CHAPTER 14 THE ROMAN ROAD SYSTEM AROUND THE MEDITERRANEAN Acts 8:26; 20:1–3; 23:23–33; 28:13–16; Romans 15:19 Mark Wilson KEY POINTS • Roads were built initially to transport Roman legions to areas of conflict. • The empire’s expansion required governors to build roads for the provincial infrastructure. • Milestones not only informed travelers but also served as imperial propa- ganda markers. • Evangelistic activities from Jerusalem to Rome were facilitated along exist- ing road networks. • Apostolic journeys can be localized on major roads such as the Via Appia and the Via Sebaste. CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS road system (Cassius Dio 54.8.4). However, The adage, “All roads lead to Rome,” is the early church developed in the oppo- reversed in this discussion. The construc- site direction—from Jerusalem to Rome— tion of roads leading from Rome toward as seen in the book of Acts (1:8; 28:16). the eastern Mediterranean began in the The established Roman road system will third century bc. Around 20 bc Augustus be connected to the spread of the gospel placed a Golden Milestone (Milliarium seen in the later New Testament. Aureum) in the Forum to acknowledge Local roads were built initially to con- that Rome was the hub of the empire’s nect Rome with its surrounding cities.1 1 . The following general information on roads is drawn, passim, from Romolo Augusto Staccioli, The Roads of the Romans (Los Angeles: Getty, 2003). 175 176 Lexham Geographic Commentary on Acts through Revelation 53.1–5), and to Jewish sacred feasts in Jerusalem like Pentecost (Acts 2:5–11).2 The construction of roads was cel- ebrated by ancient authors. Plutarch observed that they were made in a straight line partly of quarried stone and partly with tightly rammed masses of earth (Life of Caius Gracchus 7.1–2). Bridges Golden Milestone (Milliarium Aureum) were built to cross depressions and river- beds, thus allowing passage all year and providing raised roadbeds with a uni- The building of consular roads brought form height and an agreeable appear- an expansion of the road system through- ance. Roads were measured by Roman out the Italian peninsula. The princi- miles, and fixed stones were used to pal arterial roads followed the natural mark the distances. Strabo observed that, communication routes that had existed while the Greeks gave little attention to throughout history. The road system infrastructure, the Romans invested eventually extended throughout the themselves in projects like paving roads provinces as the empire expanded. These and constructing aqueducts (Geography roads developed for several reasons. They 5.3.8; 4.6.6). They paved roads, cut hills, facilitated the movement of legions to and filled valleys, so that merchandise established military bases along the could be conveyed by carriage from the empire’s borders, especially during ports. Augustus was particularly con- threats from enemies like the Parthians. cerned with building as many roads as Peripheral roads linked the military he possibly could. Tacitus noted that an outposts on the outer boundary (limes) important reason for constructing solid of provinces. Such roads were built by roads and bridges over marshy areas was legionary troops and later maintained to convey heavy troops (Annales 4.73). by local authorities through whose ter- Josephus confirms this aspect: behind ritory the road passed. They also allowed the advance military guard came the intercity and interprovincial communi- road-makers who straightened out bends cation and commerce. These roads like- and leveled rough places so Vespasian’s wise carried pilgrims to temples like army would not experience exhaustion Artemis’ in Ephesus (Acts 19:24–26), during difficult marches (J.W. 3.118).3 to oracles like Apollo’s in Claros and Trajan’s Column in Rome depicts several Didyma (Philostratus, Life of Apollonius scenes (nos. 19, 23, 41, 56) showing the 4.1), to healing centers like Asclepius’ in Roman military constructing roads and Pergamum (Aelius Aristides, Orations bridges during deployment.4 2 . For more on pilgrimage travel in antiquity, see Robert L. Cioffi, “Travel in the Ancient World,” Oxford Handbooks Online (2016), 16–19; https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.110. 3 . For other comments by ancient authors, see Cornelius van Tilburg, Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire (London: Routledge, 2007), 11–15. 