Cover and section photo credits

Cover Photo: “Marshall Islands” (Marshall Islands) by BermudaMike is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. https://www.flickr.com/photos/skyshotsbermuda/8915066758

Country Overview: “Jaki-Ed Weaving in the Marshall Islands. Two Women are Presenting Their Traditional Weaving Skills.” February 3, 2011. http://pacificislandaffairs.gallery.dfat.gov.au/Marles/Visit-Marshall-Islands-201102/i-HkqQWQR

Disaster Overview Section Photo: “130708-N-GI544-216EBEYE” (Marshall Islands) by U.S. Navy Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Laurie Dexter/Released is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. https://www.flickr.com/photos/navalsurfaceforces/9248855040/

Organizational Structure Section Photo: “New Speaker Kenneth Kedi congratulates new President Casten Nemra” (Marshall Islands) by RNZI Giff Johnson. http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/293465/nemra-elected-marshall-islands-president

Infrastructure Section Photo: “The Marshall Islands-Majuro-Window” (Majuro, Marshall Islands) by Stefan Lins is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrlins/302904938

Health Section Photo: “Improving Water, Power and Health Services in the Marshall Islands” (Marshall Islands) by Asian Development Bank. https://www.adb.org/news/photo-essays/improving-water-power-and-health-services-marshall-islands

Women, Peace and Security Section Photo: “130709-N-WD757-376” (Marshall Islands) by U.S. Navy Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Carlos M. Vazquez II/Released is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. https://www.flickr.com/photos/navalsurfaceforces/9253852641/

Conclusion Section Photo: “Majuro Cooperative School Photo.” https://majurocoopschool.files.wordpress. com/2013/11/manitday2015.jpg?w=1200&h=600&crop=1

Appendices Section Photo: “The Marshall Islands-Majuro-Rusty” (Marshall Islands) by Stefan Lins. March 2000. licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. https://www.flickr.com/photos/68467272@N00/302904943/

2 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Table of Contents

Welcome - Note from the Director...... 7 About the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance....8 Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series Overview...... 9 Executive Summary...... 10

Country Overview...... 12 Culture...... 14 Demographics...... 14 Ethnic Makeup...... 14 Key Population Centers...... 15 Vulnerable Groups...... 15 Economics...... 17 Environment...... 19 Geography...... 20 Borders...... 20 Climate...... 20

Disaster Overview...... 22 Hazards...... 22 History of Natural Disasters...... 24 Climate Change...... 26 Infectious Disease...... 27 Endemic Conditions...... 27

Organizational Structure for Disaster Management...... 30 Community Based Disaster Risk Management in RMI...... 31 Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency Response ...... 31 U.S. Government Agencies...... 32

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 3 Disaster Management Organizations in RMI...... 32 Laws, Policies, and Plans on Disaster Management...... 33 Education and Training...... 35 Disaster Management Communications...... 35 Early Warning Systems...... 37 Responsible Agencies for Flood and Storm Warning ...... 37 Military Role in Disaster Relief...... 37 Foreign Military Assistance...... 37 Foreign Assistance and International Partners...... 38

Infrastructure...... 42 Airports...... 42 Seaports...... 42 Land Routes...... 43 Roads...... 43 Railways...... 43 Waterways...... 43 Schools...... 43 Communications...... 45 Utilities...... 45 Power...... 45 Water and Sanitation...... 45

Health...... 48 Health Overview...... 48 Structure...... 48 Healthcare System...... 49 Challenges in the Healthcare System...... 50 Communicable Diseases...... 50 Non-Communicable Diseases...... 51

Women, Peace and Security...... 54

4 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Conclusion...... 58

Appendices...... 60 Department of Defense DMHA Engagements in the Past Five Years (FY 2011-2016)...60 Hyogo Framework for Action Country Progress Report...... 61 Force Protection/Pre-Deployment Information...... 64 Passport/Visa...... 64 Emergency Contact Information...... 64 Currency Information...... 64 Travel Health Information...... 64 RMI Government Ministries, Offices and Committees...... 64 Country Profile...... 66 Government...... 73 Military...... 73 Participation in International Organizations...... 74 International Agencies...... 75 Acronyms and Abbreviations...... 78 References (Endnotes)...... 80

List of Figures Figure 1: Marshall Islands Map...... 12 Figure 2: Ethnic Composition of Marshall Islands 2006...... 14 Figure 3: PIC Nationally Defined Hardship and Defined Poverty Lines Comparison Chart.... 17 Figure 4: RMI Environmental Vulnerability Index...... 23 Figure 5: Marshall Island Sea Levels...... 27 Figure 6: WHO Country Health Information Profiles (2011)...... 49 Figure7: HFA Level of Progress...... 64 Figure 8: Secretariat of the Pacific Community Development Goals...... 76

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 5

List of Tables Table 1: World Bank 2015-Labor Regulation and Insurance Programs...... 17 Table 2: Estimated Losses and Casualties Caused by Natural Perils...... 25 Table 3: FEMA-History of Natural Disasters in RMI...... 25 Table 4: Marshall Islands: WHO Statistical Profile...... 51 Table 5: WHO Current Health Indicators...... 52 Table 6: HFA Country Progress Report Priorities and Progress Achieved...... 62 Table 7: HFA Country Progress Report Future Outlook Areas...... 63 Table 8: Communicable and Non-Communicable Disease Traveler Recommendations...65 Table 9: The Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014)...... 77

List of Photos Photo 1: Republic of the Marshall Islands National Flag...... 13 Photo 2: Reagan Test Site, Kwajalein Atoll, RMI 2011...... 13 Photo 3: 2013-Forum Leaders Meeting-Republic of the Marshall Islands...... 16 Photo 4: United States and Marshall Islands National Flags...... 18 Photo 5: Wake Atoll National Wildlife Refuge...... 20 Photo 6: Public Utility on Ebeye, Marshall Islands-2013...... 28 Photo 7: Ebeye, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership 2013...... 46 Photo 8: Gugeegue, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership 2013...... 50 Photo 9: A Female Trainer at the Canoe of the Marshall Islands...... 56

Disclaimer This report has been prepared in good faith based primarily on information gathered from open-source material available at the date of publication. Most of the information used was from United States (U.S.) or other government sources and is thus considered to be in the public domain. Such sources include the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Fact Book, U.S. Department of State (DOS), and foreign government’s web pages. Where possible, a link to the original electronic source is provided in the endnote (reference) section at the end of the document. Other sources used include Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) home pages, Relief Web, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) or other United Nations (UN) agency web pages, World Bank, and Asian Development Bank (ADB). While making every attempt to ensure the information is relevant and accurate, Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (CFE-DM) does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information in this publication.

6 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Welcome - Note from the Director

Dear Reader, CFE-DM provides education, training and research about disaster management and humanitarian assistance, particularly in international settings that require coordination between the Department of Defense (DOD) and civilian agencies. In line with its charter, CFE-DM has created reference books on disaster management roles, processes, capabilities and vulnerabilities. This Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series is designed to provide decision makers, planners and responders a baseline of understanding of national disaster management plans and structures, including information on key domestic disaster response entities, basic regional background, and local and international humanitarian organizations present in the region. The Indo Asian Pacific region is the nexus of naturally occurring weather phenomena and tectonics resulting in powerful cyclones, volcanos, earthquakes and tsunamis that can be very destructive.1 The seismically and volcanically active littoral area stretching from New Zealand up the eastern edge of Asia to Alaska and down the western coastal areas of North and South America is known as the Ring of Fire- 75 percent of earth’s volcanoes and 90 percent of earthquakes occur in this region.2 During the period 2001-2010 on average, more than 200 million people were affected and more than 70,000 people were killed by natural disasters annually.3 These handbooks provide a context for country and regional-specific factors that influence disaster management.

Sincerely,

Joseph D. Martin Director

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 7 Information about the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance Overview The CFE-DM is a U.S. DOD organization that was established by U.S. Congress in 1994. The Center is a direct reporting unit to U.S. Pacific Command and is located on Ford Island, Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii. CFE-DM was founded as part of the late Senator Daniel K. Inouye’s vision. The Senator had witnessed the effects of Hurricane Iniki that struck the Hawaiian Islands in 1992, and felt the civil- military coordination in the response could have been more effective. He set about to establish the CFE-DM to help bridge understanding between civil and military responders, and to provide a DOD platform for building DMHA awareness and expertise in U.S. forces, and with partner nations in the Asia-Pacific. While maintaining a global mandate, the Asia-Pacific region is our priority of effort and collaboration is the cornerstone of our operational practice.

Mission The Center’s mission is to advise U.S. Pacific Command leaders; enable focused engagements, education and training; and increase knowledge of best practices and information to enhance U.S. and international civil-military preparedness for disaster management and humanitarian assistance. Vision CFE-DM exists to save lives and alleviate human suffering by connecting people, improving coordination and building capacity. Contact Information Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance 456 Hornet Ave JBPHH HI 96860-3503 Telephone: (808) 472-0518 https://www.cfe-dmha.org

8 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series Overview

The Disaster Management Reference Handbook Series is intended to provide decision makers, planners, responders and disaster management practitioners with an overview of the disaster management structure, policies, laws, and plans for each country covered in the series. Natural and man-made threats most likely to affect the country are discussed. The handbooks also provide basic country background information, including cultural, demographic, geographic, infrastructure and other relevant data. Conditions such as poverty, water and sanitation, vulnerable groups and other humanitarian issues are included. A basic overview of the health situation in the country and disease surveillance is also covered. The handbooks include information on key national entities involved in disaster management, disaster response and preparation, and the military’s role in disaster relief. Information on United Nation agencies, international NGOs, major local NGOs, and key U.S. agencies and programs in the country, are also provided. The overall aim is to offer a guide that brings together important information about disaster management and response for each country in an effort to provide a basic understanding for the reader. Information in the handbooks are compiled and based primarily on trusted, reliable, publicly available sources. Much of the information used is from U.S. or other government sources, United Nation sources, NGO websites, scholarly references, foreign government websites, and various media sources. When available, a link to the original internet source is provided. Each handbook is a working document and will be updated periodically as new, significant information becomes available. We hope that you find these handbooks informative, relevant, reliable, and useful in understanding disaster management and response for this country. We welcome and appreciate your feedback to improve this document and help fill any gaps to enhance its future utility. Feedback, comments, or questions can be emailed to [email protected]. You may also contact the Center for Excellence at: (808) 472-0518. Please visit our website (https://www. cfe-dmha.org) to view the latest electronic versions available or to request a hard copy of a disaster management reference handbook.

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary. The Government of RMI is committed to Executive Summary strengthening DRM capacity across the country as part of its ongoing efforts to build the safety The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and resilience of its communities.8 The National comprises 29 atolls and five low-lying islands, Action Plan for Disaster Risk Management including the atolls Bikini, Ebetem Kwajalein, 2008-2018 (DRM NAP) was developed in 2007 Ebeye Enewetak, Majuro, Rongelap, and Utirik. to address the existing gaps with regard to the Twenty-two of the atolls and four islands management of disaster risks in RMI. It is an are inhabited. RMI is located in the North important and integral supportive element Pacific Ocean approximately half the distance towards the achievement of RMI’s sustainable between Hawaii and Australia. RMI accounts national development imperatives. 9 for approximately 181 square kilometers (69.8 RMI faces numerous development challenges miles). The estimated population, according to with geographical, social and economic factors the World Bank is approximately 53,158. An contributing to high levels of vulnerability, estimated 70 percent of the population lives in and climate change is expected to exacerbate the capital, Majuro Atoll. RMI consist of low existing challenges. Current progress in disaster lying atoll islands with the highest recorded point risk reduction (DRR) varies. Most progress on the atoll, Likiep at 10m (32.8 feet) above sea 4 has been made in addressing water issues and level. education and awareness on DRR. Progress has RMI is a relatively isolated nation, with most been weakest in relation to creating an enabling of its small land area being separated by vast environment for improved DRM; mainstream stretches of ocean. The nation’s limited available DRM in planning, decision making, budgetary resources also contribute to making RMI processes at the national and local levels; and vulnerable to climate change. Census updates implementing and enforcing building codes reveal nearly 99 percent of RMI population and zoning. Currently DRR is not specified in lives in low-lying coastal areas of the atoll island national budgeting expenditures and RMI faces which make them extremely susceptible to the challenge of limited technical and financial natural disasters, rendering a majority of the resources across ministries. The integration country’s economy, population, infrastructure 5 of DRR and disaster management (DM) into and livelihoods vulnerable. People living in these sustainable development policies, planning and islands are vulnerable to slow- and rapid-onset programming needs further strengthening. The disasters related to climate change, including level of awareness amongst all national and local rising sea levels, and shifting rainfall and storm level stakeholders and decision makers that DRR patterns. and DRM are key development issues also needs Under the Compacts of Free Association to be improved. Little progress has been made in (COFA) between the U.S. Government and developing local plans for emergency response. the Government of RMI, USAID provides Although Non-Government Organizations supplementary assistance to disaster (NGOs) are working with outer island management and reconstruction efforts for these 6 communities, there is a lack of a coordinated independent nations. RMI is characterized as a approach to disaster preparedness and response.10 Small Island Developing State (by the U.N.) and has an economy that is heavily dependent on the local government as well as resources provided by the U.S. military to help sustain its economic growth. Although a vulnerable economy, RMI has seen some growth in commercial and small-scale fisheries, aquaculture, agriculture, traditional handmade goods, and tourism.7 The Government of the RMI has made disaster risk management (DRM) a priority. The National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) in Majuro has the lead role in planning and coordinating disaster risk management initiatives, with disaster management policy and decision making being facilitated by the NDC

10 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 11 COUNTRY OVERVIEW

miles (200 kilometers) apart and extend some 800 miles northwest to southeast.12 (Figure 1)13 Country Overview Occupied by the U.S. in World War II, following heavy fighting at Kwajalein and RMI adopted its Constitution in 1979 and Enewetak, the Marshall Islands were made part signed the Compact of Free Association (COFA) of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands with the U.S. in 1986. RMI became a member under jurisdiction of the U.S. in 1947. Bikini and of the UN in 1991. The natural beauty and rich Enewetak served as an official testing ground culture of RMI attracts tourists from around the for U.S. nuclear bombs (1946–58). The tests world. Pristine coral reefs teeming with marine stopped in 1958 and cleanup efforts began in the life make RMI a premiere dive destination. Yet late 1960s. During the trial resettlement of the the country faces formidable challenges in the Bikinians, however, their atoll was found to be form of rapid population growth and accelerated too contaminated for permanent habitation, and sea-level rise, among others. RMI offers great by the late 1970s the people had to be evacuated potential for small-scale tourism and economic once again. The Enewetak people were returned investment. The country’s open investment to their homeland and a program to monitor climate and close relationship with the U.S., Bikini was put in place.14 Figure 1 depicts the under COFA, make it particularly attractive to RMI map.15 Photo 1 on page 13 depicts RMI's investors, which in turn help further the ultimate 11 national flag. goal of sustainable economic development. After voting to separate from the other Marshall Islands, officially Republic of entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific the Marshall Islands, consists of some of the Islands, in 1978, the Marshall Islands drew up easternmost islands of Micronesia. The Marshall a constitution that voters approved in 1979. It Islands are composed of more than 1,200 islands formed the republic and established an internal and islets in two parallel chains of coral atolls— self-government. In 1982 the government the Ratak, or Sunrise, to the east, and the Ralik, signed the COFA with the U.S. This agreement, or Sunset, to the west. The chains lie about 125

Figure 1: Marshall Islands Map

12 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance in the town of Delap-Uliga-Djarrit, named for three islands that were once separated but were later joined by landfill. The Marshalls were administered by the U.S. as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986, when the Trust Territory was dissolved by the U.S. government. 18 None of the 29 low-lying coral atolls and the five coral islands in the Marshall group rises to more than 10 meters above high tide. The islands are coral caps set on the rims of submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor. The island units of the Marshalls are scattered over about Photo 1: Republic of the Marshall Islands National Flag 180,000 square miles of the Pacific. The largest approved by the voters in 1983, requires that the atoll in the group and in the world is Kwajalein, U.S. remain responsible for defense and external which has a land area of only six square miles security and that it provide financial assistance but surrounds a 655-square-mile lagoon. RMI’s for the republic. The compact entitles the U.S. to nearest neighbors are Wake Island (north), Kiribati and Nauru (south), and the Federated use the missile testing range on Kwajalein Atoll, 19 and provides for the republic to become fully States of Micronesia (FSM)(west). independent and to alter its status with the U.S. The native people of the Marshalls, the at any time, subject to approval of the residents Marshallese, are Micronesians. The most through plebiscites. Photo 2 depicts a Standard populous atolls are Majuro and Kwajalein, which Missile-3 (SM-3) being launched from the offers employment at the U.S. missile testing USS O’Kane in a joint Missile Defense Agency, range; together they have almost three-fourths U.S. Army and U.S. Navy test conducted April of the country’s total population. The rest of the 15, 2011. The SM-3 successfully intercepted a population lives in traditional villages on the target missile launched from the Reagan Test outer islands away from the two urban centers. Site, located on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall American missionaries arrived in the Marshalls Islands.16 in the 1850s and had notable success. The In 1983 the islanders reopened negotiations on Marshallese today are predominantly Christian. the compact’s provision regarding compensation The Marshallese and English languages are spoken, but only minorities are fluent in for the people of the four atolls affected by the 20 U.S. nuclear tests. The U.S. English. agreed to set up a separate fund for the people of the four atolls and established an open-ended fund to cover personal injury claims among the islanders; it also agreed to set up a joint U.S.- Marshallese claims tribunal. A further agreement set up a fund to improve living conditions on Ebeye Island, where all Micronesians working on the Kwajalein missile range and base resided. The Trust Territory was dissolved in 1990 with the approval of the UN Security Council, and on September 17, 1991, the Marshall Islands became a member of the UN.17 Majuro atoll is the nominal capital of the republic. Government offices are located Photo 2: Reagan Test Site, Kwajalein Atoll, RMI 2011

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 13 COUNTRY OVERVIEW

Culture Demographics

Cultural values, beliefs and customs, incorporate Understanding the demographic context of a unique Marshallese culture and society. RMI provides insight into socio-cultural factors The right of land is a focal point for native that will affect disaster management effectiveness Marshallese citizens. All Marshallese have and disaster vulnerabilities. It is important to land rights as part of a clan, or jowi, that owes reflect gender, ethnicity, vulnerable groups, and allegiance to an Iroij (chief), is supervised by the economics in the planning and implementation Alap (clan head), and supported by the Rijerbal of disaster preparedness, mitigation, and (workers). The Iroij have ultimate control of response activities to address gaps and risks. such things as land tenure, resource use and distribution, and dispute settlement. The Alap Ethnic Makeup supervises the maintenance of lands and daily The residents of RMI are regarded throughout activities. The Rijerbal are responsible for all the world for their friendly and peaceful daily work on the land including cleaning, demeanor. Marshallese nationals are known farming, and construction activities. The society for their open and welcoming nature. They are is matrilineal and, therefore, land is passed rendered as placing a high value on family and down from generation to generation through the 21 friends, as it is an important trait of their culture. mother. Their kind nature and cooperation are necessary With the land to tie families together into elements of survival in this small island nation. 24 clans, family gatherings tend to become large The concept of family and community thus events where family and friends gather to remain inextricably intertwined in Marshallese celebrate. One of the most significant family society. People still consider grandparents, aunts, events in the Marshallese culture is known as the uncles, cousins and distant relatives among their Kemem, or the celebration of the first birthday of closest family. Their strong family ties contribute a child, where relatives and friends come together to close-knit communities rooted in the values to celebrate with an elaborate feast of traditional 22 of caring, kindness and respect. While the local Marshallese foods and cultural songs. population is mostly indigenous, there are Most Marshallese natives practice the many mixed German, Japanese and American- Protestant faith, and as a whole they are very Marshallese.25 Figure 2 depicts the ethnic makeup religious. While the largest church in the nation of the Marshall Islands. 26 is the United Church of Christ, there are many other Protestant denominations represented, like Assembly of God, Baptist, and Seventh Day Adventists. The Catholic Church also has established a strong presence in the islands. In recent years, the Church of Latter-day Saints has also become established. Moreover, the Marshallese recognizes Sundays as a day of rest and utilizes Sundays as a day for relaxation and attending worship services. 23

Figure 2: Ethnic Composition of Marshall Islands 2006

14 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance highest levels and affirmed the need to eliminate Key Population Centers it. The Pacific Islands Forum further suggests The 2011 Census accounted for an estimated that political commitment to combat gender- population of 53,158 persons currently residing 27 based violence is of utmost importance within in RMI. The previous Census, in 1999, revealed the region to help mitigate gender inequalities. 50,840 persons and therefore, a total population However, practices in law enforcement and growth rate of 0.4 percent is estimated between justice systems are not conducive to tackle 1999 and 2011. Prior to the Census, there were violence against women within the region projections that RMI population would have and although progress is being made in some 55,000 to over 60,000 people, but due to massive Pacific Island countries, the legal capacity to outmigration in recent years, it is estimated enforce change is lacking. Additionally, access to that around 11,000 Marshallese have left the information on the handling of violence against country. Majuro and Ebeye are the most densely women is limited. 31 populated regions and account for the largest concentration of the current population at nearly 74 percent. All outer islands’ populations, except Children Jaluit, Lae, and Lib, have decreased since 1999. In RMI, the living conditions and culturally Majuro and Ebeye populations have increased accepted standards of living for families, indicating people migrating from the outer women and children vary, drastically to some islands to areas which offer access to more extent, from one island to another. Notably, in resources. Ebeye is still the most crowded place some regions, such as Majuro Atoll or Ebeye in the Republic with 9,614 people per square Island, access to household electricity and mile. Small and young children, ages 0-14, sanitary drinking water is increasingly difficult. continue to constitute the largest portion at 40 Additionally, the lack of equal distribution percent of the population. RMI has very high of activities and resources, such as nutritious fertility rates although the 2011 census indicates food, clean water, transportation and medical fertility rates have decreased since the 1999 care, throughout the islands of the archipelago census.28 commonly results in populations limiting themselves to low paying farming jobs. Moreover, considering the minimum hourly salary in RMI Vulnerable groups is two dollars, it is easy to understand the level of instability present in some areas where resources Gender Inequality are scarce. Families have minimal incomes with Gender inequality continues to be one of which to provide for their children and to acquire the obstacles for long-term development in 29 resources for their families. As a result of reduced the Pacific, including RMI. According to the access to clean drinking water and basic services latest research conducted by the World Health in the poorest regions, children are particularly Organization (WHO), all of the Melanesian vulnerable to diseases such as dysentery, fever, countries, except Fiji, are not on track to achieve and various respiratory diseases. Marshallese the promotion of gender equality and empower health indicators also note the growth rate of of women. While there have been substantial children is lower than average. A lower growth improvements toward gender equality in rate for children in the region can be attributed school enrollments, the Pacific Island nation’s to certain dietary deficiencies. Additionally, while progress on empowering women for economic lower growth rates have been indicated there is participation and women’s participation in also a disparity of childhood immunizations and political leadership is relatively slow. This a lack of appropriate medical treatments.32 Photo gender inequality measure has been attributed 3 depicts children gathered during the 2013 to patriarchal cultures, common in the Pacific Forum Leaders Meeting in RMI. 33 Island region, which discriminate against 30 According to the DOS, RMI is not party to the women, compared with the other regions. 1980 Hague Convention against child abduction, In addition to discrimination against women, therefore children are not protected, by law, violence against women continues to be common against abduction, sexual abuse and neglect. practice across the Pacific. The 40th Pacific The level of prevention practices against child Islands Forum in 2009, highlighted sexual and abuse and abduction is even poorer and these gender-based violence as a national and regional practices are becoming increasingly common in development issue demanding attention at the the region. Additionally, the Criminal Code does

