Vol. 6, No. 7 July 1996 INSIDE • Working with Congress, p. 10 GSA TODAY • Officer and Councilor Nominees, p. 21 A Publication of the Geological Society of America • 1996 Awardees, p. 25 The Biosphere and Me Wallace S. Broecker, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of , Palisades, NY 10964

ABSTRACT was originally con- structed for the purpose of determining whether a materially closed ecological system could be maintained in equilib- rium and sustain human beings for long time periods. But after a change in man- agement, this initial goal was set aside, and it was decided to use this wonderful facility for research and education on various aspects of biogeochemistry, plant biology, and ecosystems studies. To this end, Columbia University was commissioned to manage the activities at this site, located just north of Tucson, .

SERENDIPITY One visit to Biosphere 2 and I was hooked. Now, four years later, I’m locked in an alliance with Bruno Marino in an attempt to create a world-class research center on this site. People ask me, “Wally, Biosphere 2, near Oracle, Arizona. Photo by Karen Silva. Copyright 1996 Biosphere 2 Center, Inc. how on earth did you ever get so involved in this thing?” I give a somewhat different answer each time I’m asked. The reason is visionary garden will ever be duplicated. Could we use what goes on in the closed that I am of many minds on this subject. I considered it a tragedy that this incredi- environment of Biosphere 2 to alert our No doubt part of my obsession stems from ble facility was being used to accomplish fellow earthlings to the possible conse- the sheer magnificence of the site in the what I viewed to be a frivolous goal. Main- quences of industrialization? Perhaps Arizona desert and of the Biosphere itself, taining eight people in a matter-sealed experiments could be conducted in Bio- which fits comfortably with the surround- environment for a period of two years was sphere 2 which would help us to prepare ing beauty. On another level, I realize that a clever stunt, but then what? Biosphere 2 for the impacts of the experiment the Biosphere is unique. Because the cost also grabbed my geochemical antenna. mankind is conducting in Biosphere 1 approached $150 million, no chance Biosphere 1 (Earth) is a closed system, but through the addition of fossil fuel CO2 exists that this wonderfully engineered this is a concept not so easily grasped. to the atmosphere. As is often the case for important events in one’s life, the opportunity to influence the course of Biosphere 2’s use SECOND CENTURY FUND came about through serendipity. Just eight months after the group of eight Biospheri- ans was sealed up in this glass house, Jack EARTH ◆ EDUCATION ◆ ENVIRONMENT Corliss, then a part-time consultant to the group that built and operated the Biosphere, asked me if I would be willing HAV E Y OU MADE to discuss with John Allen, the group’s leader, the possible causes for the ongoing YOUR PLEDGE YET? drop in their O2 reserve. Like almost every- one else on the planet, I had by this time read newspaper stories (largely critical) about this venture, but I was very short on MEMBERSHIP GOAL details. I had just enough information that my curiosity would not allow me to turn $1.5 MILLION down Jack’s invitation. So, I crossed the

Biosphere continued on p. 2 GSA TODAY July IN THIS ISSUE Vol. 6, No. 7 1996 The Biosphere and Me ...... 1 1997 Officer and Councilor Nominees . . . 21 Rock Stars—Mather ...... 8 In Memoriam ...... 21 GSA TODAY (ISSN 1052-5173) is published monthly by The Geological Society of America, Inc., Washington Report ...... 10 Memorial Preprints ...... 21 with offices at 3300 Penrose Place, Boulder, Colorado. Mailing address: P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301- Correction ...... 11 Bulletin and Geology Contents ...... 22 9140, U.S.A. Periodicals Class postage paid at Boulder, Colorado, and at additional mailing offices. Postmas- About People ...... 11 1996 Award Recipients ...... 25 ter: Send address changes to GSA Today, Membership GSAF Update ...... 12 1996 GeoVentures ...... 25 Services, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301-9140. GSA on the Web ...... 26 Copyright © 1996, The Geological Society of America, Environment Matters ...... 14 Inc. (GSA). All rights reserved. Copyright not claimed Letters to the Editor ...... 15 Calendar ...... 27 on content prepared wholly by U.S. Government employees within the scope of their employment. Per- Peptalk ...... 16 GSA Meetings ...... 28 mission is granted to individuals to photocopy freely all items other than the science articles to further science GSA Employment Service ...... 17 Classifieds ...... 30 and education. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without royalties or further requests, to Book Reviews ...... 