one month. poised to become. Triple that with color-rich pages, Editor Amy The very fact that the women who the steadily growing liberal Fernandes embarks on an educational help create the language to describe economy and foreign brands project for readers. In a sample issue, these products cannot afford them arriving at our shores. Can you elaborate distinctions were made points to a serious inequality both in as a modern woman afford to be between scents, and readers were terms of salary for gendered work as left out of it all? (February 2001). informed of the difference between a well as the high price which women What message does the reader woody topnote and a fruity heartnote. are willing to pay in order to take away from this? Of course, The issue included dozens of in-depth approximate images of beauty as they women are independent agents who descriptions of expensive fragrances. appear in fashion magazines. negotiate messages far more complex Issey Miyake’s L’eau D’issey, for The marketing at work behind the than this on a daily basis, but, example, was described as “subtle and beauty industry is fierce and intensely nonetheless, the direct linkage elegant. It clings to the skin like an well thought out. Playing on between beauty products and being article of clothing and comes to life femininity and nationalism, passages “left out of it all” is profoundly on the woman who wears it. A such as the following, taken from an disturbing.
No.145 11 This sort of rhetoric has been available coconut oil, as shine serum their lips a subtle hint of color and closely paralleled by changes in is a comparatively expensive product at the same time softly images of beauty in Femina. When I of which the solidly middle-class moisturizing them. The hip and asked Editor Sathya Saran about how target readership of Meri Saheli was cool Elle 18 Jellip, available in these images have changed, she was most likely not aware. Its presence, trendy shades, can easily be quick to note: “They’ve changed however, serves to underscore the slipped into a teenager’s bag and amazingly in the last five or six years way in which commercial beauty can form a part of regular college because of the multinationals coming culture has penetrated middle-class wear. No more will the young and in. They brought images of beauty life in urban India. spirited teenager have to worry with them which were very different One beauty product that has about parental disapproval when from what we had, and therefore we achieved remarkable success across she wears lip color – because she internationalized our images of beauty, all class and ethnic groups is the will not be wearing lipstick, she and today we see that reflected in the bleaching cream Fair and Lovely. will be wearing Jellip! So young way that young women look.” Something of an institution in India, girls can go ahead and wear Jellip Power of Advertising Fair and Lovely was patented by everyday and sport really cool lip She was also adamant that Hindustan Lever Limited, in 1971 colors! (Hindustan Lever international advertising, such as that following the patenting of prospectus 2002). which inspired the production of niacinamide, a chemical that lightens Only recently have young women inserts like “Skin” and “Scent” had the color of the skin. First test had the spending power to allow improved the magazine to such an marketed in the South in 1975, it was marketing such a product exclusively extent that any woman in the world available throughout India by 1978 to them. could pick up Femina and find it and subsequently became the largest Both Fair and Lovely and Jellip are comparable to American Vogue. It is selling skin cream in India. Accounting part of the same pre-liberalization important to remember that a 1994 for eighty percent of the fairness cosmetics giant, Lakmé. Formed after article entitled, “The Year Ahead for cream market in India, Fair and Lovely Indian independence in 1947, Lakmé Miss Universe and Miss World” ran has an estimated sixty million has exponentially expanded in scope next to an ad for, of all things, Lactonic consumers throughout the following liberalisation, with the breast stimulant. It was not until the subcontinent and exports to thirty- launch of its Elle 18 products for the following year that more relevant and four countries in Southeast and younger markets and the opening of sophisticated advertisements for Central Asia, as well as the Middle a chain of Lakmé beauty salons in commercial beauty products started East. In 2000, Fair and Lovely eleven cities across India, including appearing in the magazine. embarked on a new marketing Bombay, Chennai, Bangalore, Delhi, Interestingly, these extensive ads approach, with newer, more Hyderabad, Pune, Indore, Vadodara, for commercial beauty products are sophisticated packaging and Ludhiana, and Chandigarh, with plans not restricted to elite English language improved fragrance (Hindustan Lever to expand to fifty salons by the end of magazines. The Hindi language Meri Prospectus, 2002). Even Fair and 2003. Saheli (My Girlfriend) routinely Lovely, it seemed, was not immune to Focusing on the rhetoric of features beauty advice that the beauty product revolution that professionalism, Lakmé salons increasingly relies on the use of introduced new skin care lotions. emphasise