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 15 COUNTRY OVERVIEW

not define corporal punishment against a child Poverty as an offence which renders children vulnerable The World Health Organization (WHO) to various forms of abuse. In addition there indicates gaining access to quality and are currently no regulations relating to child verifiable data in RMI continues to remain a pornography. challenge. This challenge can be attributed to In the Marshallese culture child labor is the consumption from subsistence fishing and common and, the right to work does not include farming is difficult to assess. Additionally, it a minimum salary for minors, which is especially has been estimated that RMI is not on track in significant given that the sectors in which reducing the portion of population under the children work involve intensive labor. In RMI, basic-needs national poverty line. In most PICs it is typical for children in the Atolls to help (Pacific Island Countries), 20 to 30 percent their parents in work related activities such as of the population lives below the nationally- fishing, agriculture, and retail, as well as in other 34 defined hardship threshold, though this rate is small businesses. Child labor increases the considerably higher for the Marshall Islands. vulnerability of young children and is commonly Figure 3 depicts the nationally defined hardship associated with child abductions within the and national poverty lines in RMI.36 region. The region as a whole is unlikely to achieve As with the majority of children’s rights, the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger Marshallese children do not have a right to in the immediate future, as approximately 25 education, in fact the extent to which their percent of households in the Pacific region still right to education is respected depends on live under the basic-needs poverty line. Rapid their parents’ living standards. It is common urbanization, along with the growth of informal for children of poorer parents to have limited settlements and the continued increase in the access to education or to be removed from school migration of residents from the outer islands to to help work and provide income to support the more urbanized regions is leading to urban their families. In RMI, due to the difficult poverty. New settlements in over populated areas living conditions, very low salaries, and often (in relation to resources per capita) of RMI often considerable geographical remoteness, it is have inadequate water and sanitary facilities becoming very difficult to guarantee children’s 35 which further exacerbate poor living conditions attendance. and poverty, thus increasing public health risks and the vulnerability of the poor. 37 Food poverty, as defined by the WHO, is the inability to obtain nutritious, wholesome and affordable foods. According to the WHO indicators, food poverty continues to be an increasing concern in the Pacific region. Because of the natural conditions, RMI has concentrated production of a limited number of food commodities, which make them extremely vulnerable to conditions of endemic food poverty. Additionally the dependency on food imports to the region has increased in recent years due to a decline Photo 3: 2013-Forum Leaders Meeting-Republic of the Marshall Islands in traditional crop

16 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Figure 3: PIC Nationally Defined Hardship and National Defined Poverty Lines Comparison Chart production and a rapid rate of urban migration. small-scale fisheries, mar-culture (aquaculture), Notably, there is a link between food poverty and agriculture, traditional crafts manufacturing obesity, which continues to gain recognition as a (handmade local crafts), and tourism.40 major public health issue in the Pacific. 38 Table 1 The 2011 Census showed 31,307 people (aged depicts the minimum wage for full-time worker 15 and older) as RMI Working Age Population in RMI (US$).39 compared to 28,692 recorded in the 1999 Census. From the labor force 12,312 had jobs and 612 Economics did not have jobs according to the Census, thus translated into a 4.7 percent unemployment RMI economy is weak and fragile and is rate (i.e., 612/12,924) compared to 30.9 percent heavily dependent on the local government and unemployment rate revealed by the 1999 Census. resources provided by the U.S. military to help The reason for very low unemployment rate was sustain its economic growth. RMI is classified due to inclusion of a question on the Census by the UN as a Small Island Developing State Questionnaire of “home production” which (SIDS). The economy remains relatively small, includes fishing, making handicrafts, farming, with an estimated current-dollar Gross Domestic etc., for sale or own consumption in the 2011 Product (GDP) of approximately US$100 million Census, which was absent in the 1999 Census as of 2003. The vulnerable economy of RMI Questionnaire. It was indicated that 40 percent further relies heavily on RMI government and of workers in the Republic work for pay in the U.S. military expenditure and employment, private sector, 34 percent work for pay in the but has seen some growth in commercial and government, and 21 percent produce goods mainly for sale (home production) as the three

Minimum Standard Maximum Major Unemployment Health wage for a workday working restrictions protection Insurance for full-time days per on night scheme? permanent worker week work? employees? (US$/month) Kiribati No No Specific Limit 7 No No No Marshalls 421.63 No Specific Limit 7 No No No FSM 357.38 No Specific Limit 7 No No No Palau 551.54 No Specific Limit 7 No No No Samoa 178.65 No Specific Limit 6 No No No Tonga No No Specific Limit 6 No No Yes Vanuatu 326.14 No Specific Limit 6 No No Yes

Table 1: World Bank 2015-Labor Regulation and Insurance Programs

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 17 COUNTRY OVERVIEW

major categories of employment by class of if the sum of the cost or value of the materials workers. Over 17 percent of males work in the produced in RMI, and the direct costs of private sector as compared to 36 percent females; processing operations performed in RMI are not and 36 percent of males work in the government less than 35 percent of the appraised value of as compared to 31 percent females.41 the merchandise at the time of its importation into the U.S. In other words, only 35 percent of National Investment Policy Statement the customs value of the U.S. import must be RMI government encourages private contributed in RMI. As much as 15 percent of sector development to help meet the nation’s the value of the product may be contributed to development goals. The developmental this 35 percent added-value requirement when materials produced in the customs territory of goals of RMI include increased employment 45 opportunities for Marshallese citizens, enhanced the U.S. are used. human resource development, increase in foreign The cost of processing operations in RMI can exchange, and import alternatives. Additionally, include the following: RMI government is particularly interested in • All actual labor costs involved in the growth, encouraging private investments in the nation’s production, manufacture, or assembly of fisheries, tourism industry, manufacturing the specific merchandise, including fringe and agriculture sectors. Furthermore, RMI benefits, on-the-job training, and the cost of government understands that the domestic engineering, supervisory, quality control, and private sector is currently too fragile to make similar personnel; significant economic contributions in this regard • Dyes, molds, tooling, and depreciation. and therefore RMI government actively seeks Oil machinery and equipment which are out direct foreign investments to assist in the allocable to the specific merchandise; developmental goals of the nation.42 • Research, development, design, engineering, and blueprint costs insofar as they are Incentives under the COFA with the U.S. allocable to the specific merchandise, and; • Costs of inspecting and testing the specific As a general rule, all articles wholly grown, 46 made or produced in the RMI have merchandise. duty-free access into the U.S. except for the following categories of products: • Watches, clocks and timing apparatus provided for in Chapter 9.1 of the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the U.S.; • Buttons (whether finished or not finished) provided for in item 9606.21.40 of the above named Tariff Schedule; • Textile and apparel articles which are subject to textile agreements; • Footwear, handbags, luggage, flat good, work gloves, and leather wearing apparel which were not eligible for the Generalized System of Preferences in the Trade Act of 1974; and • Tuna canned in oil.43

Photo 4 depicts the U.S. and the Marshall Islands national flags flying side by side in the Marshall Islands.44 Articles exported from RMI qualify for this duty-free treatment Photo 4: United States and Marshall Islands National Flags

18 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Products made in RMI are also not presently generally very close to sea level. The vulnerability subject to any quota restrictions into the U.S. to waves and storm surges is precarious. market. This is particularly relevant in the area of Although the islands have not been completely textile production. Textile imports into the U.S. free from weather extremes, they are more are generally subject to highly restrictive quotas frequently referred to in folklore as “jolet jen based on the country of origin.47 Anij” (gifts from God). The sense that RMI was a RMI has a GDP of approximately $144 million God-given sanctuary away from the harshness of and a per capita GDP of approximately $2,900. other areas is therefore part of the socio-cultural Key sectors in the economy include:48 identity of the people. However, given the physics • Agriculture and fisheries: 31.7 percent of wave formation and the increasing frequency • Industry: 14.9 percent and severity of storms, RMI will likely be at even • Services: 53.4 percent (2004 est.) greater risk. The relative safety that the islands have historically provided is now in jeopardy. It Important export products include: copra is likely that evacuation would have to be effected cake, coconut oil, handicrafts and fish. Important long before inundation is total.52 industries include: copra, tuna processing, The Marshallese would become among the and tourism, craft items from seashells, wood first of many environmental refugees. This would and pearls. As with most Small Island States, be a devastating disruption not only for the the value of imports ($54.7 million) greatly culture and the people of the island countries, exceeds the value of exports ($9.1 million). but also for the countries that would need to A combination of Government downsizing, accommodate the refugees. The impact of this is drought, a drop in construction, the decline not limited to the Marshalls and its immediate in tourism, and less income from the renewal neighbors, but extends far wider into the global of fishing vessel licenses have restricted GDP environment. RMI are often referred to as a growth to an average of one percent over the past “front line state” with regard to the climate decade.49 change issue. It is important to realize that once the potentially catastrophic effects begin Environment to appear there, it is likely already too late to prevent further warming that will threaten 53 For many years, RMI Government has been virtually all of the world’s coastal regions. For concerned with the issue of global climate these reasons, RMI has participated actively in change. A major study on the detection and negotiations for the UN Framework Convention possible impacts of climate change and sea on Climate Change and its protocols, and continues to do so.54 level rise in RMI was commissioned in the early 1990’s. It was completed in 1992 by a team from RMI Environmental Protection Agency Geography (EPA), led by a Harvard scientist working on RMI is located in the central Pacific, contract with the government. The report has approximately midway between Hawai’i and since been included in the bibliography of the Australia. RMI is made up of 29 low-lying atolls Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.50 and five islands, together comprising 70 square The physical characteristics of RMI would give miles. This is in contrast to the 700,000 square any visitor the best indicator as to why the RMI miles of ocean, which forms part of its Exclusive Government is so concerned with sea level rise. Economic Zone. The atolls and islands are Approximately 1225 islets in 29 atolls scattered unusual in that they are essentially coral caps over 3/4 million square miles, the average height set on underwater dome volcanoes rising from above sea level is 7 feet or 2 meters. The highest the ocean floor. The atoll and islands lie in two land area is on Likiep Atoll, where the elevation parallel chains: Ratak (Sunrise) to the east; and reaches a maximum altitude of only ten meters. Ralik (Sunset) to the west. The two atoll chains Fragile coral reefs fringe the atolls, and serve are approximately 129 miles apart and are aligned as the only line of defense against the ocean diagonally northwest to southeast between 160° surge. The clearance over the reef in the sections E – 173° E and 04° N – 15° N. The capital is that are covered by water is usually no more situated on Majuro atoll in the southeast, which than a couple of feet. In other places, the reef is has a land area of 3.56 square miles. The distance commonly slightly submerged.51 between Majuro and the furthest outlying atoll RMI lie in open ocean, and the islands are (Ujelang) is approximately 700 miles. Majuro lies

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some 2,300 miles southwest of Honolulu and nearly 2,000 miles southeast of Guam. Over two thirds of the population of RMI is concentrated on Majuro and Kwajalein. These two atolls are essentially urban in nature while the remainder of the atolls and islands – commonly referred to as the ‘outer islands’ – are rural. Administrative district centers are located at Majuro, Kwajalein, Jaluit and Wotje.55 Photo 5 depicts Wake Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, Marshall Islands. 56

Borders While RMI does not share any land borders, the Marshall Islands shares maritime borders with: Kiribati, the FSM, Nauru, and Wake Island. Geographically RMI are relatively close to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines.57

Climate The weather in RMI is tropical - hot and humid, but tempered by trade-winds, which prevail throughout the year. The average temperature hovers around 80 degrees Photo 5: Wake Atoll National Wildlife Refuge Fahrenheit and rarely fluctuates. This is one of the most outstanding features of the climate; in fact, the range between the coolest and the warmest months averages less than one degree Fahrenheit. Unusually, the nights, although they feel cooler, are actually 2-4 degrees warmer than the average daily minimum; this is because the lowest temperatures usually occur during heavy showers in the daytime. Like elsewhere in the Pacific, the skies are quite cloudy. Tropical storms are very rare; although, in the last three years there have been three major cyclones. Much more common are minor storms of the easterly wave type, especially from March to April and October to November.58 Rainfall varies greatly throughout RMI. In the wet, southern atolls, rainfall can average as much as 160 inches per year, while the dry, northern atolls may only average 20 inches. When rain does fall, it is often heavy. There is also a wet and dry season, with the wettest months being between May and November. Weather data for RMI is provided by the Majuro Weather Station. The station at Majuro is located on the southeastern end of the Majuro Atoll. This atoll is approximately 160 square miles in area with a lagoon of about 150 square miles. The lagoon is oblong, 22 miles long and about 4 miles wide. The station is located at Delap.59

20 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 21 DISASTER OVERVIEW

natural events can have such devastating consequences, effective disaster management and Disaster Overview risk reduction are critical to protect people and the environment as well as achieve sustainable Hazards growth.63 The major climate-related natural hazards impacting the RMI are sea level rise, droughts, The Pacific is one of the world’s most disaster- and tropical storms and typhoons. These are prone regions. The small island countries discussed in detail below:64 that dot this vast ocean are exposed to floods, Sea level rise – Shoreline erosion caused by cyclones, storm surges, and droughts as well as sea level rise is already a significant problem earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. across RMI. According to a study conducted in While RMI is not directly in the typhoon 1992 of Majuro atoll by the National Oceanic corridor, it is exposed to a number of hazards and and Atmospheric Administration of the U.S. vulnerabilities that are linked both to its physical (NOAA), a three-foot rise in sea levels would characteristics and unsustainable development completely inundate the atoll, and defense processes. mechanisms to protect the atoll from a one-in- Key natural hazards that have the potential to fifty year storm event would be impossible. It is negatively impact RMI include: recommended that a “full retreat of the entire • Tropical storms and typhoons, high surf, and population of the Majuro atoll and the RMI must drought all expected to increase in frequency be considered in planning for worst-case sea level and intensity due to climate change. rise scenarios”.65 • However they are considered to be at low Droughts – Wet season rainfall supplies the risk to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and majority of freshwater to RMI. However, El tsunami; and Niño conditions in this part of the Pacific can • Key man-made or human-induced hazards shift rainfall patterns, bringing significantly include: fire, contamination of water supply, less rainfall than in normal years and leading outbreaks of epidemic diseases, exposure to to drought conditions. Droughts are especially hazardous waste, and commercial transport 60 damaging in the atolls lacking sufficient rain- accidents (including marine oil spills). water harvesting/storage capacity to withstand dry periods, as is the case with most of the outer Figure 4 depicts the Environmental Vulnerability 61 atolls of the dry North (Utrik, Ailuk, Likiep, Index for RMI. Wotho, Lae, and Namu). The El Niño event of 1997/98 was one of the most pronounced Factors contributing to the high risk profile of 62 drought periods in RMI, bringing only eight RMI include the following: percent of normal rainfall in a four month • Aspects of vulnerability to hazards, resistance period and leading the government to declare and damages caused by the impacts of natural the entire archipelago a disaster area, and disasters; severely impacting Laura atoll’s fresh-water lens. • RMI is vulnerable to high winds, extreme More frequent El Niño events could increase wet seasons, isolation, limited resources, the intensity and occurrence of these drought low lying lands, population density, coastal events, with important implications for disaster erosion and rising sea levels; management and response in RMI.66 • RMI is categorized as being a highly Tropical storms and typhoons – Strong winds, vulnerable nation according to the wave run-up, and overtopping of beach berms Environmental Vulnerability Index; and protective structures are significant sources • Natural disasters and rising sea-levels of flooding and damage across RMI. Such was continue to post the highest risk to the small the case in 2008, when one of the worst recorded island nation; and disasters in the nation’s history took place. A • Poverty and weak economy contribute to the combination of factors, including three major vulnerability of RMI. storms in two weeks and high tides, together flooded (via storm surges) a large part of the Climate change also poses a serious threat, Majuro atoll, damaging more than 300 homes as the region is experiencing major temperature and forcing 10 percent of the population to fluctuations, changing rainfall patterns, intense temporary shelters. storms, and rising sea levels. In a region where

22 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Figure 4: RMI Environmental Vulnerability Index

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The impacts of natural hazards in RMI are severe impacts to Arno. Tinak Health Centre was exacerbated by the underlying conditions of completely destroyed, and Malel and Kilange vulnerability noted in the GFDRR, World Bank, Health Centers were low on medical supplies. and SOPAC assessment. The conditions noted in Most breadfruit, pandanus and banana trees the assessment included: destroyed, and shops lost all food stock. Many • Extremely high population density, especially household water catchments were damaged and on the two urban islands of the archipelago community tanks contaminated. Around 80 (Ebeye and Majuro); percent of sanitation facilities were affected, with • High levels of poverty (20 percent of the sewage reported in some locations. population lives on less than US$1/day); The tidal surges also caused damage to • Low elevations—average elevation of most five islands in Kiribati. Most of the impact islands is approximately two meters above was to Marakei Atoll (population 2,872), with sea level, with the highest recorded point on approximately 44 homes damaged and evacuees the atoll at 10 meters above sea level (Likiep), sheltered in community halls. There was also and the majority of the population living damage to sea walls and causeways on the main along the coastline; island, Tarawa. Access to clean drinking water • Dispersed archipelago (the islands are was a key concern as groundwater sources were spread across three quarters of a million contaminated. The government requested the square miles) making administration, support of Kiribati Red Cross Society in carrying communications, and operations challenging; out initial damage assessments.70 • Limited and fragile island ecosystems and fresh-water resources (vulnerable to over- Marshall Islands: Drought - May 2013. The use, contamination, and droughts); and government declared a state of emergency for the • A weak economic base heavily dependent on northern Marshall Islands on 19 Apr 2013 due donor support.67 to a prolonged dry season and severe drought experienced in Wotje and the atolls north of Table 2 depicts the estimated losses and Majuro. On 8 May, the state of emergency casualties by natural perils in RMI.68 was elevated to a state of drought disaster for a period of 30 days. The severe drought History of Natural Disasters conditions damaged or destroyed agriculture on many islands of the northern atolls. In Pacific: Drought - Sep 2015. RMI declared addition, deteriorating health was reported in a state of emergency on 3 February after 13 many locations. Four clusters (Health, Food atolls formally requested assistance from the Security, Logistics and WASH) were established National Government to address water shortage and government cluster leads prepared specific challenges associated with the droughts.69 response plans with support from the UNDAC Team. Marshall Islands/Kiribati: King Tides - On 29 May, the government issued an Mar 2014. On 3 Mar 2014, tidal surges during Intermediate Response Plan for the drought the morning and afternoon high tides caused stricken northern atolls. The plan required inundation to communities on low-lying atolls US$4.6 million for WASH, Health, Food and of RMI. Waves washed over shorelines, sending logistics needs for the 6,384 people affected. On water, rubbish and debris across roads and 7 Jun, the state of drought disaster was extended properties. There were no reports of fatalities or for an additional 30 days into early July. As of serious injuries. The government declared a state 30 Sep, the affected populations continued to recover from drought effects as normal seasonal of emergency, set up an Emergency Operations 71 Centre (EOC) held National Disaster Committee rainfall remained ongoing. (NDC) meetings with humanitarian partners. Table 3 depicts the U.S. FEMA’s (Federal In Majuro, a total of 70 homes were damaged Emergency Management Agency) history of to varying degrees, from complete destruction Disaster Declarations in the Marshall Islands from 1987 to 1998.72 to minor damage. The total number of evacuees peaked at 940; by 7 Mar, 160 people were still displaced and had been relocated to churches in Uliga and Rita. The outer islands of Mili, Maloelap, Kili and Wotje were also affected, with

24 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Risk Profile: Tropical Cyclone Mean Return Period (years) AAL 50 100 250 Direct Losses (Million USD) 3.0 32.8 66.2 123.0 (% GDP) 1.9% 21.1% 42.5% 78.9% Emergency Losses (Million USD) 0.7 7.6 15.2 28.3 (% of total government expenditures) 0.7% 7.3% 14.6% 27.2% Casualties 3 36 69 118

Risk Profile: Earthquake and Tsunami Mean Return Period (years) AAL 50 100 250 Direct Losses (Million USD) 0.1 0.3 2.3 5.9 (% GDP) 0.1% 0.2% 1.5% 3.8% Emergency Losses (Million USD) 0.0 0.1 0.5 1.4 (% of total government expenditures) 0.0% 0.1% 0.5% 1.3% Casualties 0 0 1 3

Risk Profile: Tropical Cyclone, Earthquake and Tsunami Mean Return Period (years) AAL 50 100 250 Direct Losses (Million USD) 3.1 34.1 67.4 123.0 (% GDP) 2.0% 21.9% 43.3% 78.9% Emergency Losses (Million USD) 0.7 7.8 15.5 28.3 (% of total government expenditures) 0.7% 7.5% 14.9% 27.2% Casualties 3 38 76 128