20 make unlimited photocopies of the science articles for use in classrooms to further education and science, and to make up to five copies for distribution to associates in the furtherance of science; permission is granted to make more than five photocopies for other noncom- Biosphere continued from p. 1 have risen to several percent. Yet, at that mercial, nonprofit purposes furthering science and edu- time, it was only about 0.1%. Here was the cation upon payment of the appropriate fee ($0.25 per page) directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 27 Hudson to a Manhattan restaurant for a kind of puzzle designed to capture the Congress Street, Salem, Massachusetts 01970, phone dinner with John Allen—and quite a din- attention of any alert geochemist. I went (508) 744-3350 (include title and ISSN when paying). ner it turned out to be. Allen reminded me back to Lamont with visions of oxidation- Written permission is required from GSA for all other forms of capture, reproduction, and/or distribution of of an aging Indiana Jones. He flashed a reduction reactions dancing in my head. any item in this journal by any means. GSA provides somewhat crumpled graph showing the this and other forums for the presentation of diverse trend followed by the O content of Bio- SECOND THOUGHTS AND opinions and positions by scientists worldwide, regard- 2 less of their race, citizenship, gender, religion, or politi- sphere 2’s air over the period following FINALLY SUCCESS cal viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication closure. I say “flashed” because John I sought out Jeff Severinghaus who do not reflect official positions of the Society. clearly did not want any of the journalistic had begun his graduate work at Lamont at critics who might be lurking at the sur- the beginning of the spring term. Jeff was SUBSCRIPTIONS for 1996 calendar year: rounding tables to get a glimpse of this interested in the global carbon cycle and Society Members: GSA Today is provided as part of membership dues. Contact Membership Services at evidence that all was not going well in his was particularly impressed by the (800) 472-1988 or (303) 447-2020 for membership house of glass. My first thought (which approach being taken by Ralph Keeling, information. Nonmembers & Institutions: Free with ultimately proved to be correct) was the then a postdoctoral fellow at the National paid subscription to both GSA Bulletin and Geology, otherwise $45 for U.S., Canada, and Mexico; $55 else- obvious one. I said, “John, I bet you put Center for Atmospheric Research. Ralph where. Contact Subscription Services. Single copies too much organic matter in Biosphere 2’s had succeeded in developing the capabil- may be ordered from Publication Sales. Claims: For soils.” We argued the pros and cons of this ity to measure the rate of decline in Earth’s nonreceipt or for damaged copies, members contact Membership Services; all others contact Subscription idea at great length. We agreed on only O2 resulting from the burning of fossil Services. Claims are honored for one year; please allow two points. First, I would tell no one about fuels. Jeff was on the lookout for a sufficient delivery time for overseas copies. the mysterious decrease of Biosphere 2’s research problem related to this approach. O2, and second, I would visit the Bio- So, I said, “Jeff, if you can’t find one STAFF: Prepared from contributions from the GSA staff and membership. sphere after a meeting on soil radiocarbon involving Biosphere 1, why not settle for Executive Director: Donald M. Davidson, Jr. which by chance was to be held in Tucson Biosphere 2?” Jeff bit, and we immediately Science Editor: Suzanne M. Kay in a week’s time. began what turned out to be a long series Department of Geological Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 It was with great anticipation that I of investigations of possible solutions Forum Editor: Bruce F. Molnia drove across the desert to Biosphere 2 that to the seeming enigma. As Biosphere 2 U.S. Geological Survey, MS 917, National Center, May day in 1992. After a brief meeting initially contained 1.2 million moles of O2 Reston, VA 22092 Managing Editor: Faith Rogers with John Allen during which he regaled (40 tons), we figured that it shouldn’t be Production & Marketing Manager: James R. Clark me with concepts put forth by his hero, hard to track down the fate of the missing Production Editor and Coordinator: Joan E. Manly the Russian geochemist Vernadsky, I was 10 or so tons. Could the Biospherians have Graphics Production: Joan E. Manly, Adam S. McNally placed in the able hands of Biosphere 2’s removed the matching excess CO2 into chief engineer, Bill Dempster. He toured their sodium hydroxide scrubber? Could ADVERTISING me around (but, of course, not into) the there be another sink for O —the oxida- Classifieds and display: contact Ann Crawford 2 (303) 447-2020; fax 303-447-1133 fabulous Biosphere—its power plant, its tion of fixed nitrogen, of reduced sulfur, of cooling towers, and its “lungs.” Then Bill divalent iron in the soils? Rust? Clearly, in Issues of this publication are available electronically, in full color, from GSA as Acrobat “Portable Document and I sat down in his office to discuss the order to answer these questions, one of us Format” (PDF) files. These can be viewed and printed O2 problem. It was Bill who unfolded the would have to spend some time at the Bio- on personal computers using MSDOS or MSWindows, mystery by showing me that my theory sphere. Jeff offered. Dempster and Allen on Macintoshes, or on Unix machines. You must use the appropriate Adobe Acrobat Reader, available for based on excess respiration in Biosphere agreed. So, during the summer of 1992, free download from GSA and other online services. The 2’s soils could not be the whole story. Lamont’s involvement in Biosphere 2 more powerful Adobe Exchange program, available The problem was that the CO content of research began. Jeff, with considerable from commercial software suppliers, may also be used. 2 Download the issues of GSA Today and/or the appropri- Biosphere 2 air had not risen anywhere help from Bill Dempster, rather quickly ate Readers using the Uniform Resource Locator (URL): near as far as would be expected from the eliminated the CO2 scrubber and N and S http://www.geosociety.org. Issues of GSA Today are disappearance of O . For each mole of O oxidation from contention. Although the posted about the first of the month of publication. 2 2 consumed by the bacteria living in the Biospherians had indeed run their NaOH This publication is included on GSA’s annual CD-ROM GSA Journals on Compact Disc. Call GSA Publication soil, roughly one mole of CO2 would have stripper during winter months, the Sales for details. been produced. Had this CO2 accumulated amount of CO2 removed accounted for Printed with pure soy inks on recyclable paper in the U.S.A. in the closed air space, the content should only one-fifth of that necessary to balance

