THE IMPORTANCE OF AND TO DEVELOPMENT

Cambria Finegold

Abstract Both fisheries and aquaculture are often neg- Small-scale fisheries and aquaculture make criti- lected in national development policy and donor cal contributions to development in the areas of priorities, as policy makers often do not have ac- employment, with over 41 million people world- cess to data which reflect the importance of fisher- wide, the vast majority of whom live in devel- ies and aquaculture to development. Appropriate oping countries, working in fish production; policies and regulation remain important, how- security and nutrition, with fish constituting an ever, both in managing capture fisheries and en- important source of nutrients for the poor and suring that aquaculture development is pro-poor often being the cheapest form of animal prote- and sustainable. in; and trade, with a third of fishery commodity production in developing countries destined for export. Fisheries, aquaculture and development With most capture fisheries worldwide con- – introduction sidered fully exploited or overexploited, aquacul- Despite the significant contributions that fisheries ture will be central to meeting fish demand, which and aquaculture make to employment, nutrition, will continue to increase with population growth, and trade in the developing world, they are rare- rising incomes and increasing urbanisation. As ly included in national development policy and aquaculture develops, however, governments will donor priorities. This is largely due to problems need to manage its potential ecological and social with valuation of small-scale fisheries, as policy impacts. African aquaculture, which has grown makers often do not have access to data which re- much more slowly than in other regions, faces flect the importance of fisheries and aquaculture numerous challenges, including conflicts to development. and difficulties in accessing credit, quality seed The stagnation or decline of capture fishery and feed, and information. Also key to meeting production in many parts of the world under- growing demand will be improvements in post- scores the importance of fisheries policy, how- harvest processing to reduce fish losses. ever, as the current state of stocks can be at least

The importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development 353 partially attributed to the difficulties of regulating While the number of people employed in fisheries and preventing their . fisheries and aquaculture in developing countries Even with improvements in regulation, how- has been growing steadily, it has been stagnant or ever, pressures on capture fisheries will remain, declining in most industrialised countries. This due to continued population growth. Further decline has been most pronounced in capture development of sustainable aquaculture and im- fisheries, while employment in aquaculture has provements in the post-harvest sector to reduce increased in some industrialised countries. losses could help to maintain fish supply and the Millions of women in developing countries contribution of fish to development. are employed in fisheries and aquaculture, par- ticipating at all stages in both commercial and artisanal fisheries, though most heavily in fish Employment, production and trade processing and marketing. In capture fisheries, While data on fisheries in developing countries women are commonly involved in making and are often patchy1, it is nevertheless possible to repairing nets, baskets and pots, baiting hooks, identify trends in the importance of fisheries and setting traps and nets, fishing from small boats aquaculture for developing countries, partic- ularly in the areas of employment, consump- tion, and trade. 50 Asia

Employment 40 Oceania Employment in fishing and aquaculture has 30 Europe grown rapidly over the past few decades, in- South creasing more than threefold from 13 mil- 20 America Millions of people of Millions lion people in 1970 to over 41 million in 2004 Africa 10 (Figure 1). Employment in the fisheries sector North & Central has grown more rapidly than both world popu- 0 lation and employment in . Most of America 1970 1980 1990 2000 2004 this growth is in Asia, where over 85 percent Year of the world’s fisherfolk live, and is largely due Figure 1. Employment in fisheries and aquaculture. Data for 1970, 1980 and 1990 are from FAO (1999), while data from 2000 and to the expansion of aquaculture in this period 2004 are from FAO (2006), and therefore may not be perfectly (FAO 2006, FAO 1999). comparable.

1. Though many countries collect data on commercial marine fisheries and on fish exports, catches by artisanal and part-time or occasional fisherfolk often go unrecorded. The status of inland fisheries is also much more difficult to assess than marine fisheries, as fishing is often practiced in remote locations by poor small-scale fishers who target a wide range of species using several types of gear, and whose catches are rarely disaggregated by species if recorded at all. Data on fisheries in developing countries therefore often underestimate the numbers of people who depend on fisheries for their livelihoods and diets, and the actual contribution of fisheries to development is likely to be higher than is reflected in statistics.

