Tort Law
Kirsty Horsey and Erika Rackley
VNIVfiRSIT-¥ PRB&& Contents in full
TABLES OF CASES xxxi TABLES OF LEGISLATION xlix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF COMMONLY CITED WORKS liii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 What is tort law? 2 1.2.1 What interests does tort law protect? 3
1.3 The disparate aims of tort law: a case study on Woodroffe-Hedley v Cuthbertson 8 1.3.1 Doing (corrective) justice 10 1.3.2 Compensation 11 1.3.3 Deterrence 16
1.3.4 Vindication 17
1.4 Tort law and the Human Rights Act 1998 18
1.5 A note on terminology 19
1.6 Conclusion 20
End-of-chapter questions 20
Further reading 21
PART I The tort of negligence 23
2 Introduction to the tort of negligence 28
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Mapping the historical development of the tort of negligence 30
2.3 Explaining the historical development of the tort of negligence 36
2.3.1 The influence of social and political thinking in an age of principles 36 2.3.2 A positive response to victims of workplace injuries 37 2.3.3 Supporting infant industries 37
2.4 The role of the modern law of negligence 38 xx CONTENTS IN FULL
2.5 The elements of the tort of negligence 39 2.5.1 Duty 40 2.5.2 Breach 41 2.5.3 Causation and remoteness 42 2.5.4 Putting it all together 42
2.6 Case example: X, Y v London Borough of Hounslow 47
2.7 Conclusion 56
End-of-chapter questions 56
Further reading 56
3 Duty of care: introduction and basic principles 58
3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 From Donoghue to Caparo—a brief history of the duty of care 61
3.3 Establishing a duty of care: Caparo Industries v Dickman 63 3.3.1 The three-stage 'test' 63 3.3.2 The Caparo three-stage test—uncovered 67 3.3.3 The incremental approach 69
3.4 Where does this leave us? 70
3.5 Conclusion 72
End-of-chapter questions 72
Further reading 73
4 Omissions and acts of third parties 74
4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Acts and omissions 76 4.2.1 Control 80 4.2.2 Assumption of responsibility 82 4.2.3 Creating or adopting risks 84
4.3 Summary of when a duty of care may be found in respect of omissions 85
4.4 Liability for acts of third parties: the general rule 85
4.5 When is there liability for acts of third parties? 86 4.5.1 A special relationship between defendant and claimant 86 4.5.2 A special relationship between defendant and third party 89 CONTENTS IN FULL xxi
4.5.3 Creating a source of danger 91 4.5.4 A failure to abate a known danger 91
4.6 Summary of when a duty of care may be found for the actions of
third parties 93
4.7 Conclusion 94
End-of-chapter questions 95
Further reading 95
5 Psychiatric harm 97
5.1 Introduction 98
5.2 What is psychiatric harm? 99
5.3 The general exclusionary rule 100
5.4 The'primary'and'secondary'victim distinction 102
5.5 Primary victims 103 5.5.1 The'stress at work'cases 106
5.6 Secondary victims 107 5.6.1 Relationship with the immediate victim 111 5.6.2 Proximity to the accident 112 5.6.3 Immediate perception and'shock' 113
5.7 Other potential claimants 114 5.7.1 Rescuers and employees 114 5.7.2 Involuntary participants 119 5.7.3 Communicators of shocking news 120
5.7.4 Self-harm by the defendant 121
5.8 Proposals for reform 122
5.9 Conclusion 123
End-of-chapter questions 124
Further reading 124
6 Public bodies 126
6.1 Introduction 127
6.2 The general exclusionary rule 128 6.2.1 Why are the judiciary reluctant to allow recovery'' 129 xxii CONTENTS IN FULL