2 GSA TODAY, July 1996 its carbon budget. Any N and S oxidized would have appeared in the recirculating _ = water supply as NO3 and SO4. Analyses Figure 1. Hypothetical dependence of of the water showed that the amounts of uptake of CO2 by Biosphere 2 plants and these substances were far too small. The concrete on the CO2 content of its air. The required 50 or so tons of rust were clearly former increases and then plateaus at CO2 nowhere to be seen. The acid soils of Bio- contents above 1500 ppm; the latter rises sphere 2 were hardly likely to host massive linearly with CO2 content of the air. During summer months, when light is high, the CaCO3 accumulation. This left iron in the plateau rate of uptake of CO2 by plants is soils as the only remaining item on our assumed to be twice that for winter list of suspects. Jeff, again with help from months, when light is low. As the uptake of Bill Dempster, constructed a set of sealed CO2 by concrete is independent of light soil chambers with the intent of measur- level, its trend with atmospheric CO2 con- ing the ratio of O consumption to CO tent should show no seasonality. Assuming 2 2 that the rate of respiration is the same in production. Although preliminary experi- summer and winter, (i.e., 4000 moles/day), ments with these chambers did indeed the steady-state CO2 content during winter indicate that O2 was going down faster months would have to be more than four than CO2 went up, this result proved to times that in the summer in order for be an artifact of CO uptake by the soil removal to match respiration input. In this 2 hypothetical case, during summer months, moisture. Bafflement! 87% of the daily CO2 goes to plant growth During this period, Jeff began to get and 13% to the concrete carbonation. Dur- cold feet about work at Biosphere 2. The ing the winter, the split is close to 50:50. If press mercilessly hammered away at what during winter months the Biospherians they perceived to be evidence of cheating removed, through scrubbing, 600 moles of by the Biospherians. Did they import CO2 per day, then the amount to be removed by the plants and concrete hamburgers or have secret nights on the would have dropped to 3400 moles per town? Jeff and I both knew these suspi- day. This could be accomplished at a cions were unfounded. One only had to CO2 content of 3500 ppm. look at the Biospherians to see that they were on the verge of starvation. One had only to speak with them to know that they took their mission very seriously. Fur- ther, Bill Dempster proved to be a superb colleague, intelligent, knowledgeable, only 0.2 cm for the outside. This was to be carbonation, the rate presumably rises dedicated, resourceful, and totally honest. expected because the CO2 content of the linearly with CO2 content of the air. The But around us swirled the aura of public air inside the Biosphere averaged about rate of photosynthesis also rises with CO2 relations gimmicks and what we felt was eight times that outside. Although humid- content, but it asymptotically approaches a charade of great science as portrayed by ity dependent, the rate of CO2 uptake by an upper limit. The magnitude of this John Allen and his top aides. John once concrete should be roughly proportional limit depends on the light level. As the told me, “Wally, we are out to uncover to the CO2 content of the air in contact environmental conditions in Biosphere 2 the great principles of ecology.” I replied, with the concrete. Jeff multiplied the (temperature, rainfall, humidity) were “John, I’m not sure whether such princi- amount of CaCO3 per unit area by the held nearly the same around the year, ples exist. If they do, this is surely not the area of exposed concrete and, lo and light was the only seasonally variable fac- setting in which they will be discovered.” behold, found that it accounted for the tor. Indeed, during times of peak summer When Jeff suggested that he cut his con- missing CO2! insolation, the amount of sunshine nection with the Biosphere for fear that received in Arizona is slightly more than he would inherit a reputation for Barnum IT COULD HAVE BEEN VENUS twice that received in winter months. and Bailey science, I tried to dissuade him Although this finding solved the orig- While the curves shown in Figure 1 are by pointing out that geologists who inal mystery, it served to whet my appetite based on my guesses, they are at least worked in Cuba were not making a state- to understand exactly how Biosphere 2’s qualitatively correct. They clearly show ment of admiration for Castro. As we took carbon cycle was regulated. On the basis why the CO2 content of Biosphere 2’s air no money for consulting fees, research of the magnitude of the soil-respiration– underwent such strong seasonal cycles. expenditures, or even airfares, I reminded driven night-time rise of CO2 content, it Night-time CO2 rise rates suggest that soil him that we were clean! was clear that the CO2 