Table 2: Estimated Losses and Casualties Caused by Natural Perils

Date State/Tribal Government Incident Description 03/20/1998 Republic of the Marshall Islands Severe Drought 10/06/1994 Republic of the Marshall Islands High Surf, Wave Action 12/16/1992 Republic of the Marshall Islands Typhoon Gay 02/07/1992 Republic of the Marshall Islands Tropical Storm Axel 12/06/1991 Republic of the Marshall Islands Typhoon Zelda 01/16/1988 Republic of the Marshall Islands Tropical Storm Roy 04/27/1987 Republic of the Marshall Islands Fire Table 3: FEMA-History of Natural Disasters in RMI

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Climate Change Increasing rates of non-communicable diseases, Climate change impacts are already being felt including diabetes and associated conditions, across the RMI, including increased intensity further threaten the resilience of these and frequency of extreme events and droughts. communities to communicable disease threats. Already, some of the country’s northern atolls The World Health Organization (WHO), are suffering more frequent drought conditions, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), and much of the archipelago is under threat and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and from storm surges and flooding. The country’s Prevention (CDC) each support national and First National Communications to the UN territorial health authorities in the USAPI in Framework Convention on Climate Change strengthening detection and response capacity (UNFCCC) engaged in a consultative process for communicable diseases. A key framework for across all relevant stakeholders of RMI to coordinating technical assistance in the region is identify needs for adaptation action in several the Pacific Public Health Surveillance Network key sectors, including water resources, coastal (PPHSN). This network was established in 1996 and marine resources, and public health. Adverse as a collaborative partnership between 22 Pacific impacts on these sectors are projected to increase Island Countries and associated territories in response to a changing climate. alongside technical assistance partners in order RMI has a warm, tropical climate year- to strengthen communicable disease detection round, with average temperatures around 27 and response capacity. SPC, WHO, and CDC degrees Celsius and annual precipitation of representatives currently serve on the PPHSN approximately 3500 millimeters (mm). Two Coordinating body, along with members from seasons are recognized, a wet season that occurs Fiji National University, the Pacific Island between May and November and a drier season Health Officers Association, and representatives from Pacific Island health ministries and between December and April. Climate in this 75 part of the Pacific is governed by a number departments. of factors including the trade winds and the movement of the South Pacific Convergence Endemic Conditions Zone (SPCZ), a zone of low-pressure rainfall Environmental conditions plague RMI. RMI that migrates across the Pacific south of the lies in open-ocean, and the islands are generally equator. Year to year variability in climate is also very close to sea level. The vulnerability to strongly influenced by the El Niño conditions waves and storm surges is precarious. Given the in the southeast Pacific, which bring drought physics of wave formation and the increasing conditions to RMI.73 Figure 5 depicts the change frequency and severity of storms, RMI will likely in sea level from 1945 to 2010.74 be at even greater risk as the effects of climate change continue to affect the island nation. The Infectious Disease relative safety that the islands have historically The Pacific Islands experience a number provided is now in jeopardy, and it is likely that of endemic and introduced communicable evacuation will have to be implemented long disease threats. Since 2000, the region has before inundation of the islands and atolls is experienced outbreaks of cholera (2000–01 in complete. Due to the low lying geography of the RMI), measles (2003 in RMI), and a number of nation potable water continues to be an endemic emerging vector-borne disease outbreaks caused environmental issue. Flooding, typical of the by dengue (2004 in RMI). The vulnerability to nation, causes overflow and runoff of waste products in to the scarce potable water resources outbreaks in the U.S.-affiliated and other pacific 76 islands is heightened by limited epidemiologic available. Photo 6 depicts a resident of RMI and laboratory surveillance capacity, travel gathering running water at the public utility patterns that facilitate disease translocation, on Ebeye. The water is turned on for only 45 and geographic remoteness. This may delay and minutes once a week. Public distribution points like this one are an important source of drinking limit external assistance, small populations with 77 limited specialized human resources, and health water for households. care systems with limited surge and tertiary care capacity. Moreover, the introduction of new pathogens into immunologically naïve island populations can result in high attack rates.

26 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Figure 5: Marshall Island Sea Levels

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Photo 6: Public Utility on Ebeye, Marshall Islands-2013

28 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 29 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

2008, an amended Article X came into force. 79Under the amended Agreement, RMI will be Organizational able to request disaster assistance from USAID in a declared state of emergency, after utilizing the national Disaster Assistance Emergency Fund, Structure for Disaster (established by the amended Agreement as a first resource for disaster response), and requesting international assistance through the UN. Existing Management DRM arrangements have to date been heavily The Chief Secretary is responsible to the focused on the conventional approach to Disaster Cabinet for ensuring that adequate disaster Management; i.e. preparedness, response and management measures exist at all times within recovery, with less attention being focused on RMI. the equally critical component of disaster risk Formalized Disaster Management first entered reduction. The current context of institutional the political arena in RMI in 1987 with the change provides a ‘window of opportunity’ passing of a National Disaster Management Plan. to not only review existing DRM legislative It became firmly entrenched seven years later and institutional arrangements, but also to ensure a better balance between the response with the enactment of the Disaster Assistance 80 Act, which provided for the establishment of a based DM and DRR in RMI. USAID shall be National Disaster Management Committee and a responsible for the provision of emergency and National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) disaster relief assistance in accordance with its located in the Office of the Chief Secretary. statutory authorities, regulations and policies. The year 1994 also saw the passing of a Hazard RMI may additionally request that the President Mitigation Plan, a National Disaster Manual, and of the U.S. make an emergency or major an Airport Disaster Plan. A Drought Disaster disaster declaration. If the President declares Plan was passed in 1996, followed by the drafting an emergency or major disaster, FEMA and of a revised National Disaster Management Plan USAID shall jointly (a) assess the damage caused in 1997. The most recent legislative activity on by the emergency or disaster and (b) prepare the Disaster Risk Management front was the a reconstruction plan including an estimate of development of a Standard Hazard Mitigation the total amount of Federal resources that are Plan in 2005. needed for reconstruction. USAID shall carry out If the U.S. President declares a State of reconstruction activities in RMI in accordance Emergency for RMI, a “hybrid” FEMA/USAID/ with the reconstruction plan. For purposes of Government assessment team will carry out the U.S. Government’s Disaster Relief Fund a Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA). appropriations, the funding of the activities to Because of FEMA regulations, the mobilization be carried out pursuant to this paragraph shall of such a team follows specific guidelines and the be deemed to be necessary expenses in carrying out the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and assessment report cannot be shared with other 81 stakeholders outside of the U.S. Government. It Emergency Assistance Act. is therefore important that other international The National Action Plan for Disaster actors work early on and closely with RMI Risk Management (DRM NAP) 2008-2018 Government and IOM, which has presence provides a roadmap of how RMI will go about in RMI as the USAID implementing partner, implementing the strategy of establishing a and can act as the linkage with the wider coordinated and effective national disaster risk humanitarian community so that there is no reduction and disaster management system for duplication of efforts.78 all hazards. While disaster management to date FEMA and USAID have been meeting has been largely the preserve of the NDC and since 2008 to fine tune existing protocols its operational arm, the National Emergency and procedures and they have conducted Management and Coordination Office an operational blueprint meeting. A specific (NEMCO), this DRM NAP strives to mainstream mechanism exists in RMI in terms of resource DRM into a broader sectoral arena. This is mobilization in line with the recently amended because DRR requires an integrated and cross- Compact of Free Association with the U.S. and sectoral approach, one in which disaster risk the role of USAID and FEMA (the U.S. Federal considerations form an integral consideration in Emergency Management Agency). In November all development related planning. This includes

30 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance integration of DRM considerations in budgetary Local level disaster plans are yet to be developed; allocations.82 however, this is identified as an activity in the Key sectors for DRM in RMI, as identified in NAP. Limited resources (both human and the situation analysis, include: financial) in outer islands are also an issue, and • Planning; no specific funds for DRR are available.84 • Finance; • Local government; Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency • Environment; • Fisheries; Response • Health; • Agriculture; Disaster Relief Program Description • Tourism; Pursuant to 10 U.S.C. 404, the DOD can • Utilities (Power, Water, Transport, etc.); assist foreign countries to respond to manmade • Private sector; and or natural disaster situations when necessary • Civil Society Organizations83 to prevent loss of lives. After the local U.S. Embassy has officially declared a disaster, the OFDA assesses the needs and priorities of the Community Based Disaster Risk country and may request DOD assistance. The Management in RMI assistance may be in the form of transportation, excess property items, Humanitarian Daily The Draft National DRM Arrangements Rations (HDR), or some other commodity. The (2010) for RMI outline a proposed change in the Overseas Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid way in which DRM is managed, with a greater (OHDACA) appropriation or USAID may fund focus on DRR. These Arrangements are currently transportation of disaster relief.85 under consideration by the NDC and may be revised to incorporate recommendations and Foreign Disaster Relief and Emergency additional outcomes which were highlighted Response through the progress review of the Disaster Risk When a foreign country suffers a disaster, it Management National Action Plan (DRM NAP) may request assistance through the U.S. Embassy. in 2010. DOS and OFDA validate the request. If deemed The DRM NAP (2008-2018) is still being necessary, the DOS requests disaster relief implemented. Its aims are ambitious, and as assistance from the DOD. Assistant Secretary of yet, little dedicated progress has been made Defense (Special Operations and Low Intensity in addressing its ten goals. Inclusion of DRR Conflict) approves the request and forwards it to exists to some degree in key ministry’s sector Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) plans. Sectors with a more direct or obvious for action. DSCA (Programs Directorate) link to DRM (e.g. the National Weather Service) identifies the required supplies (HDRs, Excess are making considerable progress in terms of Property, etc.) and works directly with the mainstreaming DRR, partly because it forms Joint Staff Logistics Directorate (J4) to provide elements of its core business, but also due to transportation in support of disaster relief deliberate commitment to progress NAP goals. efforts.86 Other sectors, such as the Ministry of Health, are including elements of DRR, however, this Congressional Notification for Foreign is occurring incidentally and the term “DRR” Disaster Assistance remains misunderstood to some degree. Not later than 48 hours after the Given the sparse and scattered nature of commencement of disaster assistance activities, RMI’s outer islands, activity outside the urban the President is required by law (10 U.S.C. 404) centers of Majuro and Ebeye is overseen and to transmit a report to Congress containing implemented by local governments, community notification of the assistance (proposed or organizations and NGOs. It decentralized due provided) and a description of the following is to the geographical nature of the islands. Local available: the man made or natural disaster for governments (e.g. mayors) have legal authority in which disaster assistance is necessary; the threat the outer islands; however, it is traditional land to human lives presented by the disaster; the owners who have the legal rights to over-rule U.S. military personnel and material resources local mayors regarding issues on their own land. involved; the disaster assistance provided

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by other nations or public or private relief with USAID through OFDA and the relevant organizations; and the anticipated duration of the U.S. embassy. disaster assistance activities.87 U.S. Embassy Majuro U.S. Government Agencies Mejen Weto, Long Island, Majuro Atoll P.O. Box 1379, U.S. Government & Overseas Humanitarian Majuro, MH 96960-1379 Assistance and Disaster Relief (USAID) T: 692-247-4011 In November 2008, USAID assumed E: [email protected] responsibility for disaster response and W: http://majuro.usembassy.gov/index.html reconstruction in the FSM and the RMI from Ambassador: Karen Brevard Stewart FEMA, reflecting the transition of FSM and RMI from U.S.-administered trust territories Disaster Management Organizations in to independent countries. USAID and FEMA RMI developed an Operational Blueprint to provide a framework for U.S. Government (USG) disaster Marshall Islands National Disaster response and reconstruction in the two nations, Management Office (NDMO) under which USAID maintains FEMA’s previous The Director, NDMO is responsible to commitment to supplementing host government the Chief Secretary for the identification, efforts as necessary to provide humanitarian development, and implementation of disaster assistance in the aftermath of significant management programs, and for the maintenance, disasters. USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster testing, and review of disaster management plans Assistance (USAID/OFDA) collaborates closely and operational procedures used within RMI. with FEMA, as well as with USAID/Philippines and USAID’s Asia Bureau, to implement Specific responsibilities include: programs in FSM and RMI. In Palau, USAID/ • The upkeep of the Hazard Mitigation Plan OFDA responds to disasters through its normal and management of RMI Hazard Mitigation disaster response mechanisms. Programs; An important pillar of USAID’s disaster • The identification, design, development, mitigation, relief, and reconstruction program implementation and management of disaster in FSM and RMI is a cooperative agreement preparedness progra­ms and activities, and between USAID and its primary relief and in particular those associated with planning, reconstruction partner in the two countries, the training, education and awareness; International Organization for Migration (IOM), • Providing assistance and advice to which maintains offices in Pohnpei and Yap state, departments, NGO’s and private industry on FSM, and Majuro, RMI. USAID also maintains disaster management matters; a full-time presence in FSM and RMI through a • Developing and maintaining an Emergency Disaster Assistance Coordinator (DAC). Located Operation Center (EOC); in Majuro and working as a member of the U.S. • The testing and review of support plans and Embassy county team in FSM and RMI, the DAC operational procedures; serves as a liaison with host governments and • Providing a focal point for regional disaster coordinates USG relief activities in FSM and management activities and for IDNDR RMI. USAID recently established a position for purposes; and Reconstruction Assistance Coordinator based • Other disaster management related duties as in USAID/Philippines, who helps USAID fulfill directed by the Chief Secretary.89 the reconstruction component of its mandate as 88 specified in the Operational Blueprint. National Disaster Management Committee The DOS is the lead U.S. agency in responding (NDMC) to overseas disasters. Within the DOS, USAID The National Disaster Committee is is responsible for coordinating international responsible for the provision of technical disaster assistance. Within USAID, OFDA is advice and resource support to facilitate the responsible for coordinating humanitarian implementation of disaster management assistance. The DOD involvement in overseas programs. They also ensure that an adequate humanitarian assistance and disaster relief and reliable disaster control and coordination operations must be requested and coordinated

32 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance mechanism is in place to accommodate effective National Disaster Management Plan 1997 disaster response and recovery requirements. The Director, NDMO, is responsible for ensuring the annual review of this plan, and is to Major functions of this committee include: report the plans status to the Chief Secretary by • The review and approval of hazard mitigation July each year. Any amendment to the plan must grant program applications as proposed by first receive the approval of the NDMC before it Government Departments, and Private Non is incorporated and disseminated to departments Profit Organizations; and organizations. A Planning Work Group • The review and approval of disaster may be established for the purpose of assisting management plans, including amendments; the NDMO to execute this review function. The • The development and on-going review of composition of this group will be determined by disaster response and recovery policy and the Chief Secretary and will be based upon the procedures; specific plan under review.93 • The coordination of disaster assessment and relief operations including the National Action Plan for Disaster Risk recommendation to Cabinet on the need for Management 2008-2018 external relief assistance; and The Disaster Risk Management National • Briefing the Cabinet on the status of disaster Action Plan is an important and integral management arrangements with RMI prior supportive element towards the achievement of to the commencement of each typhoon 90 sustainable national development imperatives. season. RMI national sustainable development strategy is known as Vision 2018. In 2001 the government Emergency Operations Center charted Vision 2018 as the first segment of the The Chief Secretary’s Conference Room on government’s Strategic Development Plan for the the third floor of the Capitol Building Complex next 15 years. It incorporates the broad Vision is designated as the National EOC for all of the nation as to where the people would like hazard impacts and/or emergencies. The Chief to be in the year 2018 in terms of sustainable Secretary, with the assistance of a CCG will have development. In this document the Vision is responsibility for the coordination of resources in articulated with respect to the long-term goals, response to a hazard impact or major emergency objectives and strategies, which were developed situation. This function will be performed through an extensive consultative process from the EOC, with the NDMO having specific starting with the Second National Economic and responsibility for developing the operational Social Summit and then followed by extended procedures to facilitate the coordination deliberations by various working committees process.91 established by the cabinet. The second and third segments of the Strategic Development Plan will consist of master plans focusing on Laws, Policies, and Plans on Disaster major policy areas, and the action plans of ministries and statutory agencies. The National Management Action Plan (NAP) for DRM is an example of an inter-sectoral action plan. These documents Policy show programs and projects together with the The policy regarding mitigation strategies is appropriate costing. It is also the intention for all contained within RMI Mitigation Plan. This plan Atoll Local Governments to develop action plans tailored towards the achievement of the national has been produced by the Ministry of Public 94 Works in consultation with the National Disaster Vision. Management Committee, and complies with the provisions of Section 409 of the Stafford Act. RMI Emergency Response Plan The Hazard Mitigation Plan analyzes the risk RMI Emergency Response Plan has been from hazards, reviews existing laws, programs developed in partnership with national and regulations and proposes appropriate hazard stakeholders in 2009, and is currently under mitigation measures and actions necessary for consideration of the Chief Secretary’s Office the implementation of these measures.92 (CSO). The Emergency Response Plan describes response functions, lead and support agencies

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and their roles for the following: “State”-Wide Assessment and Resource • Health and Medical Strategy 2010-2015+ • Fire and Rescue The “State”-Wide Assessment and Resource • Evacuation Strategy (SWARS) identifies the Marshalls’ • Community Welfare highest priorities for forest resource management • Logistics Supply and needs for assistance from the U.S. • Information Management Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest • Impact Assessment95 Service (FS). State assessments and resource strategies are integral to the Forest Service’s The Joint National Action Plan for Climate State and Private Forestry (S&PF) Redesign and Change Adaptation (CCA) and DRM required as an amendment to the Cooperative The Joint National Action Plan for Forestry Assistance Act (CFAA), as enacted Climate Change Adaption is currently under in the 2008 Farm Bill. Each “State” is required development, will strengthen the integration to complete a State Assessment and Resource of CCA and DRM activities, and ensure that Strategy within two years after enactment of risk reduction activities are implemented in a the 2008 Farm Bill (June 18, 2008) to receive more holistic manner. It will also facilitate the funds under CFAA. The 2008 Farm Bill also implementation of the new Climate Change made the RMI eligible for CFAA programs Policy and on-going efforts for DRM.96 that are available to states, territories and commonwealths of the USA. National Energy Policy and Energy Action Plan The SWARS summarizes information from 2009 existing assessments and strategic plans; details The national vision of RMI, as expressed in may be found in those existing documents, “Vision 2018”, the Marshall Islands Strategic which are attached as appendices. It thus includes Economic Development Plan for 2003-2018 is: two components to the assessment and planning • To become a country within an inter- required by the S&PF Redesign approach to dependent world, with an enhanced socio- identify priority forest landscape areas and economic self-reliance, and an educated, highlight work needed to address national, healthy, productive, law-abiding and God- regional, and state forest management priorities. loving people in which individual freedom and fundamental human rights are protected, These two priorities are: culture and traditions are respected, State-wide Assessment of Forest Resources— and development and environmental provides an analysis of forest conditions and sustainability are in harmony. The objective trends in the state and delineates priority rural for national energy development is consistent and urban forest landscape areas. with the above national vision: State-wide Forest Resource Strategy— • An improved quality of life for the people of provides long-term strategies for investing state, the Marshall Islands through clean, reliable, federal, and other resources to manage priority affordable, accessible, environmentally landscapes identified in the assessment, focusing appropriate and sustainable energy services. where federal investment can most effectively stimulate or leverage desired action and engage Broad goals for the development of energy multiple partners. services are: The SWARS provides a basis for subsequent • Electrification of 100 percent of all urban annual grant proposals, as authorized under households and 95 percent of rural outer atoll several CFAA programs. The Redesign households by 2015; deemphasizes program-by-program planning • The provision of 20 percent of energy and emphasizes program integration to meet through indigenous renewable resources by island priorities. The SWARS is thus organized 2020; around RMI's own priority issues with respect • Improved efficiency of energy use in 50 to forests. Issues are defined by the advisory percent of households and businesses, and group to the “state” forester of RMI Ministry 75 percent of government buildings by 2020; of Resources & Development (MRD) as a way and of organizing the goals and strategies most • Reduce supply side energy losses from MEC relevant to the island and to the SWARS. “Cross- by 20 percent by 2015.97 cutting considerations” were also recognized by

34 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance the advisory group, as threats, constraints and improve trainer confidence and performance.101 limitations that affected more than one issue.98 Institutionalizing DRM Training Education and Training SPC works in partnership with NDMO's in Pacific Island Countries to institutionalize The Secretariat of the Pacific Community’s DRM training within established training and Disaster Reduction Program is a leading provider education providers. Examples of this include of Disaster Risk Management training in the Fiji’s Public Service Commission, which now region. includes Introduction to Disaster Management Drawing on its previous partnerships with The and Initial Damage Assessment in its portfolio Asia Foundation and USAID’s Office of Foreign of training available to Public Servants. The Disaster Assistance, SPC provides support to Solomon Islands National University, Atoifi Pacific Island Countries in the development, Adventist College of Nursing and Helena Goldie delivery and evaluation of DRM training in College of Nursing include an abridged version addition to training and mentoring DRM trainers of the Introduction to Disaster Management from across the region to increase national DRM and Initial Damage Assessment courses as part training capacity.99 of the curriculum for all nursing students. In Training Courses: SPC offers a range of partnership with SPC, Fiji National University training courses, which are delivered at the offers a full (four course) Post Graduate regional, national, sub-national and community Certificate in Disaster Risk Management.102 level. The courses are adapted to suit the national contexts of each Pacific Island Country. The long- USAID/OFDA standing courses include: USAID/OFDA supports disaster preparedness • Introduction to Disaster Management in RMI through capacity building activities for • Initial Damage Assessment local and national government officials by way • Evacuation Center Management of The Asia Foundation’s (TAF) Pacific Islands • Disaster Risk Reduction Disaster Risk Management Program 2. In FY • Emergency Operations Centers 2010, USAID/OFDA awarded $750,000 to TAF’s • Exercise Management three-year program for national and regional • Risk Program Management disaster management trainings in FSM and RMI, • Training for Instructors as well as 12 other South Pacific nations. The • Geographic Information Systems for Disaster program also includes initiatives to develop and Risk Management (Basic) adapt training materials relevant to the region for • Geographic Information Systems for Disaster use by national governments.103 Risk Management (Advanced) • SPC also offers one-off training to meet given needs. Examples of this include: Disaster Management Communications • Disaster Risk Assessment Tools and Applications Training for Pacific Disaster There is not currently a national database for Managers disasters, nor are there established mechanisms • Pacific Disaster Net User Training100 for accessing DRR information. The EPA intends to establish a comprehensive website containing Building National DRM Training Capacity disaster information; however, technical capacity SPC works with prospective and current DRM and lack of funds are proving difficult obstacles trainers in Pacific Island Countries to build their to overcome. capacity to lead the delivery of DRM training. Progress has been achieved in capacity As part of this process SPC provides training for building in mapping with the expansion of Instructors as a course designed to introduce geographic information systems (GIS) software. participants to all aspects of training design, Two EPA staff undertook a GIS course through development, delivery and evaluation. the University of the South Pacific (USP). The Following this, trainers are offered the College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) assists opportunity to observe and then get hands-on Marshall Islands Conservation Society MICS with training delivery, supported by Master with mapping tasks. CROP organizations such as Trainers who help trainers prepare, back-stop SOPAC and SPREP have provided assistance in the delivery and offer constructive feedback to GIS capabilities over the past few years. Digital