their high standards in their products that are bought, rather than The major hurdle that marketing business plan for franchisees: made, at home to beautify oneself. experts had to face in selling cosmetics Today, the Indian woman’s beauty The October 2002 issue advised: to urban Indian women was the fact needs are taken care of in “âgar bal daumûhe hô gaye ho aur that make up is still considered neighborhood beauty parlors. In bal kô trim karne ka samay na ho to somewhat suspect in conservative most cases, hygiene is hair shine serum lagâa Isse daumûhe families. A Hindustan Lever questionable, customer bal chip jâyengç/ (If you have split description of the new Jellip brand of satisfaction levels are low and ends and do not have time for a trim, lip gloss directly addressed this service is far from professional. apply hair shine serum. This will hide problem: Compare this with Lakmé beauty your split ends).” Today’s young teenagers can salon. Backed by trusted names, I was initially struck by the watch out for an exciting and Lakmé and Hindustan Lever, recommendation for the use of shine trendy alternative to lipsticks by Lakmé beauty salon brings in an serum, rather than the universally giving them the option of giving air of professionalism to the salon
No.145 12 business. From interiors to French hair stylists were finance to training, every insistent that the stylists in the single aspect has been audience learn how to “become meticulously planned to fashion translators, not fashion ensure the comfort of the victims.” As the press release for customer and convenience of the event lauded, the event the franchisees (Hindustan hoped to “not only give a Lever, Ltd., brochure). window to trends overseas but This invitation to also allow hairdressers here to franchisees references the blend international styling parlor, as distinct from the salon. trends and techniques with local Women themselves also make preferences and thus retain their this distinction in their own individuality.” beauty practices; I was firmly This notion of “translation” criticized once for “wasting speaks to a distinction between money” on a salon manicure, a private sense of self, which, which a friend insisted I should following McGrath (2000:35) have had done at a local parlor. “includes the same events and The local parlor is considered changing relationships that are reliable for simple services such stylists for training in New York and then experienced through cultural as manicures and pedicures but is not London, I listened in as the rules” and the more public to be utilized for more complicated conversation drifted from how presentation of that private self, which procedures, such as straightening frequently Botox needs to be is the negotiation of that very hair. The difference between a parlor retouched, to one woman’s weekend and a salon is also aesthetic: while a experience. Ideas about beauty, both trip to Paris, to a director’s desperate parlor will be utilitarian and relatively at the corporate and individual, undecorated, a salon will make an search for a lead actress for his next private level, provide an excellent site attempt at appearing luxurious. The film. Although I had become for the examination of this, as the products on offer will also be more accustomed to this kind of banter, I physical self is the literal embodiment costly, and will most often be was struck by the way in which, of the interaction between the two. international, including beauty although many in the salon did not Women seek to replicate actually know each other, they were products from L’Oreal or Toni and Guy. international beauty fashion trends on drawn into the conversation: within The Bombay salon is relatively unique their own bodies, as broader cultural the boundaries of class, it seemed, in that it employs male as well as phenomena at large serve to reinforce female workers. As the only place strangers were free to talk to one another. newly imported ideas about beauty. where a strange man can touch a A Competitive Sport woman and this can still be considered Within a certain milieu, it is entirely Mere khubsoorati mere sabse within the realm of acceptability, the possible, as well as acceptable, to bade dushman hain/My beauty salon carries its own eroticism. I recall spend an entire day at the salon. As a feeling distinctly uncomfortable the uniquely female pursuit, then, beauty is my greatest enemy. (Miss first time I was given a pedicure by a becomes something of a hobby for World 1994 Aishwarya Rai, man at The Mane Event, a salon in many well to do women, who structure quoted in Meri Saheli magazine) the fashionable Bombay their weeks around when to have Aishwarya’s statement resonated neighborhood of Bandra. As he which service performed for them. with readers throughout India who massaged my calves, I found myself However, certain markers of beauty are sympathized with the double-edged averting my eyes from his, lest he more class-based than others. For sword that being beautiful presents mistake my intentions. example, having highlights is a highly to women. Beauty is often Salons also provide a space in coveted symbol of high status. Hair discursively constructed as which to cultivate and reaffirm one’s color is a fairly recent newcomer to dangerous in India, because the own social network. One afternoon at the urban India beauty scene. At a beautiful female body is necessarily Kaaya, the most well-known salon in hair show by L’Oreal that I attended always an object of display. Women Bombay, which regularly sends its at a five-star hotel in Bombay, the feel extremely free to comment on the