in Biosphere 2’s respiration was more or less the same in Then, at last, the breakthrough came. atmosphere was being replaced on the summer and winter. It averaged about Jeff’s father, a high-altitude physiologist, time scale of just a few days. Yet, over peri- 4000 moles/day. During summer months, pointed out something we had never con- ods of weeks, its CO2 content oscillated higher photosynthesis rates permitted sidered; concrete takes up CO2. Portland about nearly the same daily mean, sug- most, but not all, of this CO2 to be cement initially contains about 15% gesting that some mechanism allowed Bio- removed through plant growth. By con- Ca(OH)2, which upon exposure to carbon sphere 2’s CO2 content to reach a steady trast, under winter conditions, we estimate dioxide is converted to CaCO3. CO2 in– state. In other words, a feedback loop that only about half the CO2 generated by H2O out. With the help of Taber McCal- must have been operative which tended respiration could be removed by plant lum, one of the eight resident Biospheri- to drive the CO2 content of Biosphere 2’s growth, and, hence, no plant-growth feed- ans, Jeff obtained cores of concrete atmosphere toward that level at which the back control could exist. The rest of the exposed on the inside of the Biosphere. He combined removal by plant growth and CO2 had to go into the concrete. For this compared the thickness of the CaCO3-sat- by concrete carbonation matched the to happen, a CO2 content of roughly 5000 urated rind in these cores with that for input from respiration. As shown diagram- ppm was required. Because the Biospheri- cores he obtained from concrete on the matically in Figure 1, the rates of both ans worried that the winter CO2 content outside of the structure. Those from the uptake processes are dependent upon CO2 inside had a 2-cm-thick rind compared to concentration. In the case of concrete Biosphere continued on p. 4

GSA TODAY, July 1996 3 had to back off from their self-imposed ban against any transfer of matter into Biosphere 2 by bringing in tank trucks loaded with liquid O2. By February 1993, 1.4 years after closure, the O2 content had fallen from its initial 21% to about 14%. The Biospherians, living at 3800 feet elevation, were experiencing oxygen avail- Figure 2. Diagram showing the com- ability equivalent to that at an elevation partmentalization of 17,500 feet! Again, it is easy to see from planned for Bio- Figure 1 that if respiration had been 2000 sphere 2. Colors rather than 4000 moles per day, a much indicate the three- smaller amount of CO2 would have gone fold subdivision. into the concrete (about 200 moles per Dashed lines show the positions of the day). In this case the O2 content would roll-up curtains for have declined at the rate of only 10% per temporary isolation year, and the Biospherians would not have of the rain forest run short during their two-year stay. and desert. The One interesting observation was that black arrows indi- cate the direction just prior to replenishment of O2, the of the air flow eight Biospherians were dragging around, associated with hardly capable of climbing stairs. When CO2 control. the first injection of O2 was made into one of the two external lungs, the Biospheri- ans waited behind a sealed hatch in the connecting tunnel. Their air contained 14% O2. Upon completion of the first O2 injection, the lung air contained 27% O2. When the hatch was opened and the Bio- spherians stepped into the O2-rich envi- ronment, their rejuvenation was instanta- neous. They ran and jumped for joy and even did somersaults!

MEANWHILE, OUTSIDE Biosphere continued from p. 3 made the additional mistake of extending As my interest in the Biosphere rose, the organic-rich material to a depth of so also did my discontent regarding its of their air might skyrocket to unreason- nearly 1 m (in most of Biosphere 1’s agri- management and direction. First, the advi- able levels, they operated a scrubbing cultural plots, the organic-rich A-horizon sory committee constituted by scientists of device capable of removing 500 moles of extends to about one fifth this depth). great prominence—Keith Runcorn, Jim CO per day. This dropped the net input One has only to take another look at 2 Arnold, Tom Lovejoy—resigned in protest from 4000 to 3500 moles per day and Figure 1 to realize that had its creators over the lack of information. Then, in a hence required removal by the concrete of installed one-half the amount of organic surprise move made without consultation 2000 to 1500 moles per day. Therefore, the matter, then even during the winter peri- with any of us, Jack Corliss was appointed winter CO levels stabilized at about 3750 ods Biosphere 2 would have achieved 2 director of research. Finally, a new crew of ppm instead of at 5000 ppm (see Fig. 1). steady state on the rising part of the curve seven Biospherians was installed for a sec- Unbeknownst to the builders of of growth rate vs. atmospheric CO con- 2 ond mission whose objectives were no Biosphere 2, by incorporating immense tent. The mean daily CO content would 2 clearer than those surrounding the first. In amounts of concrete into their glass have stabilized at perhaps 650 ppm during my estimation, this very expensive facility house, they prevented a Venus-like run- low-light periods and close to the outside was going nowhere. In frustration, I wrote away CO buildup. Without concrete, ambient conditions during summer 2 a long letter to Ed Bass, the patron of the even with the scrubber running full tilt, months. operation, bewailing this state of affairs during