Feminism in the Mass Media: Redressing the Imbalance and Redefining the Image of Women

FEMINISM IN THE MASS MEDIA: REDRESSING THE IMBALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN

UGWULOR CHINYERE CHRISTIANA PG/MA/07/43049

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION FACULTY OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) DEGREE IN MASS COMMUNICATION

AUGUST, 2009

CERTIFICATION

This project report written by Ugwulor, Chinyere.C, is certified as having met the requirements of the Department of Mass Communication and the School of Post Graduate Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for the award of a Master of Arts Degree in Mass Communication.

……………………………………… …………………………………… Church .S. Akpan (Ph.D) Date (Research Project Supervisor)

………….…………………………… …………………………………… Church .S. Akpan (Ph.D) Date Ag. Head of Department

……………………………………… …………………………………… External Examiner Date

DEDICATION

I remain grateful to God Almighty, the author and finisher of my faith, for his love, care and mercy upon my life all this while. I have not forgotten my loving husband, Barrister O.E. Ugwulor, who stood by me under thick and thorn, making sure that I succeeded in life, for his financial, moral support, I say may God bless him abundantly. To my loving children, Ugochukwu, Chidera and Chiemeka, for their affectionate assistance, kudos to them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to God Almighty for sustaining me through all these hurdles in life. My heartfelt gratitude to my husband for all his support financially and morally. God bless him immensely. My thanks go to my able supervisor and Head of Department, Dr. C.S. Akpan, for his patience and fatherly assistance while supervising my work, may God blessed him multiply. My kind regards to the typist Miss Charity Ezugwu who helped in making this research work a success.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ……………………………………………………………………………… i Certification …………………………………………………………………………… ii Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………... iii Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………. iv Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………. v List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………… vii Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………... viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………………. 10 1.3 Objectives of the Study …………………………………………………………… 11 1.4 Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………….. 11 1.5 Research Questions ……………………………………………………………….. 12 1.6 Theoretical Framework …………………………………………………………..... 12 1.7 Scope of the Study ………………………………………………………………… 14

1.8 Limitations of the Study …………………………………………………………… 15 1.9 Definition of Terms ………………………………….……………………………. 17 References ……………………………………………………………………...... 21

CHAPTER TWO: LITERRTURE REVIEW 2.1 Representation of Women in the Media…………………………………………. 23 2.2 The Influence of Gender Stereotypes on the Representation of women…………… 33 2.3 The Role of the Mass Media in Redressing the Imbalance and Redefining the Image of Women…………………………………………………………..….. 39 References………………………………………………………………………… 56

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design…………………………………………………………………... 61 3.2 Population of the Study …………………………………………………………... 62 3.3 Sample Size …………………………………………………………………….… 63 3.4 Sample Technique ………………………………………………………………... 64 3.5 Instrument for Data Collection …………………………………………………… 65 3.6 Method of Analysis and Presentation of Data …………………………………... 66

References………………………………………………………...... 68

CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 69 4.1 Demographic Data ………………………………………………………………. 69 4.2 Discussion and Interpretation of Data Relevant to each Research Questions…… 76 4.3 Findings …………………………………………………………………………. 79 References ……………………………………………………………………… 81 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 83 5.1 Summary ……………………………………………………………………….. 83 5.2 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 85 5.3 Recommendations ……………………………………………………………… 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………… 91 Appendix (Questionnaire)...……………………………………………………… 99

LIST OF TABLES

Table 0:1 Tabular Representation of Sample Population……………………………… 64 Table 1: Sex of Respondents ………………………………………………………… 70 Table 2: Age of Respondents ………………………………………………………… 70 Table 3: Marital Status of Respondents ……………………………………………… 71 Table 4: Occupational Distribution of Respondents ………………………………… 71 Table 5: Educational Level of Respondents …………………………………………. 72 Table 6: To What extent are Nigerian Women aware of their marginalization in the Media?………………………………………………………………………. 72 Table 7: To what extent do the mass media portray women negatively?...... 73 Table 8: Which media misrepresent women?...... 73 Table 9: What efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of women? 74 Table 10: What other effective measures can the media employ to improve the image and Status of women?...... 75 Figure 1: Level of Exposure to Democracy and Government Activities …………….. 89