354 FISHERIES, AND DEVELOPMENT and canoes, and collecting seaweed, bivalves, do not fully account for artisanal and subsistence molluscs and pearls. They are rarely involved in production, as the magnitude of the landings of commercial offshore and deep- fishing. In these fisheries is not generally known by the re- aquaculture, women feed and harvest fish, at- sponsible fisheries administration. It seems clear, tend to fish ponds, and collect fingerlings and however, that capture fisheries worldwide are larvae. Women play a major role in fish currently being fished at or near capacity, and processing in many parts of the world, both using that further growth in fish production will come traditional preservation methods and working in primarily from aquaculture. FAO (2006) esti- commercial processing plants. mates that marine capture fisheries production In addition to affecting food supply, the status will remain between 80 and 90 million tons per of fish stocks in capture fisheries is likely to threat- year, and freshwater fisheries, which face envi- en the livelihoods of small-scale fisherfolk and ronmental degradation and competition for use traditional fish processors as competition for lim- of freshwater from other sectors such ited resources increases. Larger-scale operators as and agriculture, are unlikely to with greater access to capital and gear are already expand significantly either. emerging in many areas, leading to changes in Per capita fish supply in low-income food- the structure and location of post-harvest activi- deficit countries (LIFDCs) (excluding ) ties and concentrating ownership and control of has increased from 5.0 to 8.3 kg since 1960, due resources. In India, for example, fishing practices primarily to the growth of aquaculture and to in- are changing with rising investment, and higher creased production from inland capture fisheries levels of mechanisation and motorisation are in developing countries (FAO 2007). In sub- leading to greater centralisation of landings and Saharan Africa, however, per capita fish supply is competition over the catch. In the past, small-scale declining, dropping from a peak of 9.9 kg in 1982 traders were able to purchase fish from local fish- to 7.6 kg in 2003. This is due to rapid population ers at decentralised beach-based landings, some- growth, stagnant capture fishery production, and times accessing fish through husbands or taking the slow expansion of aquaculture in the region the fish on credit and paying once they had sold (FAO 2006). it. The increasing centralisation of landings, how- Demand for fish continues to increase in most ever, has led to fierce competition at landing sites, of the world – in line with population growth favouring those with greater access to credit and as well as increases in consumption of animal infrastructure and marginalising traditional fish protein associated with urbanisation and rising processors and petty traders (FAO 2007). incomes. In developed countries, demand for high-value carnivorous species such as Production and consumption and has also increased, largely due to in- Data on fisheries in developing countries often come growth and urbanisation, as well as a shift

The importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development 355 30 25 Africa 20 North & Central America 15 South America 10 9.4 14.5 0.8 7 China 5 3.1 0 Asia (excl China)

Africa China Europe Europe North & Oceania

South America 36.3 33.1 Oceania Asia (excl China) Central America Figure 2A. Food supply in 2003 (million tons live weight Figure 2B. Per capita fish consumption 2003 (kg/person/year). equivalent). Source: FAO 2006. Source: FAO 2006.