winter months, production of CO Let us return to the situation with 2 and suggesting how the Biosphere might by respiration would have exceeded regard to O . For each mole of CO gener- 2 2 be put to better use. Much to my surprise removal by about 1500 moles per day. ated by respiration, roughly 1 mole of O 2 and to that of many other Biosphere This excess would have accumulated in is consumed. To the extent that this respi- watchers, on April 1, 1994, Bass’s financial the air. Each winter day, the CO content ration CO is consumed by plants, the lost 2 2 advisors moved in and assumed manage- of Biosphere 2’s atmosphere would have O is replenished. But if, instead, the CO 2 2 ment. As it turned out, this move had risen by about 250 ppm. Over the 90-day goes into the concrete, then replenish- been in the offing well before my letter winter period, it would have climbed to a ment doesn’t occur. Hence, CO uptake by 2 was written. staggering 22,000 ppm. Biosphere 2’s concrete and O decline 2 At the time of the takeover, John Was no consideration given to this went hand in hand. When initially closed, Allen and two of his faithful, Abigail problem by Biosphere 2’s designers? I Biosphere 2 contained about 1.2 million Ailing and Mark Van Thillo, were in Japan. think not. They were organic gardeners moles of O . Averaged over the entire year, 2 Ailing and Van Thillo flew back to Arizona intent on maximizing the Biospherian’s the excess of soil respiration over plant and in the pre-dawn hours of April 3 food supply. Consequently, they put too growth was about 1000 moles per day. came across the desert and broke the seal much organic matter into their soils (arti- Hence, during the course of one year on one of Biosphere 2’s hatches. Abigail ficially created by mixing peat moss and about 0.4 million moles of O (or one- 2 went inside and ordered the resident bog mud with site excavation alluvial silt third of the total) was lost. So great was Biospherians to leave. They refused, and and clay). In the agricultural area, they this loss that eventually the management

4 GSA TODAY, July 1996 the Biosphere was resealed (but not until 15% of its air had been exchanged). This triggered arrests of Ailing and Van Thillo and generated lawsuits that have yet to be settled. Ailing claimed that she was trying to prevent something akin to the Chal- lenger disaster. The new management said that had problems arisen, the Biospherians could simply have opened any of several hatches and walked out. Further, no one can point to any aspect of Biosphere 2’s operation which might have placed it or its occupants in sudden jeopardy. Upon the departure of the Allen group, the management of Biosphere 2 was placed in the hands of Bannon and Associates, a company specializing in the reorganization of troubled business enter- prises. Their charge was twofold. First, stem the financial bleeding, and second, place the long-term operation of the Bio- sphere campus in the hands of a univer- sity or group of universities. , the CEO of Bannon Associates, took per- sonal charge of this exercise. He immedi- ately took up residence on the Biosphere 2 campus and remained there for 21 months until these tasks were completed. On January 1, 1996, Columbia University assumed management of the Biosphere. The 1-meter-deep ocean with beach and coral reef. Copyright A9 Biosphere 2. Steve Bannon turned to me, as the only external scientist actively involved at Biosphere 2 but not receiving funding from the Allen group, for advice regarding sary to entrain scientists from other this level is no laughing matter. It impedes how a legitimate scientific program might places. With some reassurance from vitamin B-12 synthesis in humans. Lack of be set up. My advice was to seek a hands- Columbia’s Vice Provost, Michael Crow, vitamin B-12 can produce brain damage.” on scientist as director of research. “Any the cooperative effort was launched. So out they came, ending once and for all candidates in mind?” he asked. “Lots, but Bruno Marino accepted the job and the use of Biosphere 2 as a human habitat. if you ask who might be good at it and arrived on site in September 1994. also likely to accept the job, then I can But the millennium had not arrived. TOWARD A NEW MISSION think of only one, Bruno Marino at Har- Seven Biospherians still resided in the This evacuation forced to the front vard. He’s a leader in the field of isotope sealed glass house. The new management the question of how exactly Biosphere 2 biogeochemistry and is looking for this had never dealt with science or scientists. might be used as a science facility. Clearly, kind of job.” A second piece of advice to The mission-to-Mars mentality hung like a the fact that it was sealed offered the Steve was that until a more permanent shroud over the whole enterprise. The out- opportunity to do budgeting for carbon arrangement could be made, Biosphere 2 side world still rolled its eyes whenever and water (and their isotopes). Also, the science should be planned jointly by sci- Biosphere 2 was mentioned. Simply put, fact that it had been running at elevated entists at Lamont and Biosphere 2. In this Bruno and I faced an uphill battle. CO2 levels suggested that we might con- way, not only would the newly created One problem was quickly resolved. duct experiments designed to explore the research group on the Oracle campus be When Bruno found that the N2O content impacts of the ongoing buildup of anthro- buttressed, but also the Lamont connec- of the then three-year-old air in Biosphere pogenic CO2 on the growth rate, water tion would