4. See pages XXX–XXX for images of the Cichorius plates for two more of these scenes.. The Roman Road System around the Mediterranean 177 Trajan’s Column (Cichorius Plate) Scene 19 (center): Building a Bridge FEATURES OF ROMAN ROADS dard width of paved roads was fourteen The cursus publicus (postal service), inau- Roman feet (13.5 ft; 4.1 m), but this could gurated in the Republican era but reorga- narrow to three and six-tenths feet (1.1 nized by Augustus, employed young men m) or expand to twenty-three feet (7 to carry messages to and from the prov- m) depending on terrain and location. inces. Later regular couriers on horse- Usually roads were curbed, then ridged back (tabellarii), sometimes with fast to facilitate the runoff of water. Bridges carts, carried imperial communications and viaducts carried travelers across the (Suetonius, Life of Augustus 49.3). Every many rivers and ravines that coursed seven to ten miles (11–16 km) mutationes through the mountains and countryside.6 (horse-changing stations) were estab- Some roads even featured sidewalks to lished. Riders could cover approximately allow pedestrian traffic. fifty miles (80 km) a day. Regular travel- Milestones called milliaria began to ers stopped at mansiones, usually located appear in the Republican period. The one day’s journey apart. These provided oldest known milestone was placed all types of services and provisions for at Mile 53 of the Via Appia sometime travelers including inns, restaurants, between 255–253 bc. Caius Gracchus carpenters, blacksmiths, and veterinar- passed the lex viaria (“road law”) in 123 bc ians. A relief, now in Rome’s Museum and “measured off every road by miles … of National Civilizations, shows an and planted stone pillars in the ground innkeeper leaning out the window of to mark the distances” (Plutarch, Life of his mansio and watching the arrival Caius Gracchus 7.2). The Roman mile (RM) of two guests in a carriage.5 The stan- consisted of 1,000 paces (millia passum) 5. https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-Images/Rights-Managed/DAE-10327264. 6 . For the documentation and discussion of over five hundred bridges, see Colin O’Connor, Roman Bridges (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). For pictures of and information on these bridges, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_bridges. 178 Lexham Geographic Commentary on Acts through Revelation Ancient Roman Bridge in Aleppo, Syria 5 feet each equaling 5000 Roman feet. An extra-urban feature that devel- This was standardized by Agrippa in oped outside Rome in the third century 29 bc with an approximate equivalent of bc was the appearance of tombs outside 4,860 English feet (0.92 mi [1482 m]). The the city gate. The names of local elites milestones identified the road builder or were announced on these sepulchral repairer, usually an emperor or governor, monuments. Exedrae and benches were and indicated the direction and distance provided for travelers, and sepulchral traveled or yet to be traveled, usually inscriptions appealed to them: “Hey, from its roadhead (caput viae). Outside of traveler, come here and rest a moment.” Italy these milestones assumed an addi- This necropolis pattern was replicated in tional function: “as an assertion—sym- cities throughout the empire with a note- bolized by the very massiveness of the worthy example being Asian Hierapolis road-markers—of Roman territorial pos- with over two thousand tombs and sar- session in Asia Minor.”7 While French’s cophagi outside its city gates leading to comment may be limited to Asia Minor, Philadelphia and Laodicea.9 Travelers his observation rings true empire-wide, also erected votive altars to enlist divine for Roll asserts similarly about mile- assistance for their journeys. One such stones in Judea that “their primary role altar is inscribed with salvos ire, wishing was to propagandize the idea of Rome a safe outbound journey, and salvos venire, and its Empire.”8 wishing a safe return. Another votive 7 . David H. French, Milestones: Republican, fascicle 3.1 of Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor (Ankara: British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 2012), 8. 8. Israel Roll, “The Roman Road System in Judaea,” Jerusalem Cathedra 3 (1983): 153. 9. Francesco D’Andria, Hierapolis of Phrygia (Pamukkale): An Archaeological Guide (Istanbul: Ege, 2003), 48–62, 205–9. The Roman Road System around the Mediterranean 179 relief expresses similar wishes for a safe building technique called opus reticula- journey and shows two sets of feet, the tum. This Montagna Spaccata (“Broken ones on the right outbound and those on Mountain”) is still used for traffic today. the left inbound.10 At Capua the Via Campania connected with the Via Appia. Outside Tarracina ROMAN ROADS AROUND (modern Terracina) a canal paralleled THE MEDITERRANEAN the road through the Pontine marshes, a nineteen-mile (30.6 km) section called roads in italy the Decennovium. Travelers could take As the city of Rome expanded its territory a “red-eye” through the night in a barge southward into the Italian peninsula, one pulled by mules along its banks. Horace of the first roads to be built was the Via tells humorously that the arrangement Appia. Named after its builder, the Roman did not always work out (Satires 1.5.9–23). censor Appius Claudius Caecus, the first Perhaps the centurion Julius was able to section was constructed as a military requisition a barge for official use to trans- road in 312 bc during the Second and port Paul along the Decennovium (Acts 27:1).