No.145 13 appearance of other women in their up too, like with you. I would never supportive of one another.” It was presence, noting changes in weight, feel threatened with you, because the offhand tone of this remark, which appearance, or even overall beauty. I you’re more beautiful than me. positioned it as fact rather than point attended one film screening of a recent This statement, taken from my of discussion, that truly disturbed me. Aishwarya Rai film with a friend who interview with a young woman who As a cultural observer doing fieldwork, I felt consistently uneasy about a noted that the 25-year-old actress was works in the beauty industry, is loaded system that pits women against each “looking really old and haggard.” Yet with sentiments that speak of a other. what may appear as a malicious lifetime’s experience. While the The concept of beauty as a comment is actually a product of a speaker describes women as enemies competitive sport is perhaps nowhere cultural system that is extremely because of their desire to be beautiful, more evident than in the Hindi film and accustomed to the standardized she also positions herself, her sister, media industry, which are dangerously evaluation of beauty. What is and me in a discursive hierarchy of confused with everyday life by many considered beautiful is often very beauty that is non-negotiable in women. It is perfectly normal, even clear – beauty is fair, tall, and slim, as character. So while she constructs her expected, that women will comment on the matrimonial ads placed by families sister’s social isolation as a result of the appearance of women they see on in search of a bride for their son her beauty, she also positions herself films, on television, and in everyday consistently mention. The practice of as outside of this hierarchy in life. Women are discursively judging women’s appearance is relationship to me, who she believes constructed as always being onstage. deeply ingrained in South Asia, from to be more beautiful than her. Female friends who belong to the the practice of “seeing girls,” in which Statements such as these are milieu of cosmopolitan elites routinely young women are brought for the common in Bombay. Beauty is non- greet each other after an absence of evaluation of a family as part of a negotiable; something that is a fact just a few days with observations on prospective marriage proposal, to the that needs no further explanation. weight loss or gain, on clothing, or on reduction of female bodies to “item Women will describe each other as “my other aspects of physical appearance. numbers” who do nothing but beautiful friend,” using the adjective Although I have always been rather perform undulating dance sequences as freely as any other in the course of conscientious of my appearance, it in Hindi films. conversation as they would a took several months in the field before As such, it often struck me as description of height or weight, or I was able to become fully accustomed extremely odd that critics of beauty even their own lives in this way. For to being judged on my appearance as pageants in India would criticize them example, it is not uncommon to hear a matter of routine by women I as “Western.” After an entire lifetime women say “it was because I am considered my friends. spent in a place discursively beautiful” as a way of explaining why Perhaps it is because women do constructed as “the West,” I have a an event transpired in a particular way. not have a status which is equal to difficult time remembering if I have Pruned and Packaged men in most parts of the world that ever actually seen a beauty pageant As such, I contend that there are they are relegated to being objects on there. True, they have originated in some cultural systems that lend display. Public space in India, even in the West. However, today in the West themselves particularly well to the urban areas, is considered more of a they do not carry the kind of status commoditisation and packaging of male domain. Therefore, it is fairly and clout they have come to acquire female beauty. Although beauty normal, despite being considered in South Asia. Indeed, the concept of pageants are a profoundly capitalist socially unacceptable, for men on the objectively judging beauty is as phenomenon in the sense that they, street to comment on the appearance widespread in South Asia as it is in at a very basic level, use women’s of women or to serenade them with the West. bodies in order to market products, love songs from Hindi films, habits Women hate each other. If you are they are also cultural performances in which irritate the majority of women beautiful, women will always hate which ideas about femininity and to no end. you. I tell my sister, if you don’t beauty are reinforced. Masculine Public Spaces have any friends, it’s ok, you can’t At the Miss India 2002 semi-finals, Although public space in Bombay, help it if you’re beautiful. Like me, presenter and former model Malaika as in the rest of South Asia, is I dress down all the time, so Arora casually announced that dominated by men, women negotiate women don’t feel threatened by “contrary to popular belief that this gendered space in a variety of me. It’s only when I’m out with women are women’s own worst ways. The powerful distinction other beautiful women that I dress enemies, this group has been between inside/outside and female/