6.3 The current position 1^1
6.4 The background to D v East Berkshire Community NHS Trust 135 6.4.1 The Osman case 135 6.4.2 The Z and TP& KM cases 139 6.4.3 The implications for domestic law 141
6.5 The emergency services and armed forces 142 6.5.1 The fire service 142 6.5.2 The ambulance service 146 6.5.3 The police 147 6.5.4 The coastguard 156 6.5.5 The armed forces 157 6.5.6 Duty: the emergency services and armed forces—at a glance 157
6.6 Other types of public body 158 6.6.1 Justiciability 158
6.7 The recognition of new types of claim—'messed up lives'? 163 6.7.1 Education-based claims 163
6.7.2 Social claims 165
6.8 Conclusion 167
End-of-chapter questions 167
Further reading 168
7 Economic loss 170
7.1 Introduction 171
7.2 What is'pure'economic loss? 172
7.3 Exceptions to the exclusionary rule: Hedley Byrne v Heller 176
7.4 Claims for pure economic loss in negligence before Murphy 178
7.5 Extending Hedley Byrne 183 7.5.1 A special relationship 183 7.5.2 Voluntary assumption of risk 184
7.5.3 Reasonable reliance 187
7.6 Beyond Hedley Byrne: the 'will cases' and a more flexible approach 190
7.7 Conclusion 195
End-of-chapter questions 196
Further reading 196 CONTENTS IN FULL xxiii
8 Breach 197
8.1 Introduction 198
8.2 A test of reasonableness 199
8.3 An objective standard 201 8.3.1 Children 204 8.3.2 Common practice 205 8.3.2.1 TheSo/amtest 206
8.4 'In all the circumstances of the case' 209 8.4.1 Emergencies 209 8.4.2 Sporting injuries 210
8.5 Setting the standard of care 211 8.5.1 Probability that the injury will occur 211 8.5.2 Seriousness of the injury 213 8.5.3 Cost of taking precautions 214 8.5.4 Social value of the activity 214 8.5.5 A balancing act 215
8.5.5.1 The Compensation Act 2006 217
8.6 Establishing breach 218
8.7 Conclusion 220
End-of-chapter questions 220
Further reading 221
9 Causation and remoteness 222
9.1 Introduction 223
9.2 Factual causation—the 'but for' test 226 9.2.1 Explaining the test 226 9.2.2 Problems with the test 227 9.2.2.1 Multiple potential causes 228 922 2 'Unjust'results 232 9.2.2 3 Indeterminate causes 238 9 2 24 Loss of chance 239 922 5 Uncertain actions 243 9.2.3 Multiple sufficient causes 244
9.3 Legal causation 246 9.3.1 Remoteness 247 9.3.1.1 The 'egg shell skull' rule 250 xxiv CONTENTS IN FULL
9.3.2 Intervening acts 250 9.3.2.1 Later negligent acts 251 9.3.2.2 Acts of the claimant 252
9.4 Conclusion 253
End-of-chapter questions 254
Further reading 255
10 Defences to negligence 256
10.1 Introduction 256
10.2 Consent 257
10.2.1 Voluntary assumption of r'isk/volenti non fit injuria 259
10.3 Illegality 263
10.4 Contributory negligence 267
10.4.1 Did the claimant fail to exercise reasonable care for their own safety? 268 10.4.2 Did this failure contribute to the claimant's damage? 269 10.4.3 By what extent should the claimant's damages be reduced? 269
10.5 Conclusion 271
End-of-chapter questions 272
Further reading 272
PART II Special liability regimes 275
11 Occupiers' liability 279
11.1 Introduction 280
11.2 The Occupiers' Liability Act 1957 281 11.2.1 When is a duty owed? 282 11.2.1.1 'Occupation or control of premises' 282 11.2.1.2 Visitors: by invitation or permission only 284 11.2.1.3 Premises: including 'any fixed or moveable structure' 285 11.2.2 What is the duty owed? 285 11.2.3 Discharging the duty 286 11.2.3.1 Children 287 11.2.3.2 'Persons in the exercise of a calling1 289 11.2.3.3 Warnings 289 11.2.3.4 Notices excluding liability 291 11.2.3.5 Faulty execution of work 291 11.2.3.6 Other defences 293 CONTENTS IN FULL xxw
11.3 The Occupiers' Liability Act 1957—annotated 293
11.4 The Occupiers' Liability Act 1984 295 11.4.1 Establishing a duty 296 11.4.1.1 Awareness of (or reasonable grounds to believe in the existence of) danger 300 11.4.1.2 Knowledge of (or reasonable grounds to believe in) the presence of a non-visitor in the vicinity of danger 301 11.4.1.3 Reasonable expectation of protection against the risk 302
11.4.2 Discharging the duty 302
11.5 The Occupiers' Liability Act 1984—annotated 302
11.6 The Occupiers' Liability Acts 1957 and 1984 at a glance 304
11.7 Conclusion 306
End-of-chapter questions 307
Further reading 308
12 Employers' liability 309
12.1 Introduction 310
12.2 An employer's personal non-delegable duty of care 312 12.2.1 Competent staff 314 12.2.2 Adequate material 315 12.2.3 A proper system of working (including effective supervision) 316 12.2.4 A safe place of work 317
12.3 Breach of statutory duty 318 12.3.1 Does the statute give rise to a claim in tort law? 319 12.3.2 Has the duty been breached and does the harm fall within the scope of the duty'' 323
12.4 Vicarious liability 325 12.4.1 The employer-employee relationship 329 12.4.2 Atortiousact 332
12.4.3 'In the course of employment' 333
12.5 Conclusion 338
End-of-chapter questions 339
Further reading 339 xxvi CONTENTS IN FULL
13 Product liability 341
13.1 Introduction 342
13.2 Defective products—claims in contract 343 13.2.1 The limits of contractual protection 346
13.3 Defective products—claims in negligence 348 13.3.1 The scope of liability under Donoghue 350 13.3.1.1 Duty 350 13.3.1.2 Breach and causation 351 13.3.2 The limits of liability under Donoghue 353
13.4 Defective products—claims under Part 1 of the Consumer Protection Act 1987 355 13.4.1 Bringing a claim 356 13.4.2 What is a'defect'? 357 13.4.3 Causation and limitations 365 13.4.4 Defences 366 13.4.5 Overall effect of the Consumer Protection Act 1987 368
13.5 Part 1 of the Consumer Protection Act 1987—annotated 369
13.6 Taking a claim under Part 1 of the Consumer Protection
Act 1987—at a glance 373
13.7 Conclusion 374
End-of-chapter questions 375
Further reading 375
PART III The personal torts 377
14 Trespass to the person 381
14.1 Introduction 382
14.2 Battery 385 14.2.1 Intention 386 14.2.2 Direct and immediate force 387 14.2.3 Unlawful (though not necessarily hostile) touching 388
14.3 Assault 389 14.3.1 Intention 390 14.3.2 Reasonable apprehension of unlawful touching 390 14.3.3 Immediate and direct threat 391 CONTENTS IN FULL xxvii
14.4 False imprisonment 393 14.4.1 Intention 393 14.4.2 A complete restriction of movement 394 14.4.3 Without legal authorisation 396
14.5 Intentional infliction of emotional or psychiatric harm 397 14.5.1 The rule in Wilkinson v Downton 398 14.5.2 The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 400
14.6 Defences 402 14.6.1 Consent 402 14.6.2 Necessity 404
14.6.3 Self-defence and contributory negligence 405
14.7 Conclusion 406
End-of-chapter questions 407
Further reading 407
15 Defamation 408
15.1 Introduction 409
15.2 The torts of defamation: libel and slander 412
15.3 Establishing a claim in defamation 414 15.3.1 Who can sue? 415 15.3.2 Judge andjury 416
15.4 A defamatory statement 417 15.4.1 Innuendo 421