ABSTRACT

This is a report of a study which evaluated the impact of FEMINISM IN THE MASS MEDIA: REDRESSING THE IMBALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN. The survey method was adopted for the study, with structured questionnaire as the instrument of data collection. A sample of 300 respondents was picked from Enugu Urban, Agbani and Nsukka towns who responded to the questionnaire. The sample was determined using a random sampling technique. The findings showed among other things that 99 percent of the respondents were in affirmative that Nigerian women are aware of their being marginalize by their male counterparts in the media. Also, the findings showed that women are subordinate to men all over the world.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

According to the World Book Encyclopedia (2004), women’s movements are group efforts, chiefly by women that seek to improve women’s lives or the lives of others. Probably the best-known women’s movements are those that have engaged in political efforts to change the roles and status of women on their own behalf are often referred to as feminist movements. Whether political, religious, or charitable, women’s movements have sought to achieve greater social, economic and political involvement for women.

Throughout history, women have usually had fewer rights and a lower social status than men. The traditional role of wife and mother dominated, and most women’s lives centered around their households. Women’s movements first developed during the

1800’s in the United State and Europe and then spread to other parts of the world. The first women’s movements arose largely in response to the coming of modern urban and industrial society. The industrial age brought about great economic and political changes, creating upheaval in women’s traditional roles and causing women to question their status and situation. The first wave of women’s movements concentrated primarily on gaining voting rights for women.

A second wave of women’s movements emerged during the 1960’s, another period of great political and social change in many areas of the world. These contemporary women’s movements have sought greater equality for women in the family, in the workplace, and in political life. Women’s movements have enabled large

12 groups of women to question and determine their rights and responsibilities. The specific goals and methods of these movements have varied from one time and place to another, depending on local customs regarding the treatment on women, on national political values and on economic conditions. But in almost every case, women’s movement have won greater freedom for women to act as self-sufficient individuals, rather than as dependent wives or daughters.

In many societies, for example, people believed women to be naturally more emotional and less decisive than men. Women were also held to be less intelligent and less creative by nature. But research shows that women and men have the same range of emotional, intellectual, and creative characteristics. Many sociologists and anthropologists maintain that various cultures have taught girls to behave according to negative stereotypes (images) of femininity, thus keeping alive the idea that women are naturally inferior?

Several developments during the late 1700’s and early 1800’s have set the stage for the rise of women’s movements. The thinkers of the Age of Reason questioned established political and religious authority and stressed the importance of reason, equality, and liberty. The new intellectual atmosphere helped justify women’s rights to full citizenship. On the eve of the French Revolution (1789-1799), the Marquis de

Condorcet, a French philosopher, spoke in favour of women’s right to vote. The British author Wollstonecraft Mary argued for women’s rationality an equality with men in her book “A vindication of the Right of Women” (1792). In the American colonies, the

Revolutionary war (1775-1783), fought in the name of liberty and equality, raised the

13 hopes of some women. Women supported the war with their sewing and farming, and by boycotting British goods and engaging in other forms of protest.

Ogundipe Molara-Leslie writes that the media in Nigeria have not given women the space they need either structurally within media administration or psychologically in the representation of women’s images. Despite the early presence of women like

Ogunbiyi Theresa, Morel Lara, etc. In the history of Nigeria media, despite their courage, their sophistication and intelligence, such women still found themselves shunted on to women’s pages.

Nweke Theresa (1989) says that a look at the statistics in the media shows that there is no woman in the approximately 100 Chief executives of broadcasting stations which constitute the top management. There were only three female editors and one acting editor among the 300 journalists of the Daily Times, a quarter of who are women.