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mapping provides relevant data on disaster development and general improvement in vulnerability and information sharing allows their capacity and capabilities. PICTs, working various ministries and NGOs access to the data closely together with developed Members of collected. SPREP (Australia, France, New Zealand and Several ministries and NGOs run successful USA), other countries (including China, Italy, public awareness campaigns on various aspects Denmark, Finland, Japan and the UK) and the of DRM. Public awareness initiatives exist within global network of meteorological infrastructure the MoH and the EPA, both drawing upon and services provided through WMO and others, various forms of media (radio, newspaper) and much capacity development and training has targeted educational products in Marshallese. been undertaken to improve technical skills WUTMI is also active in public awareness on needed to deliver weather and climate services in a range of issues, and reach outer islands via the PICTs.106 their vast network of members. The U.S. Land Technical skills for weather services include Grant, implemented through CMI, includes surveillance, forecasting and warning, supply and public outreach and involves capacity building maintenance of equipment and data collection for agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, cooking and management (including processing, storage, and nutrition. The NGO Youth-to-Youth in access and exchange of near real-time weather Health undertakes elements of risk reduction data). Technical skills for climate services include via their program relating to health, well-being collection of, archiving, quality control and and disease. Most information relating to DRM management of historical climate data, supply is distributed in the outer islands by initiatives and maintenance of equipment, analyses of run by NGOs such as MICS and Women United climate data, and capability for seasonal and Together in the Marshall Islands (WUTMI), inter-annual predictions and climate change which provide effective information and projections (scenarios).107 educational materials (often in Marshallese). Despite the progress made, much remains CMAC members effectively share information, to be done to bring many National Hydro- and given their wide membership, which spans meteorological Services (NMSs) up to the level the local to the national level, they are able to that will ensure they can meet their mandates share relevant lessons learned in an effective and serve their nations effectively. The current manner. In times of disaster, radios are relied capacity at the national level varies greatly upon heavily for distributing information.104 between NMSs. Most NMSs in the region operate The National Weather Service (NWS) with poor infrastructure and limited capability. communicates on a regular basis with Their climatological services are generally poorly U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric developed or non-existent. In a number of Administration (NOAA) counterparts on instances, PICTs rely mainly on external support potential events which may lead to disasters, e.g. to provide basic climatological services.108 typhoons, drought, high seas etc. NWS has also trained five people from outer islands on early Media Broadcast warnings for disaster events and cell phones were The national radio station V7AB serves as distributed for this purpose. Other equipment an important communication link with the NWS has access to includes radios, “chatty community at large and more particularly with beetles” (early warning devices), batteries and outer islands. The link is critical for the relay solar power equipment for times of disaster. of information and accordingly some control The Office of the Chief Secretary is responsible measures must be introduced to ensure that only for warning the public of disasters, and has radio essential broadcasts are made during periods of contact with all outer islands. Most schools also highest threat. have radios, which can be used for distributing The director of V7AB is to ensure that all early warnings. Some WUTMI members have messages are vetted and only urgent or essential personal radios, and MICS has a radio network service messages are broadcast once stage three of 15 – 17 radios on outer islands. The media, of this plan has been activated. All broadcast via the radio station, is active in distributing requests related to the operational situation warnings in times of disaster.105 should be channeled through the EOC for All Pacific Island Countries and Territories authorization by the disaster controller (Chief (PICTs) have meteorological services. During Secretary). the past decade there has been significant This will ensure that only accurate and

36 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance relevant information is being broadcast and that Responsible Agencies for Flood and Storm the public is not being confused by an avalanche of messages. It also ensures that messages relating Warning to those under most threat receive highest The National Weather Service (NWS), Pacific priority. Weather service warning messages are Region Headquarters located in downtown exempt from this restriction and should continue Honolulu, Hawaii has administrative and to be broadcast as and when received.109 management responsibilities for all National Weather Service field operations in RMI. The NSW Pacific Region Headquarters operates five Early Warning Systems Micronesian Offices in cooperation with the The key to achieving effective response from Republic of Palau, RMI, and FSM in accordance participating organizations and the community with the provision of the COFA between the is to have a reliable and equally effective warning U.S. and each Micronesian government. The five and alerting systems in place. Advice on a Micronesian Weather Service Offices provide developing or impending disaster situation will adaptive weather forecasts and warning to their come from two sources: local constituents. The Richard H. Hagemeyer • Official source (weather service or police) Pacific Tsunami Warning Center located on Ford • Unofficial source (member of the general Island, Hawaii on the island of Oahu serves as public) the operational center of the Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific. The TWS locates It will be the responsibility of the Director, and detects major earthquakes in the PACIFIC NDMO and/or the NDMC members to verify Basin to determine whether they have generated the accuracy of unofficial reports before tsunamis and provide timely and effective activating any organizational response under tsunami information and warnings to the the authority of this plan. It is the responsibility population of the Pacific.111 of all departments and organizations to ensure that their representatives are contactable at all times during working and nonworking Military Role in Disaster Relief hours and particularly so during the typhoon season (August through to January). The Chief RMI has no regular military forces. Under the Secretary is responsible to ensure that timely and COFA, RMI defense is the responsibility of the appropriate messages are issued and broadcast U.S. to the general public advising of the condition The U.S. military has one military installation of threat and action that should be taken. in RMI. U.S. Army Garrison - Kwajalein Atoll Departments and organizations shall assist in this (USAKA) is home to the U.S. Army’s Reagan Test process by ensuring that relevant information is Site (RTS), a premiere asset within the DOD.112 forwarded to the EOC. Details of the national activation system can be found in part five to this Foreign Military Assistance plan, while details on the warning system used by the Weather Service are contained within the RMI is a sovereign nation. While the Typhoon Support Plan. government is free to conduct its own foreign Care should be taken not to confuse the relations, it does so under the terms of the COFA. terminology being used in this section. The The U.S. has full authority and responsibility warning system relates to the system in place for security and defense of RMI, and the that is used to warn the disaster officials and the Government of RMI is obligated to refrain from community that a potential hazard exists. In the taking actions that would be incompatible with case of typhoon or tropical storm, it would be the these security and defense responsibilities. The Weather Service Warning. U.S. and RMI have full diplomatic relations. The alerting system refers to the mechanism Marshallese citizens may work and study in for informing and activating the departments and the U.S. without a visa, and they join the U.S. organizations and for alerting the community military in significant numbers.113 on the degree of threat, and what precautionary action that should be taken. It is used specifically by the disaster officials and should complement the warning system in place.110

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negotiation of an amended COFA confirms the Foreign Assistance and International mutual benefits of maintaining the relationship. Partners RMI receives financial security and access for its citizens to the U.S., while the U.S. maintains Foreign Policy Overview military control over an area of considerable RMI maintains cordial and constructive strategic significance and continues to have the bilateral relations with regional and global use of the Kwajalein missile testing facility. The powers as well as taking full part in multilateral U.S. lease on the base has been extended from international and regional fora. The central pillar 2016 to 2066, with an option to continue until of its foreign policy is its close relationship with 2086. Another of the key changes in the amended the U.S., with which it has a COFA, amended in Compact, which came into effect on 1 May 2004, 2003. RMI has a history of hosting U.S. military is that budgets and funding are now based on assets, crucially including test facilities for the actual performance measures rather than the U.S. U.S. strategic arsenal. Notwithstanding its close issuing large block grant funding as it did in the relationship with the U.S., RMI continues to 1986 to 2003 period. extend diplomatic recognition to Taiwan in favor In November 2007, the U.S. House of of China. By doing so, it has secured for itself Representatives approved the COFA Amendment extensive funding and aid from Taipei.114 Act of 2007, which made a number of changes to the Compact relationship between the U.S. Multilateral Relations and RMI, FSM and Palau, most notably making RMI is a full member of the UN (at which the U.S. Agency for International Development it maintains a diplomatic presence) and the (USAID) the lead federal agency in providing Pacific Islands Forum as well as other key Pacific future disaster-related assistance to RMI and regional organizations including the Pacific FSM. The amendment also clarifies the eligibility Community (SPC) and the Forum Fisheries of citizens of Freely Associated States (FAS) Agency. It is also a member of the Asian residing in states or territories to receive the Development Bank (ADB), the International legal assistance provided by the Legal Services Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the Corporation. International Olympic Committee (IOC), the In March 2008, the U.S. cut US$6 million International Whaling Commission, and the from its US$250 million Marshall Islands International Labor Organization (ILO). missile testing operations as part of a four year RMI continues to work towards developing downsizing initiative, leading to a cutback of stronger relations with Japan, Australia and seven per cent of its workforce in the region. other countries in the Pacific region. Since An estimated 12,000 Ebeye islanders rely on the independence, RMI has established relations with salaries of the 1,125 Marshall Islanders who work 72 countries, including most other Pacific island on the base. nations. There are RMI diplomatic missions in Claims by RMI for further compensation for Washington, Tokyo, Taipei, Suva, Honolulu and the effects of U.S. nuclear testing in the 1950s the UN in New York, while the U.S., Japan and remain in process. Although the Compact Taiwan have embassies in Majuro, where Israel agreement ended further legal claims against the and the Philippines also maintain consulates. The U.S., a ‘changed circumstances’ clause is being UN is planning to establish offices in Majuro. used to petition the U.S. for a further payment. Although some students from RMI attend the In January 2004, a U.S. congressional delegation University of the South Pacific in Suva, RMI also acknowledged that the U.S. had an ongoing takes advantage of its relationship with the U.S. obligation to resolve the compensation issue. to send Marshallese students to U.S. universities. Under the terms of the Compact, citizens Financial aid is available to students of the from Compact states have the right to live, work Freely Associated States and their availability and be educated in the U.S., but not to U.S. has been maintained in the amended Compact citizenship. There has been concern regarding agreement.115 the illegal adoption of children from RMI by people in Hawaii and other U.S. locations. Implementation of the Marshall Islands’ Relations with the U.S. Adoption Law and the establishment in October The relationship with the U.S. is the central 2003 of RMI Central Adoption Agency were bilateral relationship for RMI. The successful re- intended to address this issue, together with the

38 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance requested co-operation of the U.S. government. any attempts to amend the compact will be In February 2005, a bill was passed through the closely scrutinized. Hawaiian State Senate to ban the adoption of Marshallese children unless they have the “prior Relations with Taiwan written approval of an appropriate court of RIM RMI is one of only six Pacific Island states that consenting to the adoption”. give diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, having The 1958 Convention on the Recognition established ties in November 1998. In return, and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, RMI receives generous financial assistance from known as the New York Convention, came into Taiwan totaling in excess of US$10 million force in RMI on 21 March 2007, bringing the annually. Taiwan agreed to the long-term funding total number of members to 142. Many Marshall of a trust fund for the Marshall Islands in 2005, Islanders join the U.S. armed forces each year. when it also dispatched its first volunteers to In June 2007, the first ever Marshallese citizen work in the country. was selected to enroll in the U.S. Coast Guard Taiwan continues to send medical specialists Academy. Since 2000, an average of 1,000 and other volunteers to RMI. Majuro provides Marshall Islanders have moved to the U.S. 116 a valuable base for the Taiwanese purse seine annually. fishing vessels. In October 2012, Taiwan donated a fisheries research vessel to RMI. Relations with Australia In 2008 Taiwan granted around US$10 million The relationship between Australia and RMI to RMI and in April 2009 Taiwan delivered its is cordial. Australia has provided RMI with quarterly development funding assistance of patrol boats to aid in policing their Exclusive more than US$2 million. Taiwan is now the Economic Zone (EEZ) and ongoing funding second largest aid donor to RMI after the U.S. In for the program. For the fiscal year 2011-12 March 2010, Taiwanese President Ma Ying-jeou total Australian financial assistance to RMI was paid a state visit to RMI, as part of a week-long AUD3.4 million (US$3.6 million). The entrance tour of Taiwan’s allies in the region.119 of RMI into the Pacific Islands Forum has increased the contact between the two nations, International Assistance although Australia’s primary interests in the 117 Pacific remain focused in Melanesia. Request for international assistance will only be submitted when it has become clear that the Relations with Pacific island states situation at hand is beyond the capabilities of the When the former Trust Territory of the Pacific state and local resources. The requirement for Islands split into the U.S. Commonwealth of the international assistance will be determined by the Northern Marianas and the freely associated Central Control Group (CCG), which will submit states of FSM, Republic of Palau and RMI, a through formal established channels, a request degree of tension between the entities emerged. for international assistance. These differences have largely been resolved The CCG will be responsible for liaising through regular meetings of the leaders of the directly with international aid agencies and Micronesian states. donors after a formal request for assistance has Co-operative efforts in patrolling the EEZ been submitted by the government, to determine have also improved relations. Relations with the type, quantity and distribution of assistance other U.S. Pacific Territories have been improved required. All departments and organizations by the establishment of a US$30 million which have determined that assistance is ‘Compact impact’ fund for Hawaii, Guam and required must submit their needs to the CCG, other territories affected by the right of citizens and should not under any circumstances make from Compact states to enter the U.S. and its direct requests to aid agencies and donors territories, and use their educational, health and without the consent of the CCG. other social services. The CCG will also be accountable to the In May 2011, this issue again came into the aid agencies/donors for ensuring that all relief spotlight, with moves in the U.S. Congress and assistance is distributed in accordance with the Guam legislature to block the access of the guidelines governing the provision of such citizens of the Freely Associated States (FAS). assistance, and for the preparation of a report on These moves provoked concerns in RMI, where expenditure/distribution of assistance provided

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by each agency/donor/diplomatic mission.

Customs and Quarantine Once an official request for international assistance has been submitted, the directors of Custom and Quarantine are to make the necessary arrangements for the on-going clearance of all donors’ assistance which are being provided for disaster relief purposes. This may include duty exemption for goods purchased locally with disaster relief funding. The CCG is responsible for providing information on donor assistance to Customs and Quarantine to facilitate this process. This includes details on the type, quantity, source, means of transportation, arrival point, and estimated time of arrival of such assistance.

Financial Considerations The Chief Secretary is responsible for the management of all funds provided for disaster relief purposes, and prior authorization for expenditure of such funds must be received. Accounts which are charged against the disaster relief funds and have not received prior approval for such expenditure, will be returned to the ministry, department, organization, or individual which has incurred the costs. This procedure will ensure firstly, that the available funds are being committed to those requirements which are considered high priority, and secondly, it will avoid unnecessary expenditure on items which may already be available from other resources.118

40 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 41 INFRASTRUCTURE

outer airstrips are classed commercial (non- primary). Air Marshall Islands (AMI) operate Infrastructure commuter service to the outer island airstrips.124

Airports Seaports

RMI has 17 airports, only four of which have The Republic of Marshall Islands Ports paved runways. Majuro International Airport, Authority (RMIPA) oversees the Port of Majuro, completed in 1974, accommodates aircraft up to which consists of Delap and Uliga Docks, Boeing 707 size. The government-owned Airline the Calalin Channel, Port Fairway and Vessel of the Marshall Islands (AMI), established in Anchorage Area within Majuro Atoll. The Uliga 1980, provides service to all outer islands with Dock is primarily used for interisland cargo airstrips. International airline connections and passenger vessels, while the Delap Dock is are provided to Tarawa in Kiribati, Funafuti primarily used for international cargo. The Port in Tuvalu, and Nadi in Fiji. Air Micronesia/ of Majuro is the hub of RMI economy.125 United Airlines links Majuro with major foreign The Port of Majuro is the primary gateway destinations, including Hawaii, Guam, Manila, 120 for incoming imports that support the lifestyle and Tokyo. of RMI residents and families, the operation The Republic of the Marshall Islands Ports of private businesses and local and national Authority (RMIPA) is responsible for the government agencies, as well as related jobs operations and maintenance of Amata Kabua/ in both the private and public sectors of the Marshall Islands International Airport (MAJ), economy.126 located in the capitol of Majuro. Their primary Delap Port Delap Dock is the primary obligation is for the safety and well-being of commercial cargo dock in Majuro Atoll. This Marshallese and international guests as they fly dock serves international cargo vessels that to and from the Marshall Islands. They are in deliver a wide variety of imported food and compliance with the International Civil Aviation household items, construction equipment and Organization (ICAO) and work closely with materials, diesel fuel, jet fuels, refined gasoline the Federal Aviation Administration to meet all 121 products and the offloading of copra and loading regulatory requirements. of coconut oil produced by Tobolar, a coconut RMI’s only public international airport, MAJ processing operation located on the northeast is located in the Southeast part of the Majuro side of Delap Dock. International fishing vessels atoll. It is served by international carrier United also make occasional use of Delap Dock for Airlines, regional carrierAir Marshall Islands, purse seine net repairs, fuel resupplies and other and local commuter airlines. Cargo is received maintenance. Local stevedores from Majuro from United Airlines as well as Asia Pacific Stevedore & Terminal Company process the Airlines, a cargo carrier. General aviation and loading and unloading of imports and exports private jets occasionally bring passengers to 122 to and from Delap Dock. A cargo handling area, MAJ. equipment repair shop, container freight station Amata Kabua International Airport Current and RMIPA administrative offices support the airport facilities include a terminal building, processing and storage of containers and general Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) cargo. The Marshalls Energy Company (MEC) facility, Air Marshall Islands Hangar and fuel occupies a significant portion of Delap Dock for delivery system. The 7,530 square foot terminal its power plant and administrative offices.127 was built in 1975 and features a main lobby The Uliga Dock is used for the moorage of for both departing and arriving passengers governmental vessels owned and operated by where ticketing, security, shops, car rental and a 123 Marshall Island Marine Resources Authority restaurant are all located. (MIMRA), RMI Ministry of Transportation Kwajalein International Airport is located and Communications and RMI Ports on Kwajalein Atoll, it is under the jurisdiction of Authority (RMIPA). Each of these agencies the U.S. Military (Bucholz Army Air Field) and also own facilities situated inland of the dock restricted to use by authorized persons. United including: The Outer Island Fish Market Airlines offers service to Kwajalein between Center operated by MIMRA; offices and the Guam and Honolulu. Marshall Islands Shipping Corporation (MISC) RMI has 29 outer island airstrips. These 29

42 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance owned by RMI Ministry of Transportation less than 10 percent of those roads on Kwajalein and Communications; and, the Warehouse in 2002. On the outer islands, roads consist Facility owned by RMIPA and currently leased primarily of cleared paths and roads surfaced to the MISC and the International Migration with stone, coral, or laterite. There are few motor Organization.128 vehicles.132 The Calalin Channel is between 2.7-3.4km long, its width ranges between 350-450m Railways and depth ranges from 23.5-45m. There is a There are no railways in RMI. lighthouse located on Eroj Island at the channel entrance to assist vessels in getting to the vicinity of the Calalin Channel. The channel itself is lined Waterways with six different lighted channel markers with The many scattered atolls separated by long day boards that mark the limits of the channel distances make sea and air transportation directing vessels safely into Majuro Lagoon.129 essential. Domestic sea transportation is Majuro Lagoon provides a well-sheltered and provided by inter-island ships, which service extensive anchorage area for incoming vessels each of the outer islands about once every three calling upon the Port of Majuro. The anchorage months. Two commercial dock facilities in area is situated seaward of Djarrit Village Majuro and one in Ebeye furnish port facilities along the northeast end of the port fairway. for international shipping. In 2001, the merchant While this vessel anchorage area is available fleet consisted of 270 ships with a capacity to any commercial vessel entering the Port of totaling 11,807,839 GRT.133 Majuro, the area is almost exclusively used by international fishing vessels and oil tankers Schools calling on the Port of Majuro that typically berth at Delap Dock, unload cargo or fuels and remain in port for not more than one day. Education Available bathymetry data and navigation The Census revealed that the level of information for the anchorage area suggests educational attainment of Marshallese people is that water depths generally range between 27 still not good as 28.6 percent (6,317 Marshallese and 47 meters. The bottom is characterized aged 25 or older) have only started high school by sand, coral or soft rock and is very capable but have not completed it. School enrollment of providing moorage to incoming fishing or for children ages 5-9 is only 80 percent (about other commercial ships Ebeye dock consists of 20 percent not in school); ages 10-14 only 92 an ‘L’-shaped jetty and longer side berth, plus a percent (8 percent not in school); and ages 400-foot-long wharf adjacent to the main dock. 15-24 only 38 percent (62 percent Jabwe Jikuul, The Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources or JS). Literacy or the ability to read, write and (KAJUR) office is located at the main dock and understand a simple sentence in any language shows 90.6 percent of Marshallese aged 5 and the wharf includes a container yard and port 134 office building with offices for the Ebeye Port older are literate and 9.4 percent illiterate. Commission and the Marshall Islands Shipping and Terminal Company. Elementary and Secondary Education Passenger ferry services to and from Kwajalein Today, compulsory education remains for Island operated by the U.S. Army run six days age 6 through 14 or completion of eighth per week about 10 times per day. The ferry grade. A high school entrance examination is service is open and free of charge to the public administered to all eighth graders to determine vessels.130 the approximately 300 students who will be admitted to the two public high schools each Land Routes year. During the 1994-95 school years, 15,755 students were enrolled in 115 public and non- public primary and secondary schools in the Roads Marshall Islands. Additionally, approximately Roadways: total: 2,028 km (includes 75 km of 131 1,200 preschool children, ages 4 and 5, were expressways) (2007). enrolled at 36 Head Start program sites. There are 64.5 km (40 mi) of paved road on Public education consisted of 75 public the Majuro atoll and on the Kwajalein atoll with primary schools, one middle school with