provide the credibility neces- 2 had risen to 79 ppm he said, “N2O at use, and product quality of plants. But this vision faced obvious problems. As the 500 or so species of plants in Biosphere 2 had been transplanted into a new regime of light, nutrients, temperature, and water, Figure 3. Cycle of carbon isotopes in no true control or natural analogs existed. Further, all the biomes shared one air sealed Biosphere 2. Since the CO2 pro- duced in Biosphere 2 resides in its atmo- mass. Even the pH of the ocean tracked sphere for only a few days before being the ever-changing CO2 content of removed by the plants or concrete, the Biosphere 2 air. Ranging up to 4000 ppm 13 C budget must also be balanced on this in the winter and down to 1000 ppm time scale. As shown, the much greater importance of the concrete route during during the summer, the O2 in Biosphere 2 winter than during summer months gives also underwent 400 ppm diurnal cycles. rise to a large seasonal cycle in the δ13C Realizing that the transformation of for the Biosphere’s atmospheric CO2 and Biosphere 2 into a meaningful scientific hence also its plant matter. apparatus raised complicated issues, Bruno and I decided to solicit white papers from

Biosphere continued on p. 6

GSA TODAY, July 1996 5 Biosphere continued from p. 5 its western shore results in woefully low outside air. With the passage of seasons, light levels, down to 15% of the incoming it has swung back and forth through an prominent scientists knowledgeable about radiation. The pumps that recirculate the annual cycle of about 5‰. Briefly, the aspects of problems that might be water through the algae scrubber effi- cause of the offset and annual cycle ( Fig. explored at the Biosphere. The writers ciently grind up those plankton that man- 2) has to do with the split of CO2 removal convened at the Biosphere in mid-Decem- age to sprout. Nitrate, ammonia, and between photosynthesis on one hand and ber 1994. While I found this get-together phosphate are not measurable in the water concrete uptake on the other. The former, inspiring, I was disappointed that we column. While this near absence of nutri- dominated by C3 plants, exhibits a 20‰ didn’t come away with any crisp plan. ents is normal for coral lagoons, it pre- or so preference for isotopically light CO2. Rather, somewhat by default it was agreed vents us from assessing the nutrient status The latter exhibits the 4‰ difference 12 that we spend the following year trying to of a benthic community. Air injectors between the diffusion rates of CO2 and 13 understand more about how the Biosphere push 1000 CFM of air through its waters, CO2. Hence, during summer when pho- operated and carefully documenting its creating such a high gas-exchange rate tosynthesis dominates, the 13C/12C ratio of biota and soils. It was not that we didn’t that its CO2 content (and hence pH and the photosynthate is close to that in respi- = receive good suggestions, but that those CO3 ) slavishly follows that for the over- ration CO2 (i.e., – 22‰). During winter, we did receive did not provide a clear lying atmosphere. While many of the when CO2 removal by the two processes is route by which we could overcome the corals remain alive, they must by any closer to equal, the δ13C for C3 plant mat- limitations imposed on us by the design measure be in a poor state of health. ter is more negative. Because with the air- of the Biosphere. Rather, the red algae, Amphiroa, thrives injection system operating the isotopic So we entered 1995 without a clear with such rapid growth rates that divers exchange time between ocean carbon and mission. Fortunately, a man with a mis- must periodically harvest it in order to atmosphere carbon was on the order of sion soon emerged. I first became aware of prevent a complete takeover. two weeks, any CaCO3 precipitated in the Guanghui Lin at the working sessions of Clearly our first task was to revamp ocean must bear the 13C signature of the the December white-paper meeting. Bruno this monster. The air-injection system has overlying atmospheric CO2. had hired Guanghui to work on problems been replaced with a water-recirculation Despite these strides toward harness- in plant physiology. I didn’t realize what a system. The algae scrubber will be turned ing both the terrestrial and ocean systems gem he was until during a phone conver- off, and we hope that its cleansing action for research, the basic problem remained. sation he pointed out that an idea I had will be replaced by that of a healthy plank- Did these short-term experiments offer for altering the night-time temperature in tonic ecosystem. New corals will be trans- any insight into the consequences of the Biosphere 2 would interfere with his pro- planted into small areas where the light ongoing buildup of CO2 in Earth’s atmo- posed experiment. I heard him through, will be artificially enhanced. Thanks to the sphere? While sequenced changes in the but I went away a bit miffed. I soon real- efforts of Lamont’s Taro Takahashi and CO2 content of Biosphere 2 air provided a ized, however, that Guanghui had indeed Chris Langdon, we have the capability to way to at least partially compensate for come up with a sound and interesting precisely monitor pCO2 and pO2 in the the absence of a true control, such experi- strategy for the use of Biosphere 2. ocean. We also have access to Taro’s lab ments provide only information on how a ∑ Guanghui’s original idea eventually for the measurement of CO2 (to ±1 given species responds to short-term became known as the spring experiment. µmol/kg) as well as