No.145 14 male provides an important means by of what is acceptable. Going out at which women judge which areas and night, for example, where the sexual forms of dress are appropriate. Elite attention of men who are discursively women in more revealing clothes constructed as attractive might be negotiate public space by staying in viewed by women as an exciting and cars en route to spaces where such inevitable part of participating in the attire is appropriate, such as clubs, as world as described in the media, in well as by wearing loose shirts over which all moral standards are relative. tight or revealing clothing. One However, it is also crucial that these embarrassing illustration of this women maintain a public face of occurred as I stepped out of a taxi and respectability in order to get married. accidentally broke the heel of my shoe Bombay’s sharp division and tore the loose shirt I was wearing between those who are conservative on my way to meet a friend for dinner Vishwajyoti Ghosh and those who participate in the in Breach Candy, an elite cosmopolitan project leaves many, if neighborhood in South Bombay. night throughout the course of my not all, individuals with conflicting fieldwork. The following example Realising that I needed to fix the heel, desires surrounding identity and from a film producer illustrates I walked across the street to a cobbler this:”You’re a nice girl, Susan. You’re what it means to internalize the and put the torn shirt, my insurance not like these Bombay women. See, cosmopolitan project by inscribing it against stares, in my bag. I remember once a man sees you smoke, he within one’s life in various degrees. feeling extremely uncomfortable automatically assumes that you drink Bombay, after all, is not a standing on the street for the few and do all sorts of other bad things.” cosmopolitan city; it is however, minutes that it took to fix my shoe, “All sorts of other bad things” in home to participants in a because it was public space, and then South Asian parlance generally refers cosmopolitan project whose walking into the Breach Candy to sexualised forms of behavior, as presence, in turn, affects the restaurant where every single other the dangers that result from going character of the city. Individuals woman was wearing the same type of out are primarily sexual ones. often contend that women have clothing as me; the only difference was Because certain “sets” of more male- access to a lifestyle in Bombay that that they were only wearing it inside, biased behavior, such as smoking, is simply not possible in the rest of whereas circumstance had forced me alcohol consumption, and overt India. As Devesh Sharma, the CEO to wear it outside, which forced me to sexuality are often lumped together of the nightclub Mikanos noted: feel the difference between myself and in South Asia, women who present People have become more the people on the street. themselves within the cosmopolitan civilized. That’s why Bombay is Going out at night is often space in which these behaviors are so great, because a woman can discursively constructed as fraught normal risk having all of these come into the club and rest with danger for women, especially behaviors ascribed to them should assured that she can have a great since the type of behavior that seems they choose to engage in any one of night, and a safe time, without a very normal in the space of the them. second thought. nightclub, such as conversations Yet the concept of “normal” is Devesh’s reference to people about sexuality that more often than fraught with complexity in the space becoming “more civilized” is itself a not have an androcentric tone, are of the cosmopolitan project. Those anything but normal in other spaces. who are active participants in the reference to the cosmopolitan Indeed, the one night that the Miss cosmopolitan project have very little project’s shift in terms of behavioral India contestants were taken out to in common with the rest of the city, norms. However, the fact that he feels celebrate New Year’s Eve, they were and active participants feel the need to point out that a woman taken to a nightclub that was closed fundamentally disconnected from the in Bombay can have a “safe time” to the public. This was done in an rest of Bombay. And because the points to the notion that attempt to ensure that they would not participants in the cosmopolitan predominantly male spaces have the receive undue amounts of unpleasant project are such a minority in potential to be unsafe. Defending male attention. comparison to the rest of Bombay, oneself against the danger, both I was often advised by well- their standards of behavior are highly perceived and real, of male public intentioned men not to go out at relative and extremely fluid in terms space is a fairly common topic of