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grade eight, and 2 high schools, serving 10,384 school graduates pursuing associate degree. students; non-public, government-supported Degrees are offered in nursing, education, education consisted of 26 primary schools and business, architectural engineering, and liberal 10 high schools, serving 4,554 students. Fifty- arts to high school and non-high school one percent of all students were male; forty- completers engaged in other vocational education nine percent were female. 512 teachers were courses, certificate programs, adult education employed by the public schools: 427 for primary programs, continuing education programs, high schools, 19 for Majuro Middle School, and 63 school dropout intervention programs, and for Marshall Islands High School and Jaluit High enrichment programs. In the 1994-95 school School. Additionally, 28 school or atoll-based years, 1,149 students, approximately 400 per principals and field officers and 34 system-wide school year and summer semester, were enrolled education officers and specialists were employed. at the college. In addition, 550 students were Non-public schools employed 297 teachers: enrolled on a full-time basis and 599 on a part- 216 at primary schools and 81 at high schools. time status; 356 students were registered for pre Nationwide average student-to-teacher ratios and in-service teacher education; 261 in nursing were public primary of 20:1, non-public primary and allied health education, 176 in liberal arts, of 15:1, public secondary of 16:1, and non-public and 387 in vocational education; 92 percent of secondary of 17:1. the students were Marshallese; 56 percent were The average student-to-teacher ratios of public male. The instructional staff consisted of 20 primary schools on Majuro and Ebeye were 23:1 full-time and 5 part-time instructors during the and 24:1, respectively. Approximately 47 percent school year and 17 part-time staff during the of the primary school teachers hold associate summer semester. degrees for professional teacher certification; Initiatives during its first two years as an two percent have earned college and graduate independent college included revision and degrees; and 51 percent are certified to teach strengthening of the core curriculum, expansion with post-high school coursework. Among and refinement to the developmental English public secondary teachers, about 36 percent have Program, review and restructuring of teacher earned college and graduate degrees; 32 percent education, development of a Marshallese Studies have earned associate degrees; and 32 percent Program, establishment of a Student Services are high school graduates with post-high school Support Program (SSSP), and strengthening of coursework. There are 341 classrooms in 93 its physical and administrative infrastructures. buildings in the public primary schools. Eighty- Upward Bound and SSSP, the institution’s nine percent of the buildings are at least 20 years second TRIO program, provide supplemental old; 18 must be replaced, 40 need major repair, instruction to students with U.S. Department of and 20 are in need of minor repair. Sixty schools Education funding. The Job Training Partnership have no electricity. Upon completion of the Asian Program (JTPA), funded by the U.S. Department Development Bank (ADB) civil works projects, of Labor, supplements, complements, and the 20 schools without toilet facilities will have furthers the advancement of the School-To- “benjos”; and the 30 schools without accessible Work transition initiative. Outer-island outreach, drinking water will have water catchments. technical assistance and research, U.S. nursing The education budget including subsidies to exchange, and extension campus programs were non-public schools is approximately $9,000,000. implemented to meet the needs of the college and About 83 percent of the budget is from general RMI community. funds and 13 percent from special funds such In 1993-94, CMI realized unrestricted as U.S. grants; about four percent of the annual revenues from local appropriations, student budget is capital improvement program funds. tuition and fees, and other sources of $1,260,173; The total education budget represents about 13 and restricted revenues from federal grants percent of the government budget. The budget and contracts and other sources of $1,555,269. available for public primary and secondary During the same period, expenditures from schools less CIP funds means a per pupil unrestricted revenues were $1,022,089 and from allocation of less than $900.135 restricted revenues was $1,320,653. Of the latter amount, $806,000 was expended on student Post-Secondary Education aid.136 Today the College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) serves a range of students from high

44 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Communications Utilities

Media and Communication Landscape Power • Together with an active civil society, the Since independence, RMI has been heavily media and communication environment reliant on external assistance, with grants in Marshall Islands is dynamic, but faces averaging 60 percent of gross domestic product challenges caused by scale and its dispersed 137 (GDP). Like other island nations in the Pacific, audiences. RMI suffers from high and volatile fuel prices • Policy and Legislation; while lacking any known fossil fuel reserves of • The Ministry of Transportation and its own. Following a major fuel price spike in Communication is responsible for registering July 2008, RMI Government declared a state broadcasting stations; of economic emergency. This rapidly drew • Freedom of speech and the press are increasing attention to the scale-up of renewable guaranteed in the Bill of Rights; energy as a fossil fuel replacement. Thus far, the • There is no media self-regulating body, and emphasis has been mainly on solar which is a no media association; familiar technology in RMI. • There is no FOI legislation; and There are thousands of solar installations • Telecommunications are currently a on households in the outer islands. The wind monopoly but the government is working resource is under evaluation but no generation with the World Bank to open the market to trials have yet taken place. In addition, the use of competition. coconut oil as a power generation and transport fuel is being seriously considered. Tobolar, Media Systems the coconut mill owned by the government, • Technicians primarily use personal and has conducted pilot projects, while electricity professional networks for assistance. generation trials using coconut oil as a fuel are Equipment providers are also a source of planned by the Marshalls Energy Company advice; (MEC), one of the key utilities. To help progress • NTA is a member of PITA and ITU; towards large-scale use of solar or wind energy • The National Disaster Management Plan is on the grid, MEC and the Kwajalein Atoll Joint currently under review; Utility Resources (KAJUR) need to analyze and • There is a lack of clarity of the roles and predict the effect of connecting large amounts responsibilities in a disaster, and a perceived of highly variable solar and wind generation at lack of political will; and various points on their grids.139 • Some available communication technologies are not being integrated. Water and Sanitation Capacity Building As with many other island nations, RMI • NGOs have been able to access limited have uniquely fragile water resources due to opportunities for media and communications their small size, lack of storage, and limited training; fresh-water. According to RMI’s 2003 statistical • Most technicians are trained on the job; yearbook, rainfall supplies over 70 percent of • There is no local media association; and the country’s fresh water. Staggering increases • There are no local TVET courses relating to in population on the two urban islands, media and communication. however, pose a significant challenge to meeting future water needs. The country has made Content limited investments in water management • Radio remains an important platform in the and infrastructure rehabilitation for water and Marshall Islands; waste water; this is also hampered by the typical • WUTMI is a significant contributor of C4D constraints of small island nations (isolation, content; and fragile natural variability, and a limited human, • Several NGOs are active advocates financial, and capital resource base).140 Photo 7 regarding climate change. Government depicts Marshallese citizens helping to unload departments and NGOs use radio for NCD a reverse osmosis water supply system during communication.138 Pacific Partnership 2013. 141 Furthermore, almost no attention has been paid to the potential

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effects of climate related extremes on current Adaptation options in the water sector include: water resources, especially with regards to salt- • Increasing water supply (e.g. by using water intrusion, which negatively affects the groundwater, building reservoirs, improving limited freshwater lens on some of the lower- or stabilizing watershed management, lying islands and atolls. Water crises during El desalination) and water efficiency; Niño driven droughts are becoming increasingly • Decreasing water demand through common on smaller and more remote northern conservation measures, leakage reduction, atolls that rely primarily on rainwater and have dual water supply systems, and economic limited harvesting capacity and high costs to development; and serve from a centralized government. • Building flexibility into the water- On the Majuro atoll, water supplies rely on provisioning systems to address future the Laura freshwater lens and the airport runway climate change. Improving water catchment area, which pipes water to the city’s management, infrastructure and planning.142 principal reservoir. Rising temperatures could lead to increased evaporation from the reservoir, thus reducing already limited freshwater supplies. Hygiene and sanitation continue to be a concern and a particular challenge is to manage a sewage system without contaminating the ground-water lens. Already, some of the country’s fresh-water lens has been contaminated with brine.

Photo 7: Ebeye, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership 2013.

46 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 47 HEALTH

depression, and Hansen’s Disease/leprosy, as well as higher rates of suicide. Life expectancy in RMI Health is 60 years, compared with 69 years and 72 years for residents in the FSM and Palau, respectively. Health Overview (Life expectancy in the U.S. is 79 years).146 A variety of factors contribute to these The people of RMI face considerable negative health conditions, including poverty, challenges to maintain the health of its citizens. overcrowding, and poor sanitary conditions Recently, high population growth and crowded in the country’s population centers, as well as conditions in urban areas, have given rise to the loss of traditional forms of subsistence. The diseases, such as tuberculosis and leprosy. These ecological, genetic, and psychosocial impact of conditions typically occur in rapid growth areas sustained nuclear weapons testing in RMI by the of the world that have limited economic and U.S. during the 1940s and 1950s undoubtedly medical resources. In addition, exposure to also contributes to these ongoing health the influence of Western culture has brought problems. For example, the social dislocation and about a rise in the levels of adult obesity, non- radiation contamination caused by these tests, communicable diseases, teenage pregnancy, coupled with the U.S. military’s presence in the suicide, alcoholism, and tobacco use. Figure 6 region, has led to the loss of the traditional diet depicts the leading causes of mortality in Pacific of fresh fish, breadfruit, coconut, and pandanus Island Countries and Territories (PICTs).143 in favor of white rice and highly processed The government of RMI, along with the packaged foods. As a result, Marshall Islanders in assistance of groups such as the World Health both RMI and the U.S. have among the highest Organization, has identified and begun to effect rates of Type 2 diabetes in the world. Access solutions to the health care challenges that to dialysis is difficult to obtain in the islands face the Marshalls. Future efforts will focus on and cost-prohibitive for those living in the U.S. training native Marshallese health professionals, Among Marshall Islanders in Arkansas and strengthening community health care programs, elsewhere, untreated diabetes has frequently upgrading the quality of health care, and resulted in blindness, amputation, and other increasing the efficiency of the dissemination impairments. Moreover, despite the fact that of health care information to the citizens of the atomic testing ended more than 60 years ago, the Marshall Islands. Other health related issues Marshallese continue to suffer from unusually that must be addressed include the need to high rates of thyroid disorders, birth defects and reduce population growth and urban population cancer.147 densities, longstanding solutions to malnutrition The RMI Ministry of Health National Strategic and other conditions that plague RMI.144 Plan (NSP) for 2012–2014 is a three-year revolving plan (i.e., it is intended to be updated annually, always covering the following three- Structure year period). Major goals of the NSP are to: • Support the development of the Healthy There are two hospitals and 58 health centers Islands concept in promoting healthy in RMI. According to estimates from 2010, the behaviors and changing lifestyle habits; health worker-to-population ratio in RMI was • Address health issues related to infectious 1:1695 for doctors, 1:474 for nurses and 1:14 for diseases and reproductive health; dentists. The vast majority of health services are • Coordinate the care of women, infants, provided by the government, as there are only children, adolescents and their families; a small number of private providers. The U.S. educate and promote healthcare services to government supports the provision of health hard-to-reach communities including outer care services, through the 177 Health Care Plan, islands and atolls; to Marshallese citizens affected by the nuclear • Provide a comprehensive mental health tests conducted from 1946–1958, and their 145 program; descendants. • Ensure better access to essential medicines Access to high-quality, affordable health care is and ensure that patients are receiving the best critically important to Marshall Islanders, given possible rehabilitation services; and the wide range of health problems suffered by • Ensure effective management and this population, including tuberculosis, diabetes, administration of human and financial hypertension, thyroid tumors, alcoholism, resources in the Ministry of Health.148

48 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Figure 6: WHO Country Health Information Profiles (2011)

Working into the future, the Ministry of services, such as immunization clinics, diabetes Health takes into account the national goals clinics, TB and leprosy clinics, prenatal and objectives as stated in the vision of the 2018 services, and health promotion services.152 The Strategic Development Plan Framework.149 Marshallese enjoy low-cost healthcare in their country, generally $5 per consultation. For those Healthcare System living outside the population centers of Majuro and Eyebe, however, healthcare access is very There are no formal mechanisms for health limited. Regardless of where one resides in RMI, sector coordination in the Marshall Islands. Key the country’s health sector lacks the capacity inputs are coordinated by the Ministry of Health to provide technologically advanced medical Planner. Key partners in the health sector include interventions. Healthcare not only influences migration from RMI, but internal migration U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Department 153 of Health and Human Services, particularly the within the U.S. as well. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Against a backdrop of many small island the U.S. Department of Energy, the “177” nuclear countries and territories, with relatively small health program sites; Taiwan, China; WHO; populations geographically dispersed across large the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA); distances, the increasingly heavy triple burden the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); of communicable diseases, non-communicable Canvasback Missions Inc.; and several local diseases (NCDs) and the health impact of climate 150 change is having a growing negative effect on the NGOs. Photo 8 depicts a pediatrician volunteer 154 with Project Hope, who lets a child patient listen health and economies of PICTs. to her heartbeat with a stethoscope at a medical The incidence of NCDs in the Pacific is among civic action project during Pacific Partnership the highest in the world and is a significant 2013. 151 cause of mortality in the Pacific. Adult and child obesity, physical inactivity, poor diets, tobacco use and the harmful use of alcohol are common Challenges in the Healthcare System risk factors for most NCDs. The prevalence of NCD risk factors in adults (25–64 age groups) The reliability of data, staff turnover and continues to increase and is reaching critical migration, and donors’ multiple reporting levels in many countries. At the same time, requirements are current challenges. One of communicable diseases remain a health threat the barriers to delivering health services in the to the population. Influenza and respiratory outer islands is the unpredictable flights of Air infections, infectious diarrheal diseases, dengue, Marshall Islands. Outreach teams visiting the typhoid fever, lymphatic filariasis and chlamydia outer islands deliver all primary healthcare remain major causes of serious morbidity in

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Photo 8: Gugeegue, Marshall Islands, Pacific Partnership 2013. many countries and territories.155 The WHO • Strategic Priority 3: Strengthen the Country Cooperation Strategic Agenda (2013- coordination of care for maternal and child 2017) also address NCDs. health and reproductive health; • Strategic Priority 4: Strengthen the WHO Country Cooperation Strategic Agenda pharmaceutical sector through development (2013-2017) include: and monitoring the national medicines policy • Strategic Priority 1: Address the and pharmaceutical strategic plan, with an prevention and control of NCDs, including emphasis on increasing access; and implementation of national tobacco • Strategic Priority 5: Scale up health regulations; mental health and legislative workforce production, improving frameworks for food quality, safety and performance, and reduce imbalances in skill enforcement capacities; and improve mix and distribution with a focus on reaching community awareness about healthy eating areas with limited access.156 and lifestyles; Table 4 depicts the WHO statistical profile. 157 • Strategic Priority 2: Strengthen surveillance for vaccine-preventable diseases, delivery of Communicable Diseases immunizations and capacity building of mid- level Expanded Program on Immunization High population growth and crowded (EPI) managers, as well as strengthen means conditions in urban areas have caused the re- to prevent communicable diseases, including emergence and/or rise of certain communicable climate change- related issues such as diseases, such as tuberculosis and leprosy. improved drinking-water safety planning and Communicable diseases continue to be a rainwater harvesting, as well as household major cause of morbidity and mortality. An and community-based water-quality epidemiological investigation revealed 10 cases monitoring; of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB)

50 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Table 4: Marshall Islands: WHO Statistical Profile

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between 2004 and 2009, indicating a serious problem with that emerging infectious disease. A multifaceted approach has been taken to combat the problem, involving multiple governments, nongovernmental and international partners. Contact-tracing was conducted in 2010 with support from the Global Fund. In June 2010, with the WHO’s assistance, the country started issuing a syndromic surveillance report. Majuro Hospital and Ebeye Hospital reported on surveillance for diarrhea, influenza- like illness, acute fever and rash, and prolonged fever to the focal person in the Ministry of Health on a weekly basis. A weekly syndromic surveillance report was submitted to WHO and the Ministry of Health to monitor any possible outbreak.158

Non-Communicable Diseases In addition, a sedentary lifestyle and processed foods have brought about a rise in levels of adult obesity and no communicable diseases (NCDs). Diabetes-related diseases and cancer are now leading causes of death. The leading causes of morbidity include child birth-related conditions, pneumonia and diabetes. Sepsis, malnutrition, pneumonia, drowning and prematurity is the major causes of infant mortality, while severe malnutrition, bacterial meningitis, gastroenteritis, and pneumonia accounted for most childhood mortality. 159 Table 5 depicts the WHO Current Health Indicators for RMI.

Table 5: WHO Current Health Indicators

52 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 53 WOMEN, PEACE AND SECURITY

and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government made no anti-trafficking law Women, Peace and enforcement efforts, including developing a written plan to combat trafficking; no new trafficking investigations were opened in 2014, Security and no prosecutions or convictions were made Women’s empowerment and the promotion of for the fourth consecutive year; no efforts were gender equality are key to achieving sustainable made to identify trafficking victims, especially development. Greater gender equality can among women in prostitution or men working enhance economic efficiency and improve other on foreign fishing vessels in Marshallese waters, and no attempt was made to ensure their access development outcomes by removing barriers that 162 prevent women from having the same access as to protective services. men to human resource endowments, rights, and economic opportunities. Giving women access Women and the Economy to equal opportunities allows them to emerge Female unemployment rates are much as social and economic actors, influencing and higher than male unemployment rates, with shaping more inclusive policies. Improving national averages of 37 percent and 28 percent women’s status also leads to more investment respectively. Substantial differences also exist in in their children’s education, health, and overall wages earned by men and women with similar wellbeing. 160 educational qualifications: women’s average RMI currently has no domestic violence, wages were measured at US$7595 annually, sexual harassment, human trafficking or sex compared with US$10,772 for men in the same tourism legislation in place. There are also no jobs. minimum sentences or mandatory prosecutions Although there is no legislative barrier to in cases of sexual violence. The RMI Constitution women in RMI accessing financial services such grants protection to customs and traditions, with as loans and mortgages, discrimination can no provision for giving priority to the rights of obstruct women from obtaining credit, which individuals whom customary law discriminates impacts on their economic independence, ability against (including where it is discriminatory to engage in business and equitable ability to earn against women), in non-compliance with the a livelihood. Traditionally, matrilineal succession Convention on the Elimination of all forms of of land rights afforded women a position of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). It influence in society, however, the erosion of should be noted that customary law can in some customary land tenure practice means many circumstances be advantageous to Marshallese women no longer have autonomy over land and women, specifically in terms of the tradition of married couples tend to live on land belonging matrilineal property title.161 to the husband’s family. This is identified as increasing women’s vulnerability, as they are deprived of protection previously provided by Violence against Women brothers and uncles. Approximately 58 percent of men and 56 RMI appears to be on track to eliminate percent of women generally accept that violence gender disparity in education, with largely against women is a normal part of marital equal rates of enrollment in both primary and relationships and 36 percent of RMI women secondary schooling, however, dropout rates have experienced either physical or sexual for girls in secondary and tertiary education violence, with spouses being the most common (associated with adolescent pregnancy) continue perpetrator of both. About 22 percent of all RMI to be of concern, impacting on women’s women report experiencing physical violence economic participation. In the outer islands, in the previous 12 months. Among women who women’s workload has tended to increase over have experienced physical violence, 72 percent time, and high male unemployment has meant reported that a current husband or partner that women have increasingly become the sole committed physical violence against them, while economic providers for their families.163 21 percent reported that they had experienced violence by a former husband/partner. RMI does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking

54 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Women’s Health Ending Violence against Women (EVAW) Health issues specific to the RMI include Program: the generational impacts of the 67 atmospheric EVAW provides stakeholders with access atomic and thermonuclear weapons tests carried to virtual knowledge platforms, tools and out on RMI territory between 1946 and 1958. evidence-based resources in order to better equip These health impacts include high instances of stakeholders with knowledge and evidence to birth defects (frequently called ‘jellyfish babies’), advocate for strengthened EVAW legislation, miscarriage, and weakened immune systems improved policies and services for violence as well as high rates of thyroid, cervical, breast against women. Social media tools are also made and other cancers. These birth defects cause available to support community mobilization particular distress to Marshallese women, as local that aims to end violence against women and culture views reproductive abnormalities as a girls, through campaigns such as the UN Secretary General’s UNiTE to EVAW and Say sign that women have been unfaithful to their 167 husbands. NO-UNiTE. About 91percent of Marshallese women have low daily consumption of fruit and vegetables, Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) 55 percent have low daily levels of physical Program: activity, and 52 percent are classified as obese. UN Women is supporting informed decision- Communicable diseases common in RMI making in RMI by providing technical assistance include conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, gonorrhea, to national and local government in producing influenza, leprosy, scabies, syphilis and knowledge products that include improved and tuberculosis. RMI is off-track for achieving the comparable evidence on the economic situation Millennium Development Goal of reversing the of RMI’s women. spread of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis by 2015. 164 Increasing Community Resilience through Empowerment of Women to Address Climate Women and the Environment Change and Natural Hazards (IREACH) Program: Climate change and rising sea levels pose the IREACH supports the incorporation of gender gravest risk when it comes to food security and dimensions in strategic documents for disaster physical security for Marshallese women, a risk management and climate change through the culture where primary care is a traditional role provision of knowledge products and tools on afforded to women. In a matriarchal society the gendered implications of climate change and where women are the custodian of land, culture disasters. 168 and tradition, the threat of climate change in Republic of the Marshall Islands falls under destroying atolls and land poses an even greater the umbrella of UN Women’s Fiji Multi-Country threat to of the maintenance of language and Office (MCO) based in Suva. Photo 9 depicts a identity. This heightens poverty and increases the Marshallese woman using a local tool to shape vulnerability of women. 165 a log at the Canoe of Marshall Islands Building Project.169 UN Women in RMI The MCO covers 14 Pacific Island Countries Advancing Gender Justice in the Pacific (AGJP) and Territories (PICTs), working to progress Program: gender equality and women’s empowerment in AGJP continue building the capacity of the Pacific through four key programmes: its government and civil society partners • Women’s Economic Empowerment; for CEDAW implementation and reporting, • Ending Violence Against Women; particularly in adopting a harmonized human • Advancing Gender Justice in the Pacific; rights treaty reporting approach. When it comes • Increasing Community Resilience through to women’s political participation, UN Women Empowerment of Women to Address is undertaking advocacy initiatives through its Climate Change and Natural Hazards Empowerment Series Events.166 Programme.