There are only 8 out of 127 of (the News Agency of Nigeria, NAN) journalists, none of whom occupies a senior management position after four years of the inception of

ANA.Only one woman sits on the ten-member board of directors of the agency. In the

Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN), despite women being 35 percent of the total workforce, of the six assistant directors in the senior cadre, only one is a woman.

In the print media, the story is not much different though we now have two or three very visible women in top management positions. Still, what is their proportion, thinking statistically? Women are usually not seen as news editors, Chief editors or editors. Only the very rare management will consider women to these posts and more likely in positions of assistantship. Yet it is the position of news editors, Chief sub-editor and editor which can help and succeed in the reflection and projection of women’s media,

14 very importantly because news stories must pass through these officers to get to the masses, the people, the children.

The structural oppression of women is one of the root causes of women’s subordination in society. Women are constantly excluded from any, or effective, participation because they are absent from senior management positions and policy- making bodies. Conceiving of women in supportive and service roles only breeds structural asymmetry which then affects the art or science of government of the country that is the policies of the society.

It is in recognition of the basic urgency of correcting structural discriminations that the U.N. General Assembly adopted, in 1979, a resolution approving the draft convention on the draft to include measures to be taken by member-nations to eliminate discrimination in various areas including political and public life. Special attention was given to the rights of rural women and the elimination of stereotype about women.

In the ‘Forward-Looking Strategies’ for the integration of women compiled at the

Nairobi U.N. Women’s Decade Conference of 1985, as special section is devoted to the role of communications in the struggle for the upliftment of women world-wide.

Needless to say, the power of the media to make and unmake the image of a woman, to hasten or retard the progress of women in society cannot be denied or underestimated.

According to Sobowale (1989), Owens and Hunt (1985), the power of the media over minds argues that the media need to act responsibly in reporting women’s issue, particularly now in the transition programme period when there is an undeniable national movement of women’s awareness and a political period to commence soon in the second quarter.

At that moment, the press has created an atmosphere about women which is not exactly positive. The press seems to be reluctant to lend support to any attempt

(superficial though they may be) to enhance the status of women. The press will only be positive when glamorous and powerful women are involved and change has only been recent. The basic attitude to the women’s movement is still disapproving.

The press pays much attention to negative issues about women. It is as if the news for women were the ugly, the unusual, the odd, the negative, the conflictual and the disastrous. The extent to which cases of apprehended female criminals are reported and sensationalized are unprecedented in the history of media activity (Women in Nigeria

Media ( WIN 1985). More sympathetic, media would want to get to the bottom of issues:

How do the women get involved? What is the nature of their structural oppression here?

Are they their own persons or agents? How can we protect such abused and misled women? Needless to say, our fearless press does not write on or expose either the root causes or the barons of the crime world in Nigeria.

The psychology behind such dehumanization of women through sensationalism, in my view, is that, media practitioners decide from their own love of their mothers that women are saints, holy and perfect. The mother is, after all, the only female type ( not the wife ) who is respected and divinized in African culture. Once a woman falls from this grace of ‘the mother as the perfect woman,’ the journalists go at her with virulence for disappointing them and shattering their self-created icon. They make a straw woman and proceed to battle it. The truth of the matter is that women are neither saints nor devils; they are just human, capable of both good and evil. The question is: how does society contribute to their nature and behaviors?

Emphasis on the conflict among women characterizes reportage on women and their activities. An example is the election crisis of the NCWS in 1988. It is as if election crisis are not politically or humanly permissible and expectable in a human through women’s organization. It is as if the mace was not broken in 1965 in the Western House of assembly; as if constituent Assembly ‘wise men’ were not fighting like cats and dogs in 1979 and only recently at Abuja; as if women like any other group are not going to have disagreements and conflicts. Any objective analysis would show the political and human issues which produced those crises while the tactics of the women at the meeting were no different from the tactics of the men of the first and second republics. Nigerian women are also, after all, Nigerians, influenced by the life around them, hence characterized by the behaviour patterns and values of their community. Who, in any case, created the image that women are saints anyway? Women may commit less embezzlement in office, but they also disagree among themselves. Yet the reportage on women by media is hardly given s historical, sociological or scientific analysis. The reportage is often simply a cover for derision.