in preferences away from red meat and towards exports in some countries, much of the recent in- fisheries products (Delgado, Wada, Rosegrant, crease in exports from developing countries has Meijer and Ahmed 2003). come from small-scale fisheries. Much of this is driven by rising demand for high-quality demer- Trade sal fish in developed countries. The rapid growth A large portion of fish production is destined for in contribution of fish to total export earnings export, around 40 percent of global production in Uganda (from less than one percent in 1990 being traded internationally, and exports from to 17 percent in 2002), for example, was based developing countries accounting for some 60 per- largely on artisanal fishing of Nile perch in Lake cent of this (see Ababouch, this volume). They are Victoria (FAO 2007). now net exporters of fish to developed countries, An increasing amount of trade in fish products having shifted dramatically from being net im- is between developing countries, however, rather porters (over 1.2 million metric tons in 1985) over than from developing to developed countries. the past two decades (Delgado et al. 2003). Demand for fish in developing countries contin- Over 30 percent of fishery commodity pro- ues to grow, due both to population growth and duction in developing countries is destined for increased per capita consumption, while overall export (FAO 2005a), and it is an important demand in developed countries (including the source of foreign exchange for many countries, USSR) has stagnated since 1985. While there is including Chile, Mozambique, Senegal, and increasing demand for higher value fish in de- Thailand. While industrial fishing activity con- veloping countries, low-value fish continue to tinues to produce a significant portion of fisheries make up the bulk of fish consumed there, and

356 FISHERIES, SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT they are projected to remain net exporters of high Fisheries in development policy value finfish and importers of low-value food fish The contribution of fisheries and aquaculture (Delgado et al. 2003). to development has consistently been under- International trade in fisheries products has estimated both in national development and pov- been shown to have a positive effect on food se- erty reduction strategies and in international curity in many developing countries, stimulating cooperation. FAO (2005b) identify two factors increased production, generating foreign ex- which influence the degree to which fisheries are change which can be used for food imports, and included in development policy in a given coun- enhancing the trade-based entitlements of people try: the sector’s contribution to foreign exchange engaged in fishing and fish processing. Much of earnings and its contribution to and the discussion around the food security impact of nutrition (measured by dependence on fish pro- international fish trade has focused on whether tein). The more reliant a country is on fisheries for fish production for export reduces the amount of its foreign exchange earnings and food security, fish available for local consumption, presenting the argument goes, the more likely that policy fish exports as a trade-off between foreign ex- makers will recognise their importance and that change earnings and domestic food security. Such this will be reflected in development policy. As a perspective, however, fails to take into account farming and terrestrial often both gen- that foreign exchange from fish exports helps to erate more foreign exchange and are perceived to finance imports of other , including fish make a larger contribution to food security than products, and that production for export helps to other sectors such as forestry raise the incomes of poor fisherfolk and people and fisheries, they generally receive much more employed in fish processing, enabling them to attention in national development strategies and achieve greater food security through enhanced donor priorities. purchasing power. In Thailand, for example, a When faced with resource allocation deci- decrease in rural poverty has been attributed to sions, many governments prioritise water use for the export orientation of the fisheries sector and human consumption, agriculture, hydropower, concomitant increase in the incomes of poor fish- and industry over inland fisheries and aquacul- ers. for export can also generate ture. This is largely attributable to the perceived employment, particularly among young women, contribution of each sector to development, but though export-orientation in fisheries reduces the also to the prevalence of single water-use sys- quantity of fish available to traditional fish pro- tems. Encouraging multiple uses of water, how- cessors (typically middle-aged women with little ever, can increase its productivity and allow for education), affecting their livelihoods. simultaneous development of several sectors. Use of freshwater for aquaculture and agricul- ture, for example, is not necessarily mutually ex-

The importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development 357 clusive, and integrated aquaculture-agriculture 30 % (IAA) systems have been shown to increase the 25 % productivity of agricultural activities on 20 % which have ponds. IAA ponds also contribute to 15 % the resilience of small farms, enabling them to 10 % maintain some degree of food production during 5 % droughts (Brummett 2006). 0 Asia Africa The data problems identified in the first sec- North & Europe tion also contribute to poor recognition of the contributions of fisheries to development. Since Central AmericaFigure 3. Fish as percent of animal protein. Source et al data on artisanal, subsistence and inland pro- : Delgado . 2003. duction, fish-based livelihoods and consumption patterns in developing countries tend to be fairly over 50 percent of animal protein, and reaches sketchy, they often under-represent the contribu- 62 percent in Gambia and 63 percent in Sierra tion of fisheries to development. Thus the per- Leone and . It is a particularly important ceived contribution of fish to foreign exchange component of the diets of the poor, as it is often earnings and food security is often lower than the most affordable form of animal protein. their actual contribution, further reducing the Fish is also rich in iron, zinc, magnesium, chances that fisheries and aquaculture will be phosphorous, calcium, vitamin A and vitamin adequately addressed in development policy. C, and marine fish is a good source of iodine. Many of these vital nutrients are found only in small amounts, if at all, in staple foods such as Development aspects of health maize, rice and cassava which make up the bulk and nutrition of people’s diets in developing countries. Fish Even when consumed in small quantities, fish are an indispensable source of these nutrients for often comprises a nutritionally important part of many people, and small low-value fish, which are many people’s diets in developing countries. It is largely consumed by the rural poor, provide more a vital source of protein and micronutrients, and than the same quantity of meat or large improves the quality of protein in largely vege- fish, as they are consumed whole, with the bones table and starch-based diets by providing essential intact. Fish also contain fatty acids which are es- amino acids. FAO (2006) has estimated that fish sential for the development of the brain and body, accounts for approximately 20 percent of animal and are particularly crucial for the diets of ba- protein consumption in LIFDCs. In some - bies, children, and pregnant and lactating women al and island countries (including , (WorldFish Center 2005a). Indonesia, Senegal, and Sri Lanka), it provides Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids during

358 FISHERIES, SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT pregnancy reduces the risk of low birth weight, Fish and the Millennium Development which is a key factor in both maternal and child Goals mortality. These acids are also critical for the Fish, being a “rich food for poor people”, is well neurological development of infants, and are placed to make an important contribution to the found almost exclusively in fish, making the con- Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). While sumption of fish during lactation and pregnancy the most obvious contribution is in terms of food especially important. security and livelihoods, it also has an important The nutritional benefits of fish consumption nutritional role in reducing child mortality, im- are also particularly important for people living proving maternal health, and combating HIV/ with HIV/AIDS. Proper nutrition is essential for AIDS and other diseases. Fish also contribute the effectiveness of anti-retroviral drugs, and fish indirectly to several of the other MDGs through has also been shown to contain combinations of improved nutritional status and enhanced liveli- nutrients which reduce susceptibility to second- hoods, and to gender equality through women’s ary diseases. fish-related livelihood activities (see box).

CONTRIBUTION OF FISH TO THE MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 5: Improve maternal health t Over 40 million people in the developing world are t Reduces risk of low birth weight, a key factor in engaged in and . maternal mortality. t Fish is an important and affordable source of protein, t Improved nutritional status of women. micronutrients and fatty acids for people in developing Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases countries. t Provides proteins and micronutrients essential for Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education effective use of anti-retroviral drugs. t Indirect contribution from improved child health and t Fishing communities are among the hardest hit by income for women. HIV/AIDS. Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower t Income from fish can enable the poor to access health women services. t Women are heavily involved in fish-based livelihoods, Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability especially in processing and trade. t Good fisheries governance can contribute to t Fish is often shared more equally within the house- sustainable aquatic resource management. hold than other protein-rich foods. Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development Goal 4: Reduce child mortality t Fish is one of the most traded agricultural commodi- t Fish provide fatty acids critical for brain development, ties and a major export for many developing countries, as well as protein and minerals. offering an opportunity for trade agreements which t Reduces risk of low birth weight, a key factor in child contribute to the development of poor countries. mortality.

The importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development 359 Small-scale fish farming requires less la- ducing post-harvest losses. bour than many other livelihood activities, and Aquaculture is often easier to manage than can be carried out by female and child-headed capture fisheries, as aquaculture activities gener- households and people living with HIV/AIDS, ally fall within national governance frameworks providing them with fish to eat and sell without and do not face the same difficulties in resource substantially adding to their labour burden. The management that transboundary fisheries do. income obtained from the fish which are sold can Even fisheries which fall completely within na- enable the poor to access health care services, tional boundaries often face difficulties in man- including HIV/AIDS treatment (WorldFish aging levels of exploitation and controlling ac- Center 2005b). cess, while property rights are much more clearly defined for aquaculture. Access to water is a key governance issue here, however, causing problems Closing the supply gap for landless wishing to fish in cages, for rice Though further increases in capture fisheries farmers wishing to abstract additional water for production are unlikely, demand for fish is pro- fish and for downstream users where large num- jected to continue increasing due to population bers of farmers wish to harvest rainwater for pond growth and urbanisation. This trend is likely culture. Coastal aquaculture is often carried out to be particularly pronounced in sub-Saharan in publicly-owned water bodies for which there Africa where many capture fisheries have reached are competing demands. their limit, and aquaculture development is fail- ing to keep pace with population growth. Per ca- The challenges facing African aquaculture pita fish consumption in sub-Saharan Africa is While much growth in fish production in recent lower than any other region, and it is the only years has been driven by the rapid expansion of part of the world where consumption is declining aquaculture in Asia, it is developing more slowly (WorldFish Center 2005a). in Africa. Asia and the Pacific accounted for In order to meet growing global demand 91.5 percent of world aquaculture production by for fish, the further development of sustainable quantity and 80.5 percent by value in 2004, while aquaculture and improvement in post-harvest sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 0.16 per- processing deserve special attention (see also cent by quantity and 0.36 percent by value (FAO Subasinghe, this volume). Most capture fisheries 2006). An expansion of aquaculture production are being fished at or above their maximum sus- in sub-Saharan Africa could allow the region tainable yields, and are not projected to produce to better meet its rapidly increasing demand for any further productivity gains. Therefore much fish, though there are many impediments which of the increasing demand for fish will have to be would have to be overcome for it to realise its full met by increasing aquaculture production and re- potential.

360 FISHERIES, SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT The vast majority of African aquaculture takes Aquaculture interacts with capture fisheries in place at a very small scale, with over 90 percent several important ways, due both to the inputs it of African aquaculture production coming from requires and its potential effects on the surround- farms with one or a few earthen ponds, con- ing environment. Harvesting of rainwater or ab- structed and managed using family labour. The straction of river water can affect environmental ponds are generally under 500 m2 in size, yielding flows and aquatic habitats. Fishmeal and fish oil 300–1,000 kg/ha annually (World Bank 2006). are key components of formulated feeds used While the ponds represent an important source of for carnivorous and omnivorous species, placing food and income for the families that have them, further demands on marine capture fisheries. they have not yet been adopted on a scale capable Cage culture in coastal areas competes for space of closing the “fish supply gap” in sub-Saharan with small-scale fisherfolk, often restricting their Africa. Nonetheless, there is growing evidence access to the fishery, and can affect the coastal of strong commercial interest in aquaculture in zone or lake in which it is based through the es- several countries, including Nigeria and Ghana. cape of farmed fish, and through sedimentation Among the challenges facing aquaculture in and eutrophication from uneaten feed, fertiliser, Africa are limited access to quality seed and feed, and fish waste products. underdeveloped credit markets, conflict over use It is worth pointing out that aquaculture can of and , lack of access to in- also provide environmental services. For example, formation (both market information and infor- integrated pond-based aquaculture increases ac- mation needed for the adoption of new technol- cess to water for during drought peri- ogies), and underdeveloped or inaccessible output ods. Seaweed, and farming removes markets. anthropogenically derived nutrients released into coastal . Adopting an approach While many countries now carry out environ- to aquaculture mental impact assessments and routine environ- Like any food production system, aquacul- mental monitoring on aquaculture developments, ture can have negative environmental impacts. these often do not take into account cumulative Particularly when undertaken at a commercial effects in association with other sectors such as scale, aquaculture places demands on land and agriculture, industrial development, tourism or water resources, often uses feed (including in- hydropower. An ecosystem approach to aqua- tensive formulated feeds) produced outside the culture (EAA) could provide a more holistic ap- immediate area, introduces alien species, may proach to managing the interactions of a wide increase sedimentation or produce anoxia of lo- range of human activities with the natural envi- cal bottom sediments, and can involve the use of ronment. Building upon the ecosystem approach chemicals for disease control. to fisheries, FAO (2006) define EAA as follows:

The importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development 361 An ecosystem approach to aquaculture ponent of diversified rural livelihood strategies, &""  TUSJWFT UP CBMBODF EJWFSTF TPDJFUBM PC- aquaculture requires access to capital for start-up jectives, by taking account of the knowledge and running costs, and thus has much higher and uncertainties of biotic, abiotic and human barriers to entry than fishing in capture fisheries components of including their inter- does. Even at a very small scale, as in the case of BDUJPOT nPXTBOEQSPDFTTFTBOEBQQMZJOHBO IAA, there is a need to buy simple tools such as integrated approach to aquaculture within eco- shovels and buckets, as well as seed, feed, and logically and operationally meaningful bound- fertiliser. Russell et al. (forthcoming) found that BSJFTDzFQVSQPTFPG&""TIPVMECFUPQMBO  smallholder households adopting fish farming develop and manage the sector in a manner are often those who have start-up capital, raising that addresses the multiple needs and desires of concerns about equity. Aquaculture is also gen- societies, without jeopardizing the options for erally more profitable at higher levels of capital future generations to benefit from the full range intensity, as larger commercial enterprises benefit of goods and services provided by aquatic eco- from economies of scale, and compliance with of- systems. ten expensive environmental and documentation This also allows for greater consideration requirements allow greater access to lucrative ex- of the social impacts of aquaculture, which are port markets (Delgado et al. 2003). Furthermore, often overlooked when using a purely environ- aquaculture is less labour intensive than, for ex- mental approach. There is still a need, however, ample, rice production, and changing from rice for any environmental planning approach to take cultivation to fish farming can affect rural labour into account the demands and impacts of all sec- markets and limit employment opportunities for tors, rather than taking an exclusively sectoral the landless poor. perspective, possibly through an integration of Despite the challenges, however, aquacul- EAA with Integrated Watershed or Coastal ture holds significant potential for pro-poor ru- Zone Management. ral development. Agricultural incomes of IAA households in Malawi, for example, are 60 per- Social impacts of aquaculture cent higher than non-IAA households, and their development income per hectare is 133 percent higher2 (Dey, The expansion of aquaculture production has Kambewa, Prein, Jamu, Paraguas, Briones, and profound implications for labour relations, ru- Pemsl 2007). Adoption of IAA by poor small- ral poverty, and class formation. While fishing holders could therefore enable them to increase is often an employment of last resort for land- their income several times over. Aquaculture less poor or an activity undertaken as one com- development at a larger scale could also gener-

2. While some of this is due to pre-existing inequalities (households successfully adopting fish farming tend to own more and better quality land and have greater access to family labour and resources such as water), the introduction of IAA was found to have increased the livelihood security and land productivity of adopting households.

362 FISHERIES, SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT ate increased employment opportunities for the greater food security for consumers and increased landless poor3, if undertaken alongside continued incomes for processors and traders. or expanded agricultural activities rather than as The post-harvest sector is also important for a replacement for them. Most importantly, how- the poor in terms of employment, with the ratio ever, aquaculture can play a major role in terms of of fishers to people employed in the post-harvest food security. As discussed above, fish comprises sector generally estimated at approximately 1:3. a nutritionally key part of the diets of the poor Small-scale, labour-intensive processing of fish in many parts of the world, providing essential products can greatly increase the contribution micronutrients and relatively affordable animal of fish production to the local economy, partic- protein. As global population continues to grow ularly where processing and trading facilities are with little prospect of further growth in capture locally-owned and labour rights are strong. There fishery production, increased aquaculture pro- is also a strong gender aspect to fish-based liveli- duction could help to keep fish affordable for the hood activities, with women heavily involved in poor. In many parts of Asia, for example, there is post-harvest processing and marketing, making significant aquaculture production of low-value the post-harvest sector an important one for freshwater fish, primarily for domestic consump- strengthening women’s livelihoods. tion.