15.5 Does the statement refer to the claimant? 422 15.5.1 References to a group or class 424
15.6 'Publication' 425 15.6.1 Distributors 426 15.6.2 Republication 427
15.7 Defences 428 15.7.1 Justification or truth 428 15.7.2 Privilege 431 157.2.1 Absolute privilege 431 15.7.2.2 Qualified privilege 432 15.7.3 Fair comment 436 15.7.3.1 'Of public interest' 436 xxviii CONTENTS IN FULL
15.7.3.2 Opinion not fact 437 15.7.3.3 Fair and honest 438
15.8 Offer of amends 439
15.9 Remedies: damages and injunctions 440
15.10 Conclusion 442
End-of-chapter questions 442
Further reading 443
16 Invasion of privacy 444
16.1 Introduction 445
16.2 A tort of invasion of privacy? 44*> 16.2.1 How do we protect privacy? 448
16.3 Breach of confidence 453 16.3.1 A'reasonable expectation of privacy' 458
16.4 Balancing privacy and freedom of expression 460 16.4.1 The effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 462 16.4.2 The effect of European case law 464
16.5 Limits to breach of confidence 467
16.6 Conclusion 469
End-of-chapter questions 470
Further reading 470
PART IV The land torts 473
17 Trespass to land and nuisance 475
17.1 Introduction 476
17.2 Trespass to land 477 17.2.1 Intention 477 17.2.2 Defences 479 17.2.3 Trespass ab initio 481 17.2.4 Remedies 482
17.3 Private nuisance 482 17.3.1 What is private nuisance? 484 17.3.2 Who can sue? 488 CONTENTS IN FULL xxix
17.3.3 The concept of the'reasonable user' 491 17.3.3.1 Factors that are always considered 492 17.3.3.2 A factor that is sometimes considered, dependent on the type of claim 494 17.3.3.3 Other factors that are sometimes considered, if relevant to the claim 497 17.3.4 Defences to nuisance 502 17.3.4.1 Statutory authority 502 17.3.4.2 Twenty years'prescription 504
17.4 Remedies and the human rights dimension 507 17.4.1 Injunctions and abatement 508 17.4.2 Damages 510
17.4.3 Under the Human Rights Act 1998 511
17.5 Public nuisance 516
17.6 Conclusion 517
End-of-chapter questions 518
Further reading 518
18 Actions under the rule of Rylandsv Fletcher 520
18.1 Introduction 521
18.2 The rule in Rylands v Fletcher 522 18.2.1 'The defendant brings on his land for his own purposes something likely to do mischief...' 524 18.2.2 '...if it escapes...' 525 18.2.3 '...which represents a non-natural use of land...' 526
18.3 Cambridge Water v Eastern Counties Leather pic 528
18.3.1 '... and which causes foreseeable damage of the relevant type' 528
18.4 Transcov StockportMBC 532
18.5 Standing, defences and remedies 533 18.5.1 Who can sue? 533
18.5.2 Defences and remedies 534
18.6 The nuisance/Ry/ands v F/efc/?er/negligence overlap 536
18.7 Where does Rylands v Fletcher fit today? 538
18.8 Conclusion 540
End-of-chapter questions 541
Further reading 541 xxx CONTENTS IN FULL
PART V Damages and the purpose of compensation • 543
19 Damages in tort 545
19.1 Introduction 546
19.2 What are damages for? 547
19.3 Calculating damages 551 19.3.1 How much is necessary? 551 19.3.2 Special and general damages 554 19.3.3 Death and damages 554
19.4 Independent, joint and several concurrent liabilities 556
19.5 Time limitations on claims 558
19.6 The problem with damages 562 19.6.1 Alternative sources of compensation 568 19.6.1.1 'No-fault'liability 570
19.6.1.2 First-party insurance 572
19.7 Debunking the compensation myth 574
19.8 The future of damages 576
19.9 Conclusion 577
End-of-chapter questions 578
Further reading 578
APPENDIX: ANNOTATED PROBLEM QUESTIONS 581 INDEX 599