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Photo 9: A Female Trainer at the Canoe of the Marshall Islands.

56 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 57 CONCLUSION

coordination between local and international partners. The overarching governance and Conclusion institutional arrangements for DRM in RMI is stipulated in the Disaster Assistance Act 1987 RMI is located in one of the most disaster (DAA).172 prone regions in the world. The country The DAA was complemented by the National geographically features low-lying lands Disaster Plan 1994. However, in 2011 and surrounded by rising sea levels. RMI is highly 2012 the government, with the support of vulnerable to the negative effects of climate SPC, developed draft National Disaster Risk change and the population is at high risk to Management Arrangements (NDRMA) to natural disasters due to high rates of poverty, replace the National Disaster Plan. The draft endemic conditions, poor healthcare and a NDRMA aimed to progress the intent of the fragile economy. These factors contribute to a DAA by providing for specific operational highly vulnerable population and economy when systems and processes to address both Disaster disasters occur. RMI is expected to incur, on Risk Reduction and Disaster Management. average, US$3 million per year in losses due to 170 The DAA is now outdated for a number of earthquakes and tropical cyclones. reasons. First, in the period since its enactment Risks to development in RMI emanate in 1987, RMI has instituted a number of from both natural and man-made disasters. changes in how its addresses DRM as outlined The remoteness of the islands and the limited above. Second, the draft NDRMA has now resources available to address traditional and emerged. Third, in the time that has passed emerging risks present significant challenges since the emergence of the draft NDRMA, other to the government in continuing to reduce the developments, such as the advent of the cluster vulnerability of the communities throughout system in 2013, mean that the Arrangements the islands. Exposure to emerging global issues themselves need to be updated. In light of including, terrorism, climate change patterns these, the DAA needs to be revisited and new and communicable diseases further adds to legislation developed which will legitimize this vulnerability. Disaster management has policy and operational changes made since 1987. been a focus of RMI. The National Disaster The new legislation will then seek to usher in a Management Office in Majuro has the lead paradigm shift in how RMI deals with hazard risk role in planning and coordinating disaster risk (climate-related, geological and human induced) management developments and initiatives, within the context of sustainable development at with disaster management policy and decision the national level and as well as within the private making being facilitated by the National Disaster sector, local level government and communities. Committee under the chairmanship of the Chief The South Pacific Community (SPC) is currently Secretary. The Government of RMI is committed preparing to conduct a review of RMI’s National to strengthening disaster risk management Disaster Risk Management Plan.173 (DRM) capacity across the country as part of its ongoing efforts to build the safety and resilience of its communities. 171 In the period since 2007, the RMI has invested in a number of strategic initiatives to create an environment more conducive to addressing resilience. The DRM National Action Plan was produced in 2007 through multi-stakeholder consultations. Similarly, a successor Joint National Action Plan for Climate Change and DRM was developed in 2011, which proposed integrated approaches for Climate Change. The DRM represented an attempt to bring about improved coordination and efficiencies in addressing climate and disaster risk in the context of sustainable national development. In 2013, RMI introduced a ‘cluster system’ to facilitate disaster preparedness and response through a mechanism that facilitated

58 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 59 APPENDICES

items, tools and other items that would make Appendices island life easier.177 3 July 2013 - USPACOM Majuro, Marshall Department of Defense DMHA Islands Pacific Partnership 2013 arrived in RMI. U.S. partner nation military members Engagements in the Past Five Years and non-governmental organization volunteers (FY 2011-2016) participated in a variety of projects while ashore in RMI such as the installation of rain water 11 March 2016 - USPACOM-The Coast catchment and filtration, health fairs, engineering Guard and Navy completed a 33-day joint projects, disaster response seminars and training with the goal of improving RMI's overall disaster mission in the Central and South Pacific under 178 the Oceania Maritime Security Initiative to preparedness. combat transnational crimes, enforce fisheries laws and enhance regional security. A Coast 18-22 October 2011 - Staff from USAID/ Guard law enforcement detachment, from Coast OFDA and USAID’s Regional Development Guard Tactical Law Enforcement Team South, Mission for Asia (USAID/RDMA) attended embarked the Arleigh Burke-class guided missile Operational Blueprint tabletop exercises in the destroyer USS William P. Lawrence (DDG 110) FSM and the RMI—the first annual pre-typhoon and conducted eight fisheries enforcement season planning meetings in the two countries. boarding with the assistance of the Navy’s Visit, The primary goal of the sessions was to enable Board, Search and Seizure (VBSS) team and participants to develop a common understanding enforcement ship riders from RMI and Nauru.174 of Operational Blueprint, the framework that guides U.S. Government disaster response 20 November 2015 - USPACOM- Kwajalein, in FSM and RMI and to develop response Marshall Islands - Marshallese construction preparedness by simulating disaster scenarios. workers and U.S. Navy Seabees, assigned to U.S. FEMA Regional Administrator Nancy Ward Naval Mobile Construction Battalion (NMCB) visited FSM and RMI from September 27 to 29 to meet with government officials in both nations in 1, constructed a washroom facility in Kwajalein, 179 Marshall Islands.175 preparation for the tabletop exercises. 22 February 2015 - USPACOM-Kwajalein 11 August 2011 - USAID convened a meeting Atoll, Marshall Islands -Army Gen. Martin with representatives from 14 federal agencies in E. Dempsey, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs Washington, D.C. to discuss USAID plans for working with other USG agencies during disaster of Staff, paid a visit to highlight Kwajalein’s 180 importance to the U.S. missile defense and space responses in FSM and RMI. programs. The atoll, located more than 2,000 miles southwest of Honolulu, is home to the U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll/Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site.176 17 December 2014 - USPACOM-Anderson Air Force Base, Guam (AFNS) -- The men and women from Andersen Air Force Base, Guam and Yokota Air Base, Japan, dropped its last bundle of joy Dec. 13, to the Micronesian Islands as Operation Christmas Drop came to an end just in time for the holiday season. The men and women from Andersen and Yokota came together and airdropped a total of 89 bundles of goods, each weighing approximately 500 pounds, into Chuuk, Palau, Yap, RMI and Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The bundles consisted of donated toys, clothing, fishing equipment, sporting goods, food

60 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Hyogo Framework for Action Country Progress Report The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was adopted as a guideline to reduce vulnerabilities to natural hazards. The HFA assists participating countries to become more resilient and to better manage the hazards that threaten their development. The levels of progress of the 2011-2013 results of the Interim HFA for RMI are represented in the graph (Figure 7) and Table 6 on page 62. Future Outlook areas are also discussed in Table 7 on Figure 7: HFA Level of Progress page 63.181

Priority for Action #1: Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation. Core Indicator Description Level of Progress Indicator* Achieved 1 National policy and legal framework for disaster risk reduction exists 2 with decentralized responsibilities and capacities at all levels. 2 Dedicated and adequate resources are available to implement 2 disaster risk reduction plans and activities at all administrative levels. 3 Community participation and decentralization is ensured through 2 the delegation of authority and resources to local levels. 4 A national multi sectoral platform for disaster risk reduction is 3 functioning. Priority #2: Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning

Core Indicator Description Level of Progress Indicator* Achieved 1 National and local risk assessments based on hazard data and 2 vulnerability information are available and include risk assessments for key sectors. 2 Systems are in place to monitor, archive and disseminate data on key 2 hazards and vulnerabilities. 3 Early warning systems are in place for all major hazards, with 2 outreach to communities. 4 National and local risk assessments take account of regional / trans- 2 boundary risks, with a view to regional cooperation on risk reduction.

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Priority #3: Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels

Core Indicator Description Level of Progress Indicator* Achieved 1 Relevant information on disasters is available and accessible at all levels, 2 to all stakeholders (through networks, development of information sharing systems, etc.). 2 School curricula, education material and relevant trainings include 2 disaster risk reduction and recovery concepts and practices. 3 Research methods and tools for multi-risk assessments and cost benefit 1 analysis are developed and strengthened. 4 Countrywide public awareness strategy exists to stimulate a culture of 1 disaster resilience, with outreach to urban and rural communities. Priority #4: Reduce the underlying risk factors

Core Indicator Description Level of Progress Indicator* Achieved 1 Disaster risk reduction is an integral objective of environment 3 related policies and plans, including for land use natural resource management and adaptation to climate change. 2 Social development policies and plans are being implemented to 2 reduce the vulnerability of populations most at risk. 3 Economic and productive sectorial policies and plans have been 3 implemented to reduce the vulnerability of economic activities. 4 Planning and management of human settlements incorporate disaster 2 risk reduction elements, including enforcement of building codes. 5 Disaster risk reduction measures are integrated into post disaster 2 recovery and rehabilitation processes. 6 Procedures are in place to assess the disaster risk impacts of major 2 development projects, especially infrastructure. Priority #5: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels Core Indicator Description Level of Progress Indicator* Achieved 1 Strong policy, technical and institutional capacities and mechanisms 3 for disaster risk management, with a disaster risk reduction perspective are in place. 2 Disaster preparedness plans and contingency plans are in place at all 2 administrative levels, and regular training drills and rehearsals are held to test and develop disaster response programs. 3 Financial reserves and contingency mechanisms are in place to 3 support effective response and recovery when required. 4 Procedures are in place to exchange relevant information during 3 hazard events and disasters, and to undertake post-event reviews. Table Notes: *Level of Progress: 1 – Minor progress with few signs of forward action in plans or policy 2 – Some progress, but without systematic policy and/ or institutional commitment 3 – Institutional commitment attained, but achievements are neither comprehensive nor substantial 4 – Substantial achievement attained but with recognized limitations in key aspects, such as financial resources and/ or operational capacities 5 – Comprehensive achievement with sustained commitment and capacities at all levels182 Table 6: HFA Country Progress Report Priorities and Progress Achieved

62 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Future Outlook Area 1: The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction. 183

Challenges: Ad-hoc and uncoordinated approaches to DRM and CCA have been identified through the HFA Review Process. This is in part due to overburdened staff in key ministries having to take on numerous roles and manage multiple projects and programs concurrently. It is also due to the irregular meetings of groups such as the National Disaster Council (NDC) and the National Climate Change Committee (NC3). Without strong leadership from these key groups, it is unlikely that integration and mainstreaming of DRR and CCA will occur within line ministries. An additional challenge is the level of dependency on external assistance, particularly the U.S., for issues pertaining to DRR/DRM and CCA. With highly limited human resource capacity, RMI leans heavily on donor partners to address risk reduction issues. Future Outlook Finalization, endorsement and wide distribution of the JNAP to national Priorities: stakeholders will allow for some level of coordination and strategic approach to the addressing of DRR issues in RMI. Future Outlook Area 2: The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels, in particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards. Challenges: The change in key personnel in Office of Environmental Planning and Policy Coordination (OEPPC) and Chief Secretary’s Office has delayed progress on strengthening institutional structures for DRR/DRM and CCA. Future Outlook Identifying appropriate replacements for key staff within OEPPC and CSO, and Priorities: supporting them in working together, should be the aim over the short to medium term. This will allow much needed progress in DRR/DRM and CCA including finalization and endorsement of the JNAP. Future Outlook Area 3: The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs in the reconstruction of affected communities. Challenges: Mainstreaming of risk reduction is occurring across many projects and initiatives in ad-hoc approaches, given the recognition that climate change is likely to have significant consequences on issues such as water and food security. The overall challenge in RMI is to ensure a strategic, systematic and coordinated approach to ensure DRR is always a high priority. A further challenge is that of funds and the limitations imposed by the Disaster Assistance Emergency Fund (DAEF). Currently the DAEF is reserved only for disaster response, and not to be used for any risk reduction activity. If these limitations were loosened, it may be possible to reduce the impact of some disasters by addressing underlying risk factors before the event occurs. Future Outlook The JNAP, once finalized and endorsed, will provide a national overarching Priorities: document that can guide attempts across all sectors to mainstream DRR into emergency preparedness, response and recovery.

Table 7: HFA Country Progress Report Future Outlook Areas

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often expect immediate cash payment for health Force Protection/Pre-Deployment services. However, the local cost for service is information quite minimal. 186 • U.S. Embassy does not pay medical bills. Passport/Visa Be aware that U.S. Medicare does not apply Under the COFA, U.S. citizens do not need a overseas. visa to enter RMI. There is a departure fee of $20 • Make sure your health insurance plan for individuals aged 13 through 59. Diplomats provides coverage overseas. Most care are exempt from this fee. Cholera immunizations providers overseas only accept cash are required for those arriving from infected payments. areas. Some HIV/AIDS entry restrictions exist • U.S. Embassy strongly recommends for visitors to and foreign residents of RMI. HIV supplemental insurance to cover medical testing is required for temporary visitors staying evacuation. more than 30 days and applicants for residence • Carry prescription medication in original and work permits. Foreign test results are packaging, along with your doctor’s accepted under certain conditions. prescription. Most citizens of RMI are eligible to live and • Be up-to-date on all vaccinations work in the U.S. in a nonimmigrant status recommended by the U.S. Centers for Disease without a visa.184 Control and Prevention.

Tuberculosis is an increasingly serious health Emergency Contact Information concern in RMI. For further information, For U.S. Citizens, contact the U.S. Embassy in please consult the CDC’s information on TB. Majuro Atoll: The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) is high, and there are a few cases of multidrug-resistant U.S. Embassy Majuro tuberculosis (MDRTB) currently under Mejen Weto, Long Island, Majuro Atoll quarantine or receiving treatment. T: 692-247-4011 The Zika virus is a mosquito-borne illness After-Hours Telephone: 692-455-8213 that can be spread from a pregnant woman to F: 692-247-4012 her unborn baby. Among other effects, there E: [email protected] have been reports of a serious birth defect of the brain called microcephaly and other poor Currency Information pregnancy outcomes in babies of mothers who The currency of RMI Islands is U.S. dollars. were infected with Zika virus while pregnant. For additional information about Zika, including The two ATMs on Majuro can be found at the 187 Bank of Guam and at Robert Reimers Resort. travel advisories, visit the CDC website. Table 8 provides vaccination information for travelers to A few hotels and restaurants accept Visa, 188 MasterCard, and American Express credit cards. RMI. Most transactions are cash only.185 For further health information, go to: • World Health Organization • U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Travel Health Information Prevention (CDC) Health facilities in Majuro and Ebeye are adequate for routine medical problems. There are few or no health facilities available elsewhere RMI Government Ministries, Offices in RMI. Majuro has a private clinic and a public and Committees hospital. Ebeye also has a public hospital. Though the hospital has diagnostic medical The public service consists of ministries equipment, it is not always functioning due to and a number of public agencies. They include maintenance problems and technician staffing the Ministry of Education, Finance, Foreign difficulties. Most outer islands have medical Affairs, Health, Health and the Environment, dispensaries. Serious medical problems requiring Internal Affairs, Justice, Public Works, Resources hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to and Development, and Transportation and the U.S. can cost tens of thousands of dollars. Communication. The majority of governmental Prescription and over-the-counter medicines functions and services are provided by the might not be available. Doctors and hospitals national government.

64 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Recommendations Transmission Routine vaccines Recommended for all travelers varied Hepatitis A Recommended for most travelers, Fecal-oral route including those with "standard" (contaminated food and itineraries and accommodations water) Person-to-person contact Hepatitis B Consider for most travelers; Contact with blood recommended for those who might and other body fluids: be exposed to blood or other body •Unprotected sex fluids, have sexual contact with the •Injection drug use local population, or be exposed •Contaminated through medical treatment (e.g., for transfusions an accident). •Exposure to human blood •Contaminated tattoo and piercing equipment

Typhoid Recommended for most travelers, Fecal-oral route especially those who are staying (contaminated food and with friends or relatives; visiting water) smaller cities, villages, or rural areas where exposure might occur through food or water; or prone to "adventurous eating" Table 8: Communicable and Non-communicable Disease Traveler Recommendations

Ministry of Education Ministry of Internal Affairs P.O. Box 3 T: +61 2 6271 4564 Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 E: [email protected] T: 692-625-5261 F: 692-625-3861 Ministry of Justice P.O. Box 890 Ministry of Finance Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 P.O. Box D Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 Ministry of Public Works T: 692 625 8320 / 8311 P.O. Box 1727 F: 692 625 5413 / 3607 Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 T: 592-625-8911 Ministry of Foreign Affairs P.O. Box 1349 Ministry of Resources and Development Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 P.O. Box 1727 T: 692-625-3181 Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 F: 692-625-4979 T: 692-625-3206 E: [email protected] F: 692-625-7471 W: http://rmirnd.net/ Ministry of Health P.O. Box 16 Ministry of Transportation and Ebeye, Marshall Islands 96970 Communication T: 692-625-5660 P.O. Box 154 F: 692-625-3432 Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 T: 692-625-5269 Ministry of Health and Environment Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 T: 692-329-4031

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Country Profile Land use: Agricultural land: 50.7 percent The information in the Country Profile section is sourced directly from the Central Intelligence Arable land 7.8 percent; permanent crops 31.2 Agency (CIA) World Fact Book.189 percent; permanent pasture 11.7 percent Forest: 49.3 percent Location: Other: 0 percent (2011 est.) Oceania, two archipelagic island chains of 29 atolls, each made up of many small islets, and five Irrigated land: 0 sq. km (2012) single islands in the North Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia. Natural hazards: infrequent typhoons Geographic coordinates: 9 00 N, 168 00 E Environment - current issues: inadequate supplies of potable water; pollution of Majuro Area: lagoon from household waste and discharges from fishing vessels. Total: 181 sq. km Environment - international agreements: Land: 181 sq. km party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Water: 0 sq. km Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, and Law of the Sea, Ozone Note: the archipelago includes 11,673 sq. km Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, and of lagoon waters and encompasses the atolls of Whaling. Signed, but not ratified: none of the Bikini, Enewetak, Kwajalein, Majuro, Rongelap, selected agreements. and Utirik. Geography - note: the islands of Bikini and Country comparison to the world: 217 Enewetak are former U.S. nuclear test sites; Kwajalein atoll, famous as a World War II Land boundaries: 0 km battleground, surrounds the world’s largest lagoon and is used as a U.S. missile test range; Coastline: 370.4 km the island city of Ebeye is the second largest settlement in the Marshall Islands, after the Maritime claims: capital of Majuro, and one of the most densely populated locations in the Pacific. Territorial sea: 12 nm Nationality: Marshallese (singular and plural) Contiguous zone: 24 nm Ethnic groups: Marshallese 92.1 percent, mixed Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm Marshallese 5.9 percent, other 2 percent (2006) Climate: tropical; hot and humid; wet season Languages: Marshallese (official) 98.2 percent, May to November; islands border typhoon belt other languages 1.8 percent (1999 census) Terrain: low coral limestone and sand islands Note: English (official), widely spoken as a Elevation: mean elevation: NA second language Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean Religions: Protestant 54.8 percent, Assembly of 0 m God 25.8 percent, Roman Catholic 8.4 percent, Bukot nan Jesus 2.8 percent, Mormon 2.1 Highest point: unnamed location on Likiep 10 percent, other Christian 3.6 percent, other 1 m percent, none 1.5 percent (1999 census) Natural resources: coconut products, marine Population: 53,158 products, deep seabed minerals Country comparison to the world: 203

66 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance

Age structure: Major urban areas - population: 0-14 years: 36.02 percent (male 13,256/female MAJURO (capital) 31,000 (2014) 12,749) Sex ratio: 15-24 years: 17.4 percent (male 6,391/female 6,171) At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 25-54 years: 37.25 percent (male 13,681/female 0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 13,210) 15-24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 55-64 years: 5.73 percent (male 2,120/female 2,017) 25-54 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 3.6 percent (male 1,276/female 55-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 1,320) (2015 est.) 65 years and over: 0.97 male(s)/female Median age: Total population: 1.04 male(s)/female (2015 est.) Total: 22.6 years Mother’s mean age at first birth: 20.7 Male: 22.5 years Note: median age at first birth among women 25- Female: 22.7 years (2015 est.) 29 (2007 est.) Country comparison to the world: 172 Infant mortality rate: Population growth rate: Total: 20.66 deaths/1,000 live births 1.66 percent (2015 est.) Male: 23.29 deaths/1,000 live births Country comparison to the world: 71 Female: 17.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.) Birth rate: Country comparison to the world: 85 25.6 births/1,000 population (2015 est.) Life expectancy at birth: Country comparison to the world: 48 Total population: 72.84 years Death rate: Male: 70.67 years 4.21 deaths/1,000 population (2015 est.) Female: 75.13 years (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 206 Country comparison to the world: 136 Net migration rate: Total fertility rate: -4.83 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2015 est.) 3.15 children born/woman (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 192 Country comparison to the world: 52 Urbanization: Contraceptive prevalence rate: Urban population: 72.7 percent of total 44.6 percent (2007) population (2015) Rate of urbanization: 0.59 percent annual rate of change (2010-15 est.)