Improvements in the post-harvest sector Conclusion The post-harvest sector also provides an op- Throughout the developing world, the fisheries portunity for both enhancing the livelihoods of sector provides the basis for the livelihoods and the rural poor and meeting ever-increasing food nutrition of millions of people, and constitutes a needs. Post-harvest losses due to lack of adequate significant source of foreign exchange for many infrastructure, inadequate preservation technolo- developing economies. Despite its considerable gies, and poor market access reduce revenues of contributions to development, however, it is often fishers and traders and the overall food fish sup- not seen as a priority sector by policy makers or ply. In some countries in sub-Saharan Africa, an donor agencies, and activities such as aquaculture average of 30 percent of the catch is lost to bacte- are frequently seen as relatively low-priority for rial and fungal infections or eaten by pests. Use of the allocation of scarce resources such as water. improved processing technologies such as screens This lack of attention to the sector is particularly against insects, improved ‘chorkor’ smoking kilns problematic given that capture fisheries are cur- and mesh trays to elevate the fish off the ground rently being fished at capacity, and that further can reduce these losses significantly, resulting in increases in production will have to come from

3. Particularly in Asia, as access to land is less of a constraint in much of sub-Saharan Africa.

The importance of fisheries and aquaculture to development 363 expansion of aquaculture. There is, therefore, an that it is both environmentally sustainable and important role for govern- pro-poor. Under such conditions, fisheries and ments to play, both in managing capture fisheries aquaculture can realise their potential as an im- to prevent further stock depletion, and in regu- portant and growing source of economic develop- lating the development of aquaculture to ensure ment in rural areas.

References Brummett, R. 2008. Role of Aquaculture in increasing water productivity. Challenge Program on Water and Food – Aquatic Ecosystems and Fisheries Review Series 4. World Fish Center, Cairo, Egypt. Delgado, C. et al. 2003. International Food Policy Research Center, Washington DC and WorldFishCenter, Penang, Malaysia. Dey, M.M. et al. 2007. Impact of the Development and Dissemination of Integrated Aquaculture-Agriculture (IAA) Technologies in Malawi, pp 118-146. In: Waibel, H. and Zilberman, D. (editors), International Research on Natural Resources Management: Advances in Impact Assessment. CAB International. FAO 2005a. Yearbook of Statistics: Summary table A-2. Estimated Total International Trade in Fishery Commodities. ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/STAT/summary/ default.htm. Accessed 30/03/08. FAO 2005b. Mainstreaming Fisheries into National Development and Poverty Reduction Strategies: Current Situation and Opportunities. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. FAO 2006. State of World Fisheries & Aquaculture 2006. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. FAO 2007. Increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. FAO 1999. Number of Fishers Doubled Since 1970. http://www.fao.org/fi/highligh/fisher/c929.asp. Accessed 15/04/08. World Bank. 2006. Aquaculture: Changing the Face of the Waters. Meeting the Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture. The World Bank, Washington DC. Russell, A. et al. (forthcoming). Country Case Study: Development of the Aquaculture Sector in Malawi. WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia. WorldFish Center. 2005a. Fish and Food Security in Africa. World Fish Center, Penang, Malaysia. WorldFish Center. 2005b. Fisheries and the Millennium Development Goals: Solutions for Africa. World Fish Center, Penang, Malaysia.

364 FISHERIES, SUSTAINABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT