LEARNING FROM CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES Learning from Chinese Philosophies engages Confucian and Daoist philosophies in creative interplay, developing a theory of interdependent selfhood in the two philosophical traditions. Karyn Lai draws on the unique insights of the two philosophies to address contemporary debates on ethics, community and government. Issues discussed include questions on selfhood, attachment, moral development, government, culture and tradition, and feminist queries regarding biases and dualism in ethics. Throughout the book, Lai demonstrates that Chinese philosophies embody novel and insightful ideas for addressing contemporary issues and problems. Ashgate World Philosophies Series The Ashgate World Philosophies Series responds to the remarkable growth of interest among English-language readers in recent years in philosophical traditions outside those of ‘the West’. The traditions of Indian, Chinese, and Japanese thought, as well as those of the Islamic world, Latin America, Africa, Aboriginal Australian, Pacific and American Indian peoples, are all attracting lively attention from professional philosophers and students alike, and this new Ashgate series provides introductions to these traditions as well as in-depth research into central issues and themes within those traditions. The series is particularly designed for readers whose interests are not adequately addressed by general surveys of ‘World Philosophy’, and it includes accessible, yet research-led, texts for wider readership and upper-level student use, as well as research monographs. The series embraces a wide variety of titles ranging from introductions on particular world philosophies and informed surveys of the philosophical contributions of geographical regions, to in-depth discussion of a theme, topic, problem or movement and critical appraisals of individual thinkers or schools of thinkers. Series Editors: David E. Cooper, University of Durham, UK Robert C. Solomon, University of Texas, Austin, USA Kathleen M. Higgins, University of Texas, Austin, USA Purushottama Bilimoria, Deakin University, Australia Other titles in the series: Mulla Sadra’s Transcendent Philosophy Muhammad Kamal Wisdom in Early Confucian and Israelite Traditions A Comparative Study Xinzhong Yao Buddhist Inclusivism Attitudes Towards Religious Others Kristin Beise Kiblinger The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore Kalyan Sen Gupta Learning from Chinese Philosophies Ethics of Interdependent and Contextualised Self KARYN LAI University of New South Wales, Australia # Karyn Lai 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. Karyn Lai has asserted her moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work. Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company Gower House Suite 420 Croft Road 101 Cherry Street Aldershot Burlington, VT 05401-4405 Hampshire GU11 3HR USA England Ashgate website: http://www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Lai, Karyn Learning from Chinese philosophies : ethics of interdependent and contextualised self. – (Ashgate world philosophies series) 1. Self (Philosophy) 2. Philosophy, Confucian 3. Philosophy, Taoist I. Title 181.1 01 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lai, Karyn, 1964– Learning from Chinese philosophies : ethics of interdependent and contextualised self / Karyn Lai. p. cm.—(Ashgate world philosophies series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7546-3382-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Philosophy, Confucian. 2. Philosophy, Taoist. I. Title. II. Series. B127.C65L42 2006 181 0.11—dc22 2005012754 ISBN-10: 0-7546-3382-9 Typeset by Tradespools, Chippenham, Wiltshire. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire. To my parents, Yap Soh Hua and Lai Teong Seng, For three years of loving care . and much, much more. ‘‘ , ’’ – Mencius 7A:15 ( : ’’) ‘Revising the old in order to realise the new ...’ (Kongzi’s Analects, Book Two ‘Concerning Government’) Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 Part I: Reviewing the Old 1 Self and Society in Confucian Thought 15 2 The Situated Self in Daoist Philosophy 38 3 Elements of Confucian Moral Thinking 60 4 Daoist Meta-ethics: Frameworks and Approaches 83 Part II: Realising the New 5 Confucianism as a Skills-Based Ethic 109 6 The Feminist Care Ethic and the Issue of Relationality in Chinese Philosophy 125 7 Tradition, Change and Adaptation 139 8 Harmony and Conflict in Early Chinese Philosophy 157 Conclusion 172 Glossary of Chinese Terms 179 Bibliography 183 Index 193 vii This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped in making this book a reality. I am grateful to those inspiring scholars who have provided helpful comments and suggestions on parts of this text through its many revisions: Chung-ying Cheng, Roger Ames, Kim-chong Chong, John Hanafin, John Makeham, Lauren Pfister, Martin Lu and Sor-Hoon Tan. Robert Young and Stephen Buckle are among those whose encouragement over the years has been invaluable. I am grateful to the staff at Ashgate Publishing for their patience and helpfulness: Sarah Lloyd, Publisher, and Sarah Charters, Senior Desk Editor. The completion of this book was greatly expedited by a Teaching Release Fellowship in 2003 from the Faculty of Arts, UNSW. Finally, I am deeply grateful to my family – Michael Funston, Toby Funston and Sophie Funston – for their steadfast love and devotion. ix This page intentionally left blank Introduction The Master said, ‘Reviewing the old as a means of realising the new – such a person can be considered a teacher.’ (Analects 2:11) In this book, I seek to elucidate and relate conceptions of moral cultivation, self and community within Confucian and Daoist philosophies in order to furnish a fuller picture of what Chinese philosophy has to offer to contemporary understanding in these topic areas. I also set out the argument that the Confucian and Daoist traditions provide insights of continuing value, particularly in their distinctive ways of thinking about self-realisation, ethics and the human condition. Reviewing the Old: Philosophising in Ancient China The adverse circumstances during the Spring and Autumn period, Chunqiu (722–479 BCE), followed immediately by the Warring States period, Zhanguo (479–221 BCE), precipitated the formation and development of the hundred 1 schools of thought (baijia) during the fifth to third centuries BCE. Existing feudal states were dramatically reduced in number by internecine warfare, from fifty-five to ten, among which seven were pre-eminent. The continuing conflict between these states, combined with their attempts to stave off the advance of the Qin state, proved fatal. In 221 BCE, the Qin conquered all of them, bringing an end to the extended Zhou dynasty (1122–221 BCE). Men belonging to aristocratic families were socially displaced when they lost their property, possessions and standing. In their quest to earn a living, one of the most obvious wares these gentlemen could offer was their learning. In the throes of the war, a new revolution had begun: education, up until then, had been a prerogative only of the nobility and the well-born. It was now available on the streets; some of these educated men, like Kongzi himself, were willing to teach students who were poor (Analects 7:7). However, one should not overemphasise the availability of education during this period. Though many were now publicly peddling their opinions, that is not to say that there was a public education system. These wandering 1 See Fung, 1952, pp. 132–69. 1 2 Learning from Chinese Philosophies gentlemen sought, first and foremost, patrons – men of power and status – who would take them on as advisors and allow them to put their ideas into practice. Some of Kongzi’s conversations in the Analects reveal glimpses of his life as one of those itinerant scholars – one of frustration, as few patrons shared Kongzi’s idealistic insights (see Analects 1:16; 2:21; 9:13). According to Yu-lan Fung, philosopher and intellectual historian of Chinese thought, Kongzi (551–479 BCE) himself would have had little intellectual challenge from those presenting different or opposing views, other than some ‘recluses’ he may have met.2 The Mohist challenge was possibly the only significant one to Kongzi’s ideas. However, by the time of Mengzi (385?–312? BCE), a prominent thinker of the Confucian school, adherents of the different schools frequently engaged in debates and expressly attacked the ideas proposed by their opponents. The famous Jixia Academy was set up to encourage intellectual debates and functioned largely as a think-tank for the ruler of Qi. It was reputedly set up by King Wei of Qi (357?–320? BCE), who gathered many intellectuals of the day as advisors. There was active support for lively controversy as the intention was to gather those of different persuasions. Many notable thinkers including Xunzi (310?–219? BCE) and Shen Dao (350?–275 BCE) served at the Academy. The men associated with the Academy were given ranks and honours and appointed senior grand officers so that they might deliberate and propound their viewpoints.3 It is worth noting that these men were not given political roles; they held only advisory capacities. Is this an indication that