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Health expenditures: HIV/AIDS - deaths: 16.5 percent of GDP (2013) NA Country comparison to the world: 2 Obesity - adult prevalence rate: Physicians/ density: 42.3 percent (2014) 0.44 physicians/1,000 population (2010) Country comparison to the world: 9 Hospital bed density: Government type: Presidential republic in free association with the U.S. 2.7 beds/1,000 population (2010) Capital: Majuro Drinking water source: Geographic coordinates: 7 06 N, 171 23 E Improved: Time difference: UTC+12 (17 hours ahead of Urban: 93.5 percent of population Washington, DC, during Standard Time) Rural: 97.6 percent of population Administrative divisions: 24 municipalities; Ailinglaplap, Ailuk, Arno, Aur, Bikini & Kili, Total: 94.6 percent of population Ebon, Enewetak & Ujelang, Jabat, Jaluit, Kwajalein, Lae, Lib, Likiep, Majuro, Maloelap, Unimproved: Mejit, Mili, Namdrik, Namu, Rongelap, Ujae, Urban: 6.5 percent of population Utrik, Wotho, Wotje Rural: 2.4 percent of population Independence: 21 October 1986 (from the U.S.- administered UN trusteeship) Total: 5.4 percent of population (2015 est.) National holiday: Constitution Day, 1 May Sanitation facility access: (1979) Improved: Constitution: effective 1 May 1979; amended several times, last in 1995 (2016) Urban: 84.5 percent of population Legal system: mixed legal system of U.S. and Rural: 56.2 percent of population English common law, customary law, and local statutes Total: 76.9 percent of population International law organization participation: Unimproved: accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts ICCt jurisdiction Urban: 15.5 percent of population Citizenship: Rural: 43.8 percent of population Citizenship by birth: no Total: 23.1 percent of population (2015 est.) Citizenship by descent only: at least one parent HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: must be a citizen of the Marshall Islands NA Dual citizenship recognized: no HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: Residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years NA Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

68 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Executive branch: formal platforms, or party structures; the following two “groupings” have competed in Chief of State: President Hilda C. HEINE (since legislative balloting in recent years - Aelon 28 January 2016); note - the President is both Kein Ad Party [Michael KABUA] and United Chief of State and Head of Government. Democratic Party or UDP [Litokwa TOMEING] Head of Government: President Hilda C. HEINE Political pressure groups and leaders: NA (since 28 January 2016) International organization participation: ACP, Cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the president ADB, AOSIS, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, from among members of the Nitijela, appointed ICCt, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, by Nitijela speaker elections/appointments: Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, OPCW, PIF, Sparteca, president indirectly elected by the Nitijela from SPC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, WHO among its members for a 4-year term (no term limits); election last held on 27 January 2016 Diplomatic representation in the U.S.: (next to be held in 2020) election results: Hilda C. HEINE elected president on 27 January 2016; Chief of Mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge Parliament vote - Hilda C. HEINE 24, she was d’Affaires Junior AINI (since 25 April 2015) the only candidate. Chancery: 2433 Massachusetts Avenue NW, 1st Legislative branch: Floor, Washington, DC 20008 Description: bicameral legislature consists of the Telephone: (202) 234-5414 Council of Iroij (12 seats; consists of tribal chiefs chosen by holders of the chieftainship among the Fax: (202) 232-3236 constituent islands) and the National Parliament or Nitijela (33 seats; members directly elected Consulate(s) general: Honolulu, Springdale (AR) by simple majority vote to serve 4-year terms); Consulate(s): Agana (Guam) note - the Council of Iroij advises the Presidential Cabinet and reviews legislation affecting Diplomatic representation from the U.S.: customary law or any traditional practice) Chief of Mission: Ambassador Karen Brevard Election results: percent of vote by party - NA; Stewart (since 5 November 2015) seats by party - independents 33 Embassy: Oceanside, Mejen Weto, Long Island, Judicial branch: Majuro Highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of the Mailing address: P. O. Box 1379, Majuro, chief justice and other judges as prescribed by Republic of the Marshall Islands 96960-1379 law) Telephone: (692) 247-4011 Judge selection and term of office: judges appointed by the Cabinet on the Fax: (692) 247-4012 recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission and upon the approval of the Nitijela; judges appointed until retirement, normally at age 72 Subordinate courts: High Court; District Courts; Traditional Rights Court; Community Courts Political parties and leaders: Traditionally there have been no formally organized political parties; what has existed more closely resembles factions or interest groups because they do not have party headquarters,

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Flag description: Blue with two stripes radiating GDP - per capita (PPP): from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; a white star with four large rays and $3,200 (2015 est.) 20 small rays appears on the hoist side above the two stripes; blue represents the Pacific Ocean, the $3,200 (2014 est.) orange stripe signifies the Ralik Chain or sunset and courage, while the white stripe signifies $3,200 (2013 est.) the Ratak Chain or sunrise and peace; the star Note: data are in 2015 U.S. dollars symbolizes the cross of Christianity, each of the 24 rays designates one of the electoral districts in Country comparison to the world: 185 the country and the four larger rays highlight the principal cultural centers of Majuro, Jaluit, Wotje, GDP - composition, by sector of origin: and Ebeye; the rising diagonal band can also be interpreted as representing the equator, with the Agriculture: 4.4 percent star showing the archipelago’s position just to the north. Industry: 9.9 percent National symbol(s): A 24-rayed star; national Services: 85.7 percent (2013 est.) colors: blue, white, orange Agriculture - products: National anthem: Name: “Forever Marshall Coconuts, tomatoes, melons, taro, breadfruit, Islands” fruits; pigs, chickens Lyrics/music: Amata KABUA Industries: copra, tuna processing, tourism, craft Note: adopted 1981 items (from seashells, wood, and pearls) Economics: Industrial production growth rate: NA GDP (purchasing power parity): Labor force: 10,670 (2013 est.) $175 million (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 217 $172.3 million (2014 est.) Labor force - by occupation: $170.6 million (2013 est.) Agriculture: 11 percent Note: data are in 2015 U.S.dollars Industry: 16.3 percent Country comparison to the world: 222 Services: 72.7 percent (2011 est.) GDP (official exchange rate): Unemployment rate: $183 million (2015 est.) 36 percent (2006 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 30.9 percent (2000 est.) 1.6 percent (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 193 1 percent (2014 est.) Population below poverty line: NA -1.1 percent (2013 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: Country comparison to the world: 148 Lowest 10 percent: NA

Highest 10 percent: NA

70 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Budget: Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, fuels, beverages, tobacco Revenues: $116.7 million Debt - external: Expenditures: $113.9 million (2013 est.) $97.96 million (2013 est.) Taxes and other revenues: $87 million (2008 est.) 59.8 percent of GDP (2013 est.) Country comparison to the world: 194 Country comparison to the world: 6 Exchange rates: the U.S. dollar is used Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-): Communications: 1.4 percent of GDP (2013 est.) Telephones - fixed lines: Country comparison to the world: 17 Total subscriptions: 2,400 Public debt: Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 3 (2014 est.) 51.3 percent of GDP (2013) Country comparison to the world: 213 Country comparison to the world: 79 Telephones - mobile cellular: Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September Total: 15,500 Inflation rate (consumer prices): Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 22 (2014 est.) -4 percent (2015 est.) Country comparison to the world: 212 1.1 percent (2014 est.) Telephone system: Country comparison to the world: 1 General assessment: digital switching Current account balance: equipment; modern services include telex, cellular, Internet, international calling, caller ID, -$1 million (2015 est.) and leased data circuits. -$14 million (2014 est.) Domestic: Majuro Atoll and Ebeye and Kwajalein islands have regular, seven-digit, direct-dial Country comparison to the world: 53 telephones; other islands interconnected by Exports: high frequency radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes) and mini-satellite $53.7 million (2013 est.) telephones $58.1 million (2012) International: country code 692; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); U.S. Country comparison to the world: 201 Government satellite communications system on Kwajalein (2005) Exports - commodities: copra cake, coconut oil, handicrafts, fish Broadcast media: no TV broadcast station; a cable network is available on Majuro with Imports: programming via videotape replay and satellite relays; 4 radio broadcast stations; American $133.7 million (2013 est.) Armed Forces Radio and Television Service (AFRTS) provides satellite radio and television $120.9 million (2012) service to Kwajalein Atoll (2009.) Country comparison to the world: 214

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Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 3, Merchant marine: shortwave 0 (additionally, the American Armed Forces Radio and Television Service (Central Total: 1,593 Pacific Network) operates one FM and one AM station on Kwajalein Island) (2005) By type: barge carrier 1, bulk carrier 524, cargo 65, carrier 1, chemical tanker 351, container 226, Television broadcast stations: 2 (both are U.S. liquefied gas 88, passenger 7, passenger/cargo 1, military stations; Marshalls Broadcasting Service, petroleum tanker 297, refrigerated cargo 13, roll a cable company, operates on Majuro) (2005) on/roll off 9, vehicle carrier 10 Internet country code: .mh Foreign-owned: 1,465 (Belgium 1, Bermuda 35, Brazil 1, Canada 8, China 14, Croatia 12, Cyprus Internet hosts: 3 (2012) 40, Denmark 7, Egypt 1, France 7, Germany 248, Greece 408, Hong Kong 3, India 10, Indonesia Country comparison to the world: 232 1, Iraq 2, Ireland 6, Italy 1, Japan 59, Jersey 11, Kuwait 2, Latvia 19, Malaysia 11, Mexico 2, Internet users: total: 1,700 Monaco 30, Netherlands 21, Norway 75, Pakistan 1, Qatar 29, Romania 2, Russia 5, Singapore Percent of population: 2.4 percent (2014 est.) 30, Slovenia 6, South Korea 41, Sweden 1, Country comparison to the world: 210 Switzerland 12, Taiwan 8, Turkey 70, UAE 12, UK 12, Ukraine 1, U.S. 200) (2010) Transportation: Country comparison to the world: 7 Airports: 15 (2013) Ports and terminals: Country comparison to the world: 146 Major seaport(s): Enitwetak Island, Kwajalein, Airports - with paved runways: Majuro Total: 4 Military: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 Military branches: no regular military forces; Marshall Islands Police (2012) 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2013) Note: defense is the responsibility of the U.S. Airports - with unpaved runways: Transitional Issues: Total: 11 Disputes - international: claims U.S. territory of 914 to 1,523 m: 10 Wake Island Under 914 m: 1 (2013) Trafficking in persons: current situation: The Marshall Islands is a source and destination Roadways: country for Marshallese women and girls and women from East Asia subjected to sex Total: 2,028 km trafficking; Marshallese and foreign women are forced into prostitution in businesses frequented Paved: 75 km by crew members of fishing and transshipping Note: roads are mostly unimproved (2007) vessels that dock in Majuro; some Chinese women are recruited to the Marshall Islands with Country comparison to the world: 176 promises of legitimate work and are subsequently forced into prostitution.

Tier rating: Tier 3 – The Marshall Islands do not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government made

72 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance no anti-trafficking law enforcement efforts, comprised of 12 tribal chiefs who advise the including developing a written plan to combat Presidential Cabinet and review legislation trafficking; no new trafficking investigations affecting customary law or any traditional were opened in 2014, and no prosecutions or practice, including land tenure.194 convictions were made for the fourth consecutive year; no efforts were made to identify trafficking victims, especially among women in prostitution Political Rights and Civil Liberties or men working on foreign fishing vessels in Freedom of Speech and the Press: The Marshallese waters, and no attempt was made to government respects freedom of speech and ensure their access to protective services; limited the press. A privately owned weekly newspaper, awareness-raising events were conducted by an the Marshall Islands Journal, publishes in both international organization (2015). English and the Marshallese languages. There are two radio stations (one is state-owned), both Government of which give voice to a range of views. Cable television broadcasts local news as well as U.S. Government: Type: Parliamentary democracy programs. in free association with the U.S. Independence: Judicial Independence: The Judiciary 21 October 1986 from the U.S.-administered UN is independent, and the rule of law is well trusteeship. Constitution: 1 May 1979.190 Under established. The government respects the right the constitution adopted in 1979, the government to a fair trial. Both the national and local police consists of a president elected by a unicameral, honor legal civil rights protections in performing 33-member parliament known as the Nitijela. their duties. There are no restrictions on religious observance in this predominantly Christian The Council of Iroij (Chiefs) has mainly a 195 consultative function, concerned with traditional country. laws and customs.191 When the COFA first entered into force, Military in 1986, it marked the beginning of a new relationship between RMI and the U.S. No longer RMI does not have a regular military force. National defense is the responsibility of the U.S. were the Marshall Islands a “United Nation’s 196 Strategic Trust Territory” for the Compact military. However, RMI do have a police force. granted RMI sovereignty in domestic and foreign RMI is a sovereign nation. While the government affairs in return for granting the U.S. defense is free to conduct its own foreign relations, it rights in the islands.192 does so under the terms of the Compact. The U.S. The government of RMI operates under a has full authority and responsibility for security mixed parliamentary- presidential system, which and defense of RMI, and the Government of RMI includes a head of state—the President, who is is obligated to refrain from taking actions that also the head of government—and a bicameral would be incompatible with these security and parliament—the Council of Iroij (the upper defense responsibilities. The U.S. and RMI have house) and Nitijela (the elected lower house).193 full diplomatic relations. Marshallese citizens Executive: Executive power lies with the may work and study in the U.S. without a visa, and they join the U.S. military at a higher rate President, who is elected by the Nitijela, and the 197 Presidential Cabinet. The President appoints than any U.S. state. RMI has no army or air cabinet ministers to leading positions in the force and retains a tiny paramilitary naval force government departments with the approval of consisting of one Pacific class boat RMIS Lomor the Nitijela. which is primarily concerned with patrolling Legislative: Legislative power resides in the territorial waters. Nitijela, which consists of 33 senators elected by 24 electoral districts by universal suffrage of all citizens above 18 years of age. The electoral districts correspond roughly to each atoll of the RMI. Although no legal restrictions exist against the formation of political parties, no formal parties exist. Two ad hoc parties have existed since the mid-1990s. Council of Iroij: The Council of Iroij is

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Defense Budget World Health Organization WHO.200 Any defense expenditure by RMI is covered RMI is an active participant in several regional by the U.S., which under the COFA has and global strategies and frameworks, including: responsibility for the military defense of the RMI. 201 Security assistance is also provided by Australia, • Micronesia Challenge; through the use of Australian-supplied patrol • Convention on the Conservation of and craft and other funding. These funds are spent Management of High Migratory Fish Stocks by the Australian Department of Defence rather in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean; than provided directly to the RMI government. • Pacific Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster The Australian Defence Cooperation Program Management Regional Framework for Action (DCP) expenditure for RMI decreased from 2005-2015; AUD 269,000 in 2012-13 to AUD 190,000 in • Pacific Regional Framework for Action on 2013-14.198 Climate Change; • Pacific Plan; • Pacific Regional Action Plan on Sustainable Participation in International Water Management; • Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Organizations (PACC) • Mauritius Strategy for Sustainable RMI and the U.S. belong to a number of the Development of Small Island Developing same international organizations, including the States 2005; UN, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, • Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 – 2015; the International Atomic Energy Agency, and and Asian Development Bank. RMI also belongs to • UN Framework Convention on Climate the Pacific Islands Forum, of which the U.S. is a Change. Dialogue Partner.199 International organization participation: African, International Agencies Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States (ACP), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Alliance United Nations Development Program of Small Island States (AOSIS), Food and (UNDP) Pacific Office in Fiji Agriculture Organization (FAO), Group of 77 Address: (G-77), International Atomic Energy Agency Level 8, Kadavu House (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction 414 Victoria Parade and Development World Bank (IBRD), Suva, Fiji International Civil Aviation Organization T: +679-331-2500 (ICAO), International Development Association F: +679-330-1718 (IDA), International Fund for Agricultural E: [email protected] Development (IFAD), International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Labor National Commission of the Republic of Organization (ILO), International Monetary Marshall Isalnds for UNESCO Fund (IMF), International Maritime C/O Ministry of Education Organization (IMO), International Mobile Address: Satellite Organization (IMSO), International P.O. Box 3 Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), Majuro International Olympic Committee (IOC), Marshall Islands International Telecommunication Union (ITU), T: +692-625-4673 Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical F: +692-625-3861 Weapons (OPCW), Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), E: wheine(a)pss.edu.mh(Chair), ekonou(a) South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic pss.edu.mh(SG), khosia(a)pss.edu.mh; Cooperation Agreement (Sparteca), Secretariat hosia920(a)gmail.com(AC) of the Pacific Communities (SPC), UN, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),

74 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) An emerging opportunity to improve SPC Headquarters intergovernmental coordination and cooperation Address: is the Framework for Pacific Regionalism that BP D5 was agreed by Pacific Island Leaders in 2014 98848 Noumea as a replacement for the 2005 Pacific Plan New Caledonia for Strengthening Regional Cooperation and T: +687 26 20 00 Integration. "The Forum Secretariat is mandated F: +687 26 38 18 to coordinate the implementation of the E: [email protected] Framework for Pacific Regionalism. The focus of the Framework is improving the effectiveness RMI is a member of SPC. SPC is an of regional mechanisms in supporting national international organization that works across a priorities. The Framework sets out the: number of areas, including but not limited to • Pacific Vision, for a region of peace, public health, agriculture, forestry, human rights, harmony, security, social inclusion, and climate change and disaster management, to help prosperity, so that all Pacific people can Pacific Island countries to achieve sustainable lead free, healthy, and productive lives; development. SPC has 26 members including • Regional values, which include our oceans, 22 Pacific Island countries and territories, plus our culture, good governance, peaceful four founding countries: USA, Australia, France societies, inclusivity and equality, and and New Zealand. SPC works closely with its durable partnerships; and members in determining what support is needed • Strategic objectives for Pacific regionalism, for the development of national policies and which cover sustainable development, plans.202 Development goals of SPC community inclusive and equitable economic growth, members are discussed in Figure 8. strengthened governance and security."203

Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) For each of the strategic objectives, Pacific RMI is a member of the Pacific Islands countries will adopt forms of regionalism, Forum Secretariat, which is "an international drawing from the collective actions in Table 9, organization that aims to stimulate economic which work in support of deeper regionalism. growth and enhance political governance and security for the region, through the PRiMO provision of policy advice; and to strengthen The NOAA Pacific Services Center in 2003, regional cooperation and integration through 2004, convened the Roundtable of Federal coordinating, monitoring and evaluating Hazard Mitigation Partners in the Pacific Islands. implementation of Leaders' decisions. The These meetings brought together representatives organization's mandate is set by decisions made from local, national, and regional agencies, at annual meetings of Leaders from the 16 Pacific institutions, and organizations to explore Island Forum member countries, ministerial opportunities to enhance communication, meetings convened by the Forum Secretariat, and coordination, and collaboration. Based on a decisions made under the Framework for Pacific mutual recognition of the benefits of a collective Regionalism." action, the Pacific Risk Management `Ohana The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat is (PRiMO) was formed. also responsible for "implementing the Forum Compact on Strengthening Development Coordination, which was agreed to by Pacific Island Leaders in 2009. The Forum Compact encourages Forum Island Countries to systematically examine and improve how national plans and budgets, public financial management systems, development partner coordination, monitoring and evaluation of results, and engagement between governments, parliamentarians, private sector and non-state actors, contribute to overall national sustainable development efforts."

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Figure 8: Secretariat of the Pacific Community Development Goals

76 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Regional collective action To achieve: By: Requiring: Coordination Open consultation and Establishing and Voluntary consultations access to information; and managing agreed and agreements; possible coordinated application of processes that facilitate resource sharing. shared, best-practice norms regional dialogue and and standards. access to (and use of) information. Cooperation An effective and Developing and Voluntary agreement strengthened voice in committing to to modes of regional protecting and sustainably coordinated regional or cooperation; services are harnessing the region’s sub-regional policies and mainly funded and delivered physical, social and cultural strategies. nationally. assets for the benefit of all. Collaboration Achievement of economies Delivering regional Voluntary agreement of scale and equitable public goods and pooled to modes of regional benefits that cannot be services. collaboration; national achieved nationally. governments are freed from daily management of these priorities. Economic integration Greater economic Lowering physical Legally binding prosperity founded and technical market arrangements, including on regional economic barriers to enable freer commitment to national integration and movement of people and resource allocation; each sustainability and the goods within and among country commits to equitable distribution of countries. amending their internal laws benefits and costs. / requirements to meet the shared regional objectives. Administrative / A secure and well governed Agreeing to common Legally binding legal / institutional Pacific region pledged to rules, standards and arrangements, including integration upholding regional values. institutions to foster and commitment to national sustain integration. resource allocation and to operating within regionally mandated requirements. Collaboration Achievement of economies Delivering regional Voluntary agreement of scale and equitable public goods and pooled to modes of regional benefits that cannot be services. collaboration; national achieved nationally. governments are freed from daily management of these priorities. Table 9: The Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014)204

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Acronyms and Abbreviations Acronym Definition AAL Average Annual Loss ADB Asian Development Bank AMI Air Marshall Islands ARFF Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting CCG Central Control Group CDC U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CFAA Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act CFA or COFA Compact of Free Association CMAC Coastal Management Advisory Council CROP Council of Regional Organizations in the Pacific DAC Disaster Assistance Coordinator DAEF Disaster Assistance Emergency Fund DHS Department of Homeland Security DM Disaster Management DOD Department of Defense DOS Department of State DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DSCA Defense Security Cooperation Agency EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EOC Emergency Operations Center EPA Environmental Protection Agency EPI Expanded Program on Immunization FSA Freely Associated States FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FSM Federated States of Micronesia GDP Gross Domestic Product HDR Humanitarian Daily Rations HFA Hyogo Framework for Action ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ILO International Labor Organization IOM International Organization for Migration J4 Joint Staff Logistics Directorate JTPA Job Training Partnership Program KAJUR Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utilities Resources MAJ Marshall Islands International Airport MDR TB Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis MEC Marshalls Energy Company MICS Marshall Islands Conservation Society MIMRA Marshal Island Marine Resources Authority MISC Marshall Islands Shipping Corporation NC3 National Climate Change Committee NCDs Non-Communicable Disease

78 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance Acronym Definition NDC National Disaster Committee NDMC National Disaster Management Committee NEMCO National Emergency Management and Coordinator Office NGO Non-Governmental Organization NMDO National Disaster Management Office NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States NSP National Strategic Plan NWS National Weather Service OCHA Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OFDA Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance OHDACA Overseas Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid PICTs Pacific Island Countries and Territories PPHSN Pacific Public Health Surveillance Network RMI Republic of the Marshall Islands RMIPA Republic of the Marshall Islands Ports Authority SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community SPCZ South Pacific Convergence Zone SSSP Student Services Support Program TWS Tsunami Warning System UN United Nations UNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund USAID U.S. Agency for International Development USG U.S. Government WASH Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene WHO World Health Organization WUTMI Women United Together in the Marshall Islands