to isotope dilution changes in CO2 content of the air in It began in late February 1995 and contin- techniques for high-precision measure- which it grows. Many plant physiologists ued through May 1995. The idea was to ment of water-column Ca, Mg, Sr, and U. and most ecologists would consider such use analyzers manufactured by LiCor to Taro, Chris, and their troops have already experiments to yield a misleading guide measure the rates of CO2 uptake and H2O shown that diurnal changes in O2, to the long-term impacts of fossil ∑ loss from leaves of selected species of C3 CO2, and alkalinity can be precisely fuel–induced rise in our atmosphere’s CO2 and C4 plants from each of Biosphere 2’s determined. content. Realizing this, we decided early biomes. By creative use of the lungs and a At a planning meeting held at Lam- on that we must also find a way to con- blow-through fan system, the research ont in the summer of 1995, it was decided duct long-term experiments. I initially team was able to drop the CO2 content of that our goal would be studies of coral thought in terms of building a separate set Biosphere 2’s air in progressive steps from growth and chemistry as a function of of identical greenhouses on the Biosphere = its February closed-system value of 1800 CO3 ion content. Through chemical addi- 2 site. Each would operate at a different ppm to 400 ppm. During each week-long tions in the absence of the air-injection CO2 content. It didn’t take long to realize step, Guanghui and his team carefully system, we could decouple the ocean’s that this was impractical, for it would measured CO2 fixation and H2O transpira- pCO2 from that in the air and thereby blow the budget. During the December = tion rates for leaves of his selected plants. maintain the CO3 concentration at any 1994 white paper meeting, Bruce Kimball He also archived leaf tissue and sugar sam- desired level. By mounting “tracer” corals of the U.S. Department of Agriculture sug- ples for subsequent stable isotope analyses. on base plates, we can deploy benthic gested that the agricultural biome lent Guanghui had launched us on what we chambers to compare their carbon fixation itself to separation into three separate sec- hope will prove to be a very successful line and CaCO3 deposition to that for the tions that could be operated at different of research. As outlined below, a second entire Biosphere ocean (as tracked by CO2 levels. Although this was a very and more extensive winter experiment water-chemistry changes). We can also appealing idea, it was clear that Ed Bass, was subsequently completed. study how the Sr to Ca, U to Ca, 13C to Biosphere 2’s patron, did not look with Finding a creative use for Biosphere 12C, 11B to 10B, etc. ratios change with the favor on dividing up his glass house into 2’s ocean proved to be a more demanding ocean’s acidity and other environmental many independent compartments; so our task. Constructed as the analog of an east- variables. thinking was stalled for several months. facing Caribbean reef, this Olympic-swim- Before we proceed with any such pro- About the time our spring experiment ming-pool–sized water body has some seri- gram, however, we must assess the state of was completed, rumors began to spread ous drawbacks. Despite the deployment of health of the resident corals. Fortunately, that Columbia’s Mike Crow and Bio- an algae scrubber through which its water everything grown in Biosphere 2 carries a sphere’s Steve Bannon had been working is processed once each 3.2 days, the water very strong carbon isotope signature. behind the scenes to create an arrange- clarity remains marginal. Interception by Upon closure of Biosphere 2, the δ13C of ment under which Columbia would the overlying glass and space frame and its air was offset to a new value, which assume management of the Biosphere the afternoon shadowing by the cliff along averaged 5‰ more negative than that for campus. By July 1995, it became clear that

6 GSA TODAY, July 1996 such an arrangement was likely to come larger separation which depends on CO2 about. It was also clear that under the aus- content of the air and probably a host of pices of this arrangement Columbia would other environmental parameters whose be allowed to make reversible structural values we can set. Clearly, Biosphere 2 is changes to the Biosphere, so we decided to an ideal place to try to learn the rules use Kimball’s idea. In fact, an even more governing these fractionations. We plan to Calculation of complex sweeping plan was put into place. The Bio- exploit this potential. sphere would be divided into three quite The isotopes of water are also of inter- thermodynamic equilibria in separate parts. The wilderness (including est. Currently, water is recycled within the geochemical systems the ocean) would be completely isolated Biosphere. In order to simplify isotopic from the agricultural area. The former bookkeeping, we have plans to convert • A robust Gibbs energy minimization engine would be used for time-sequenced experi- the Biosphere to a one-pass system where • Calculations to 1Mbar and 6000 K ments, and the latter, following the Kim- all the rain and mist are supplied from a • Wide range of solid and fluid models including: ball plan, would be used for long-term single reservoir of well water (desalted by Pitzer and Helgeson-Kirkham-Flowers models experiments at three different CO2 levels. reverse osmosis). We collect, sample, and High-temperature/pressure Birch-Murnaghan model then discharge to the outside the conden- Finally, the habitat section of the Bio- C-H-O-S-N-Ar multicomponent fluid model sphere would be isolated from both the sate created by the humidity control sys- agricultural biome and the wilderness sec- tem (and by periodic condensation on the Margules and Redlich-Kister polynomials tions. It would be converted in part to a glass walls). We also collect, sample, and Quasi-chemical formalism museum and in part to research space then discharge to the outside the water • PC and Macintosh versions and run at ambient conditions. These that drains through the soils. The differ- • Perpetual license with 12 months of free upgrades “reversible” renovations are now in ence between the isotopic composition of progress. A big question remains, however: these two sinks will provide an index of What plants shall we grow in the tripartite the importance of evaporation from the agricultural area? soil surface (fractionating) and transpira- tion through the plants (nonfractionat- BIOSPHERE 2 AS A ing). Of course, we can also explore the SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY factors influencing the isotopic composi- As I was writing this article (February tion of the hydrogen and oxygen bound 2234 Wade Court 1996), a plan for use of the Biosphere as a into organic matter. Hamilton, OH 45013 USA (513) 738-4773 research facility had begun to crystallize. Bruno plans to explore the cycles of (513) 738-4407 (fax) The agricultural section would be used for N2O and other trace gases. Because no UV [email protected] long-term experiments carried out at con- light penetrates the glass ceiling, no pho- http://www.esm-software.com trolled CO2 levels. Each of its three newly todissociation occurs in its atmosphere. isolated compartments would be venti- Hence, the environment in Biosphere 2 lated during hours of darkness with out- offers insights into the production and side air, and during daytime, they would destruction mechanisms in soil for these teachers to a first-rate visitors center be ventilated with enriched CO air main- gases and, in the case of N O, also a 2 2 portraying issues related to our planet’s tained in the Biosphere’s south lung means to explore what influences the future, and to an educational outreach (stocked with CO -generating peat), so as isotopic composition of both the N and 2 program taking full advantage of the to maintain the desired average CO level O in this gas. 2 rapidly burgeoning global computer and to minimize the diurnal swings. The The list of interesting isotopic studies network. wilderness area would be run in a time- is long. How much respiration CO leav- 2 Finally, a few words about our patron, sequenced fashion, varying both air ing the soil comes from the original soil Ed Bass. I find him to be a remarkable temperature and CO content. Through organic (δ13C = – 22‰) and how much 2 man, totally dedicated to the preservation chemical additions, the ocean would be from the C3 vegetation grown on that of our planet’s wildlife. During a period programmed through its own sequence of particular plot? What controls the δ18O when competition for government sup- CO (and hence also CO= concentrations). in Biosphere 2’s CO ? 2 3 2 port is more intense than at any time So far, surprisingly enough, I’ve men- Our small research group at the since World War II, Ed has taken it upon tioned the word isotope only in a couple Biosphere can’t possibly exploit this vast himself to bankroll the launch of this of paragraphs. As both Bruno and I are array of possibilities. Rather, we are reach- effort. I personally feel an enormous sense isotope geochemists, this might appear ing out to scientists at other institutions to of obligation to make good on my a bit odd. But be assured that, indeed, join in our effort. So far, we have courted promise to him to do everything possible isotopic measurements will play a big role plant physiologist Joe Berry, Carnegie to make a success of this remarkable in the research program at Biosphere 2. Institution; coral specialist Marlin opportunity. In Bruno’s research lab reside two isotope Atkinson, University of Hawaii; and agri- ratio machines, giving him the capability culturist Bruce Kimball, U.S. Department Manuscript received March 19, 1996; revision received to measure the isotope ratios of carbon, of Agriculture. We hope that still others April 13, 1996; accepted May 1, 1996 ■ nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. As will seek us out. Only if we can build already mentioned, the carbon isotope cooperative efforts involving high-profile ratio in Biosphere 2 air changes with sea- people at leading institutions (and also son. It also undergoes a large diurnal cycle their students and postdocs) is there a Each month, GSA Today features (~6‰). Five hundred or so plants draw chance that we can reach our goal of a short science article on current topics their carbon from this isotopically variable establishing the Biosphere 2 campus as of general interest. For guidelines on supply, each one fractionating in accord a world-recognized center for biotic submitting an article, contact GSA Today with its own rules. The original 13C/12C research. Science Editor S. M. Kay, Cornell Univer- ratio in the carbon of Biosphere 2 soils Running parallel with our research sity, (607) 255-4701, fax 607-254-4780, (~ – 22‰) sets the mean. Concrete and program will be efforts to create a first- E-mail: [email protected] C4 plants fractionate by only a few per class educational program. It will range mil, while C3 plants produce a much from on-site courses for students and

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