No.145 15 female discussion, albeit in various should be is becoming more and more in India, from film to advertising. As forms. circumscribed into a very specific such, women in media are presented Arvind Khaire teaches a self physical type. Although young women with few options outside of presenting defense course for women that is have, for better or worse, been largely a glamorous image that has little intended to prepare them for potential defined and measured by their beauty substance behind it. attacks that might occur in male space. for centuries, the decade-old media However, there are exceptions to Khaire contends that women need to explosion in India has meant that more this rule. Kim Jagtiani, who is a possess public space and not be afraid: and more young women are interested presenter on Channel V, is adamant Women are brought up to be in the glamour industry as a viable that, although the channel may have submissive. Even in my class, if career option. This interest, combined chosen her because she had won the they hit somebody they are always with the very lucrative rewards such a Miss India-Canada pageant, she would saying ‘sorry, sorry’ and trying to career promises, as well as changing not allow them to package her into be nice. Women need to think norms for female behavior, has meant something that she is not. She right to be able to defend incredibly tough competition among observes: themselves, because society has women. The question remains, They started out putting me into conditioned them not to assert however, that with so many talented this sex bomb, sexy kind of image, themselves…Women need to women available and ready for work, with the clothes and all. That’s not practice my techniques every day, why are they all doing the same thing? me, and the audience could see and they will be effective on the Actress Antara Mali’s role in the that. I’m more of a tomboy, when it road. recent film Road is emblematic of this. comes to clothes and all. Delivery Particularly interesting is Khaire’s Road, a film by director Ram Gopal makes a difference when it comes reference to “the road,” as it implies Varma, depicts the adventures of an down to what you’re wearing, and that women face danger only in the elite, urban young couple as they elope when I started wearing my own sphere of public space. to another city to get married. The stuff, then I gained the image of Since the economy opened to young couple was equipped the girl next door. This whole stand foreign investment, the resulting influx throughout the film with all the proper, with your hips and waist of European and American images of accoutrements of post-liberalization like this, that’s just not me. beauty have deeply impacted the perfection: sculpted bodies, Yet while Kim was able to notion of what a beautiful actress looks fashionable clothing, and an expensive negotiate the way Channel V like. In fact, many avid consumers of car. The film was as much an adoration packaged her because she came popular culture in India have of the actress’ body as it was about in as the winner of a beauty commented on how “all heroines the storyline and often resembled a pageant considered prestigious in (actresses) look the same.” The post- music video more than a film in the way India, most women are unable to do the same. In the beauty liberalization actress is easily that the cinematography focused on pageant of everyday life, things are identifiable: she is all too recognizable the actress’ body from scene to scene. no different. As a writer for a with her long hair (poker straight), As I walked out of the cinema after prestigious fashion magazine in height (over 5’6"), tiny waist (belly seeing the film, I said to my friend, Bombay noted, “Now, the button exposed), and tight-fitting “They should have called this movie glamourization of life makes it so clothes – she is post-liberalization, Antara Mali ki kamar (Antara Mali’s women are always judging each post-modern India’s most ubiquitous waist).” He laughed, because he knew other.” Indeed, the pressure is icon. A made-to-order film star, she exactly what I was talking about – the enormous. Economic represents a lot and stands for very director’s eye had languished long and liberalisation, with its frightening little. She cannot truly be called an lovingly on Antara’s tiny waist onslaught of beauty products and actress, as she often has little to do in throughout the film. Unfortunately, the narrowly defined images of a film except sigh and pout, yet she is film left me with few other impressions beauty, has seriously aggravated on every film screen, a beauty of her acting abilities. This is not so and complicated problems that accessory. much a condemnation of Mali’s acting women always have faced about There are a million other women abilities (or lack thereof) as it is how they are seen. who look exactly like her, which makes symptomatic of the Hindi film This article is drawn from the PhD competition for work extremely stiff. In industry’s refusal to provide thesis of the author who is affilated an era in which beauty is perhaps more interesting roles for women. rigidly defined than it ever has been, Unfortunately, this trend has expanded with the Anthropology Department the image of what a heroine or model to encompass the entire field of media of Syracuse University.
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