Republic of the Marshall Islands Disaster Management Reference Handbook | 2016 79 References (Endnotes) 15 Photo Source: Marshall Islands. Steve Conover. 1 July, 18 2007. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ steveconover/848921934/in/photolist-2i1WV5- Statistical yearbook for Asia and the Pacific. 2011. 5VVs6o-hgr5SR-appjW6-cfxsg9-cNS4sy-cNS4Xf- http://www.unescap.org/stat/data/syb2011/II-2 hiQhT9-hiQftY-f7jnNZ-f7jnJ4-f7yBrb-f7jnk8-f7jncH- Environment/Natural-disasters.asp apqVJV-4c5cxV-9jekux-9jgKcQ-apoER6-hf7qbe-hizZiq- 3 Pacific ring of fire. Basicplanet. http://www. hk3duQ-7S5Qyz-4c5cwK-foZJRf-bDyJeN-nSe1xy- basicplanet.com/pacific-ring-fire/ C2YV1j-B7M8tA-f7yABW-BX4C3r-BUKVNf-fbdUCb- Statistical yearbook for Asia and the Pacific. 2011. fafmZ3-fafmCs-f6hKLd-f63vea-f6hM9u-f6hLQA-f6hLJy- http://www.unescap.org/stat/data/syb2011/II-4 f6hLuN-fa181r-fafmpq-f63vvc-f63vRe-ehpaWu-fa18eg-16 Environment/Natural-disasters.asp f7yB8U-ehpaFS-f63uuk Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile: Photo Source: U.S. Missile Defense Agency. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Aegis_2011_ftm15star. April 15, 2011. https://www. Climate Change, Marshall Islands,2011,http:// flickr.com/photos/mdabmds/5622039670/in/ sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/doc/ photolist-9yNqws-9yKpEZ-9yKpyV-fafkL7-eZbo2A- GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_5 9ySEjj-eZEYg9-eYZ1JR-eZbngb-vdBphW-t4KPVe- country_profile_for_MHL.pdf vvc29a-fxyETg-fxNW6f-fxyDSv-fxN1wU-fxyDh4- Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile: eYYZ6B-59VsJz-szxDmy-eXeLXM-4ZYwrY-eXrba5- Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to eXrbgb-fxNWsA-eXraWW-s73wJ6-fa17RM-vdJRAp- Climate Change, Marshall Islands,2011,http:// 6U27V2-ALTMF4-oH88Nq-92DtiY-92zEXS-c4Rsfy- sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/doc/ Ft1h9u-vvbVnk-vobAFb-BbqU97-wg5D3b-eZtAw- GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_6 T-eXeLBR-sPBgkT-92wxjk-92zGsE-9Fboe1-8QYbnw-17 country_profile_for_MHL.pdf 8QYaFL-fCuZ7E-fCuZnC Typhoon Assistance to Micronesia Tops USD 10 Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Million. International Organization for Migration Islands.18 http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- (IOM).7 http://www.iom.int/news/typhoon-assistance- Islands micronesia-tops-usd-10-million Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall 8 US Embassy Marshall Islands. Culture. Marshallese Islands.19 http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- people. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm Islands South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall Islands.20 http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- Island9 National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July Islands 22, 2016. PDF. Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress Islands.21 http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework Islands for Action (2009-2011). September 9, 2011. 22 US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_mhl_10 Culture. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf 23 US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National Culture. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo 24 US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese Framework for Action (2009-2011). September 9, Culture. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm 2011.11 http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_ 25 US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese mhl_NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf people. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm Republic of the Marshall Islands US Embassy. General 26 US Embassy Marshall Islands, Culture. Marshallese Information.12 Overview of the Marshall Islands. http:// people. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm www.rmiembassyus.org/General%20Info.htm Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Islands.27 http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- Islands.13 http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- Islands Islands RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing 14 Map image: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/ Summary and Highlights Only. 2011. Republic of the pacific/marshall-islands/ Marshall Islands. Economic Policy, Planning, and Kiste, Robert. Encyclopedia Britannica. Marshall Statistics Office. Office of the President, https://www. Islands. http://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall- doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/oia/reports/ Islands upload/RMI-2011-Census-Summary-Report-on- Population-and-Housing.pdf 80 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance 28 37

RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Summary and Highlights Only. 2011. Republic of the Islands 2013-2017. World Health Organization. Marshall Islands. Economic Policy, Planning, and Western Pacific Region. http://iris.wpro.who.int/ Statistics Office. Office of the President, https://www. bitstream/handle/10665.1/7908/CCS_MHL_2013-38 doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/oia/reports/ 2017_eng.pdf upload/RMI-2011-Census-Summary-Report-on-29 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Population-and-Housing.pdf Islands 2013-2017, World Health Organization. WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall Western Pacific Region. http://iris.wpro.who.int/ Islands 2013-2017. World Health Organization. bitstream/handle/10665.1/7908/CCS_MHL_2013-39 Western Pacific Region. http://iris.wpro.who.int/ 2017_eng.pdf bitstream/handle/10665.1/7908/CCS_MHL_2013-30 World Bank. 2016. Systematic Country Diagnostic 2017_eng.pdf For Eight Small Pacific Island Countries: Priorities WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall For Ending Poverty And Boosting Shared Prosperity. Islands 2013-2017. World Health Organization. World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution— Western Pacific Region. http://iris.wpro.who.int/ Non Commercial—No Derivatives 3.0 IGO (CC BY- bitstream/handle/10665.1/7908/CCS_MHL_2013-31 NC-ND 3.0 IGO). http://documents.worldbank.org/ 2017_eng.pdf curated/en/313021467995103008/pdf/102803-40 WHO Country Cooperation strategy for Marshall REPLACEMENT-SecM2016-0025.pdf Islands 2013-2017, World Health Organization. 41 US Embassy Marshall Islands. Culture. Marshallese Western Pacific Region. http://iris.wpro.who.int/ people. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm bitstream/handle/10665.1/7908/CCS_MHL_2013-32 Office of the President. Republic of the Marshall 2017_eng.pdf Islands. RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing State of Children: Main problems faced by children in Summary and Highlights Only. February 14, 2012. Marshall Islands, Humanium: Together for Children’s https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/ Rights.33 http://www.humanium.org/en/asia-pacific/ oia/reports/upload/RMI-2011-Census-Summary-42 marshall-islands-2/ Report-on-Population-and-Housing.pdf Photo Source: Olivia Owen. UN Women Pacific. 2013- Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Forum Leaders Meeting-Republic of the Marshall Economy and Investing. National Investment Policy Islands. September 3, 2013. https://www.flickr. Statement.43 2005. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/ com/photos/un_women_pacific/14213975402/in/ Economy.htm photolist-nE3kFq-nE3mhL-nDXGoB-nEfBmn-nEfD26- Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. nCcT6h-jW4sYi-fa18y2-fafrCC-f63ukP-fa18E6-jW4nBg- Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact f7jmUD-f7jmPB-jW4nEH-jW3F2F-jW64vU-DLfta- of44 Free Association with the United States. 2005. 9jqbim-f5kUeF-fbffdf-f5kU1K-f5kTHD-faZY9x-f5A8yb- http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Economy.htm 949sTb-jW3FGi-jW6dRC-DTuvY-DTtr2-fbfcGo-f5kTxv- Photo Source: DSC_1163. Warren in the Weeds. f5A9ys-DT4Hf-f5kX4P-fbfwsJ-5eXQ1p-jW4sov-jW4nXg- January 25, 2011. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ DTv2Y-a3Ubdm-Fyjhff-g5Ltk-7y8AqG-jW69qy-jW69qJ-34 warrenintheweeds/5455115852/in/photolist-9j3TTA- fWZm6e-HkVXbE-Hgvh3N-f2W7gZ 9iZLee-9j3TY9-9iZLNg-9j3UyC-v8m4P-9iZLak-v8mVF- State of Children: Main problems faced by children in 9iZLhi-9bmzbm-9iZLiv-9iZLeR-9iZLBB-9j3TXj-9iZL8B- Marshall Islands. Humanium: Together for Children’s v8mbK-9j3UMu-v8mr4-9j3U8m-v8mnX-9iZLKr- Rights.35 http://www.humanium.org/en/asia-pacific/ 9j3Uab-9iZL9r-v8miw-2rfjqD-sTtsX-sTtt2-9usv49- marshall-islands-2/ v8mxX-9iZLLi-9j3TZU-9iZL7e-9j3Upj-v8mGN-2rfbPM- State of Children: Main problems faced by children in 9iZLgH-9bivYX-9iZL7M-9iZLSX-9iZLcB-2rfbB8- Marshall Islands. Humanium: Together for Children’s kMmyhZ-9iZLwK-v8mQv-9iZLAe-9j3UuL-9j3UEf-45 Rights.36 http://www.humanium.org/en/asia-pacific/ 9iZLNZ-9j3UcU-9j3UdA marshall-islands-2/ Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. World Bank. 2016. Systematic Country Diagnostic Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact For Eight Small Pacific Island Countries: Priorities of46 Free Association with the United States. 2005. For Ending Poverty And Boosting Shared Prosperity. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Economy.htm World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution— Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Non Commercial—No Derivatives 3.0 IGO (CC BY- Economy and Investing. Incentives under the Compact NC-ND 3.0 IGO). http://documents.worldbank.org/ of Free Association with the United States. 2005. curated/en/313021467995103008/pdf/102803- http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Economy.htm REPLACEMENT-SecM2016-0025.pdf

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World Bank. Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment Emergency Preparedness & Response Plan: A guide to and Financing Initiative. September 2011.Country Risk inter-agency79 humanitarian action in the Pacific. Pacific Profile: Marshall Islands. http://documents.worldbank. Humanitarian Team. org/curated/en/598091467993177149/pdf/96746-69 Emergency Preparedness & Response Plan: A guide to BRI-Box391446B-PUBLIC-MarshallIslands.pdf inter-agency80 humanitarian action in the Pacific. Pacific Relief Web. Disasters. Marshall Islands. Pacific Humanitarian Team. Drought-2015-2016.70 http://reliefweb.int/search/ National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management results?search=marshall%20islands#river-disasters and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic Relief Web. Disasters. Marshall Islands. Marshall of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Islands/Kiribati:71 King Tides- Mar 2014. http:// Disaster Risk Management 2008-2018. https:// reliefweb.int/disaster/ss-2014-000032-mhl sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/81 Relief Web. Disasters. Marshall Islands. Marshall documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf Islands:72 Drought- May 2013. http://reliefweb.int/ Agreement to Amend Article X of the Federal disaster/dr-2013-000053-mhl Programs and Services Agreement Between the FEMA. Disaster Declarations for Republic of the Government of the United States and the Government Marshall Islands. Major Disaster Declarations. of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. March 23, 2004. http://www.fema.gov/disasters/grid/state-tribal-73 https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/ government/83 oia/about/upload/2009-0206-Agreement-to-Amend-82 The World Bank Group. Climate Risk and Adaptation Article-X.pdf Country Profile. Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management Adaptation to Climate Change. Marshall Islands. April and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic 2011. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/ of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_74 Disaster Risk Management 2008-2018. https:// country_profile_for_MHL.pdf sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/83 Willis Eschenbach. The most important seal level documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf graph. August 2, 2013.https://wattsupwiththat. National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management com/2013/08/02/the-most-important-sea-level-75 and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic graph/ of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for Chen, T., Nilles, E., Souares, Y. (April 2014). National Disaster Risk Management 2008-2018. https:// Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/84 Library of Medicine. Regional partnerships for documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf communicable76 disease detection and response in the Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands. report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. for Action (2009-2011). September 9, 2011. Environment. Environmental Issues in the Marshall http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_mhl_85 Islands.77 2005. http://www.rmiembassyus.org/ NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf Environment.htm 10 USC 404: Foreign Disaster Assistance. http:// Australian Government. Department of Foreign uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-86 Affairs and Trade. Running water at the public utility prelim-title10-section404&num=0&edition=prelim on Ebeye, Marshall Islands is turned on for only 45 10 USC 404: Foreign Disaster Assistance. http:// minutes once a week. Public distribution points like uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-87 this one are an important source of drinking water prelim-title10-section404&num=0&edition=prelim for households, May 2013. Photo: Erin Magee / 10 USC 404: Foreign Disaster Assistance. http:// DFAT. May 2, 2013. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-88 dfataustralianaid/12426516504/in/photolist-jW69qy- prelim-title10-section404&num=0&edition=prelim jW69qJ-fWZm6e-HkVXbE-Hgvh3N-cTrGLs-9jhrzY- USAID. USAID/OFDA Program Summary. Federate ee5yfc-f2W7gZ-f3bnob-cTrGv1-9jdCCB-fpEmWd- States of Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands, 9bivb2-v8m6G-9bmDG7-9j3TTA-9iZLee-9j3TY9-9iZ- and Palau. January 30, 2014. https://www.usaid.gov/ LNg-9j3UyC-v8m4P-9iZLak-v8mVF-9iZLhi-9bmzbm- sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_program_ 9iZLiv-9iZLeR-9iZLBB-9j3TXj-9iZL8B-v8mbK-9j3UMu- summary_01302014.pdf v8mr4-9j3U8m-v8mnX-9iZLKr-9j3Uab-9iZL9r-v8miw- 2rfjqD-sTtsX-sTtt2-9usv49-v8mxX-9iZLLi-9j3TZU- 9iZL7e-9j3Upj-v8mGN

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National Disaster Management Committee and Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. for Action (2009-2011). September 9, 2011. 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_mhl_97 original/national%20disaster%20management%20 NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. Prevention Web. Republic of the Marshall Islands. usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_90 National Energy Policy and Energy Action Plan. program_summary_01302014.pdf Volume 1: National Energy Policy. Majuro, September National Disaster Management Committee and 2009.98 http://www.preventionweb.net/files/28165_ South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). rmi2009nationalenergypolicy.pdf Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. Ministry of Resources and Development. Republic 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ of the Marshall Islands. “State”-Wide Assessment and original/national%20disaster%20management%20 Resource99 Strategy 2010-2015+. June 10, 2010. http:// plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. www.wflccenter.org/islandforestry/marshalls.pdf usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_91 Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management program_summary_01302014.pdf Training.100 Welcome to Disaster Risk Management National Disaster Management Committee and Training at SPC. http://gsd.spc.int/pacific-drm-training South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. Training.101 Welcome to Disaster Risk Management 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ Training at SPC. http://gsd.spc.int/pacific-drm-training original/national%20disaster%20management%20 Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. Training.102 Welcome to Disaster Risk Management usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_92 Training at SPC. http://gsd.spc.int/pacific-drm-training program_summary_01302014.pdf Secretariat of the Pacific. Disaster Risk Management National Disaster Management Committee and Training.103 Welcome to Disaster Risk Management South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Training at SPC. http://gsd.spc.int/pacific-drm-training Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. USAID Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA). Office of U.S. Foreign original/national%20disaster%20management%20 Disaster Assistance. Federated States of Micronesia and plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Fact Sheet #1 (FY) usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_93 2001.104 December 17, 2010. https://www.usaid.gov/ program_summary_01302014.pdf crisis/rmi/rmi-disaster-response-archive National Disaster Management Committee and Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. for Action (2009-2011). September 9, 2011. 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_mhl_105 original/national%20disaster%20management%20 NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_94 report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework program_summary_01302014.pdf for Action (2009-2011). September 9, 2011. National Task Force for Disaster Risk Management http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_mhl_106 and the Office of the Chief Secretary. Republic NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf of the Marshall Islands. National Action Plan for SPREP. Pacific islands meteorological strategy 2012 Disaster Risk Management 2008-2018. https:// – 2021: sustaining weather and climate services in sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/95 Pacific island countries and territories. Apia, Samoa. documents/1476marshall%20islands.pdf 2012.107 https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/ Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National progress files/documents/Atm-Cl-107.pdf report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework SPREP. Pacific islands meteorological strategy 2012 for Action (2009-2011). September 9, 2011. – 2021: sustaining weather and climate services in http://www.preventionweb.net/files/21399_mhl_ Pacific island countries and territories. Apia, Samoa. NationalHFAprogress_2009-11.pdf 2012. https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/ files/documents/Atm-Cl-107.pdf

84 Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance 108 123 SPREP. Pacific islands meteorological strategy 2012 Airports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ – 2021: sustaining weather and climate services in 124 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. Pacific island countries and territories. Apia, Samoa. Airports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ 2012.109 https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/ 125 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. files/documents/Atm-Cl-107.pdf Airports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ National Disaster Management Committee and 126 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Seaports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. 127 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ Seaports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ original/national%20disaster%20management%20 128 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. Seaports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_110 129 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. program_summary_01302014.pdf Seaports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ National Disaster Management Committee and 130 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). Seaports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ Marshall Islands. National Disaster Management Plan. 131 Republic of the Marshall Islands Port Authority. 1997. http://www.pacificdisaster.net/pdnadmin/data/ Seaports. http://rmipa.com/airports/ original/national%20disaster%20management%20 htmlIndex Mundi. Marshall Islands Roadways. http:// plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.pdfhttps://www. www.indexmundi.com/marshall_islands/roadways.132 usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/palau_111 program_summary_01302014.pdf Nations Encyclopedia. Marshall Islands- 112 NOAA Pacific Services Center. NOAA in the Pacific. htmlTransportation. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/ https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=468368 Asia-and-Oceania/Marshall-Islands-TRANSPORTATION.133 U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. Fact Sheet. U.S. relations with Marshall Nations Encyclopedia. Marshall Islands- Island.113 February 4, 2015. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ htmlTransportation. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/ ei/bgn/26551.htm Asia-and-Oceania/Marshall-Islands-TRANSPORTATION.134 U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. Fact Sheet. U.S. relations with Marshall Office of the President. Republic of the Marshall Island.114 February 4, 2015. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ Islands. RMI 2011 Census of Population and Housing ei/bgn/26551.htm Summary and Highlights Only. February 14, 2012. 115 IHS. Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment –Oceania. https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/ External Affairs. December 11, 2012. PDF. oia/reports/upload/RMI-2011-Census-Summary-135 116 IHS. Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment –Oceania. Report-on-Population-and-Housing.pdf External Affairs. December 11, 2012. PDF. htmU.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. 117 IHS. Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment –Oceania. Education.136 http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Education. External Affairs. December 11, 2012. PDF. 118 IHS. Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment –Oceania. htmU.S. Embassy. Republic of the Marshall Islands. External Affairs. December 11, 2012. PDF. Education.137 http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Education. National Disaster Management Committee. Marshall Islands National Disaster Management Plan, Pacific Media Assistance Scheme. Marshall Islands. 1997. Revised Edition. http://reliefweb.int/sites/ Media138 and Communication Landscape. http://www. reliefweb.int/files/resources/www.pacificdisaster. pacmas.org/about/countries/marshall-islands/ pdfnet_pdnadmin_data_original_national%20disaster%20 Pacific Media Assistance Scheme. Marshall Islands. management%20plan%20-%20marshall%20islands.119 Media139 and Communication Landscape. http://www. pacmas.org/about/countries/marshall-islands/ 120 IHS. Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment –Oceania. International Renewable Energy Agency. The External Affairs. December 11, 2012. PDF. Republic of Marshall Islands Renewables Readiness Nations Encyclopedia. Marshall Islands- Assessment. June 2015. http://www.irena.org/ htmlTransportation. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/ DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_RRA_ Asia-and-Oceania/Marshall-Islands-TRANSPORTATION.121 Marshall%20Islands_2015.pdf

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UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Deugan, Brannon. Petty Officer 1 Class. U.S. Pacific Marshall162 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ Command. Seabees Build Friendship with Washroom countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands Facility in Marshall Islands. December 3, 2015. http:// UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the www.pacom.mil/Media/News/Article/632585/ Marshall163 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ seabees-build-friendship-with-washroom-facility-in-176 countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands marshall-islands/ UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Ferdinando, Lisa. DoD News. U.S. Pacific Command. Marshall164 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ Dempsey Visits Strategic, Remote Kwajalein Atoll. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands February 22, 2015. http://www.pacom.mil/Media/ UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the News/Article/567154/dempsey-visits-strategic-177 Marshall165 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ remote-kwajalein-atoll/ countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands Hicks, Robert. Staff Stg. U.S. Pacific Command. UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Operation Christmas Drop supplies islands with Marshall166 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ bundles of joy. December, 17 2014. http://www.pacom. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands mil/Media/News/News-Article-View/Article/564939/ UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the operation-christmas-drop-supplies-islands-with-178 Marshall167 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ bundles-of-joy/ countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands Military.com. Pacific Partnership Arrives in Marshall UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Islands. July 2013. http://www.military.com/daily- Marshall168 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ news/2013/07/03/pacific-partnership-arrives-in-179 countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands marshall-islands.html UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the USAID. Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Marshall169 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA). Office of U.S. countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Federate States of UN Women. Asia and the Pacific. Republic of the Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Marshall170 Islands. http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/ Fact180 Sheet #1, Fiscal Year (FY) 2011. December 17, countries/fiji/co/republic-of-the-marshall-islands 2011. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00JCDB.pdf World Bank. Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment USAID. Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and and Financing Initiative. September 2011.Country Risk Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA). Office of U.S. Profile: Marshall Islands. http://documents.worldbank. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Federate States of org/curated/en/598091467993177149/pdf/96746-171 Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands. BRI-Box391446B-PUBLIC-MarshallIslands.pdf Fact181 Sheet #1, Fiscal Year (FY) 2011. December 17, South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. 2011. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00JCDB.pdf Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National Island172 National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July progress report on the implementation of the 22, 2016. PDF. Hyogo Framework for Action (2011-2013)-Interim. South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. http://www.preventionweb.net/files/29472_mhl_182 Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall NationalHFAprogress_2011-13.pdf Island173 National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July Republic of the Marshall Island- National 22, 2016. PDF. Progress Report on the Implementation of the South Pacific Community. SPC Suva Regional Office. Hyogo Framework for Action (2011-2013)- Interim. Request for Proposal. Review of Republic of Marshall http://www.preventionweb.net/files/29472_mhl_183 Island174 th National Disaster Risk Management Plan. July NationalHFAprogress_2011-13.pdf 22, 2016. PDF. Prevention Web. Marshall Islands. National 14 District Public Affairs. U.S. Coast Guard. U.S. progress report on the implementation of the Pacific Command. Coast Guard, Navy Complete Joint Hyogo Framework for Action (2011-2013)-Interim. Fisheries Patrol in Oceania, Promote Regional Stability. http://www.preventionweb.net/files/29472_mhl_184 March 25, 2016. http://www.pacom.mil/Media/News/ NationalHFAprogress_2011-13.pdf Article/704726/coast-guard-navy-complete-joint- Department of State. Bureau of Consular Affairs. U.S. fisheries-patrol-in-oceania-promote-regional-st/ Passports & International Travel. Marshall Islands. https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/ country/marshall-islands.html

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