The volume of positive coverage accorded their achievements is not only smaller but limited to only prominent women particularly in southern media. Our Fourth Estate which constantly accuses women’s organizations of being elitist itself covers only elite women. One can, in fact, list the four or five women who are written about and interviewed adnauseam in the Nigerian media. Is this Laziness on the part of the media or a class attitude which makes the media interest themselves only in what the elite and the government are doing. What is the rural person (man or woman) doing? Why is the rural person never covered, talked about or with, interviewed and brought in to our national

17 life? Why are their opinions on national issues never reflected? Why does the press reflect the poor (Bob Marley’s children’) as criminals, fools, and psychotics in the tradition of the class-ridden British press which was the mother (or father?) of the Nigeria press?

Abounding in Nigeria are stereotypes of women who are promoted by the media.

Contrary to women’s contributions to production like farming, fishing, construction work and commerce; despite their proven mental abilities in school, women are still generally considered weak, irrational, passive and inferior and therefore not to be trusted in positions of authority. If Ige Bola and Akinjide Richard were women leaders who lost their tempers on TV as these gentlemen did in 1979, they would have been used to discredit women. If a woman leader wept freely as Mbakwe Sam, she would certainly be out of office. Stereotypes of women are beginning to affect the consideration of women in the politics of the coming political phase. A new political culture must be created which must see women’s participation as normal, or just modern, since women’s participation is in consonance with our traditional cultures and villages or organizations where the dual stratification of roles ( political and social) was quite frequent ( Okonjo

1988). Most village communities cannot think of organizing without consulting or including the women, while in our modern and westernized planning and nation-building, we can (Ogundipe-Leslie).

The stereotypes which are beginning to affect the conception of women as political leaders and activities include the false assumptions that women cannot stand the rigours of politics, campaigns, the machinations and physical violence. Women who traditionally and still are facing the rigours of agricultural production, the hurly-burly of

18 the market place, and the customs posts and borders including the hardships of poverty, are believed to be incapable of facing the rigours of politics. Can this be honest? Such a disqualifying assumption is being made when women tour and participate in the violence of campaigns as entertainers, as entourage members of the women’s wings of the parties, or as loyal wives of male candidates. Why can they not be candidates themselves?. The issue is for Nigerians to be conscientized to accept that women, having great endurance and managerial abilities, can face the rigours of politics while their physical safety as that and supported to become executives of parties, get into the decision-making bodies of community organizations and go for candidacies. Women should not only be mobilizers for others and party entertainers.

Another question frequently asked is whether a woman can be president. The question is an unnecessary sensationalism at this point because having a woman president is not the most important factor in the integration of women into political life of the nation. The creation of a broad network of conscious and active women in politics is infinitely more important and primary. A woman president could then emerge from this broad context after the politicizing and educative involvement of the woman president herself through party work and community organization. The media, however, constantly ask this diversionary and irrelevant question, perhaps, to reduce the issue of women in politics to absurdity as usual. This is not to say that it is absurd for a woman to be president, but being president is not necessarily the first and most necessary political step for women. If, however, we are asking if women have the administrative, intellectual and authoritative ability to be a president, the answer is ‘yes’ for there are many women who

19 can do as well; if not better, than some of our men who have been presidents and prime ministers.

In conclusion, the press must be fair and objective in reporting issues which affect women. They must therefore engage in interpretative journalism. More basically, they must report women in the first place because I have noticed a politics of exclusion and media black-out in the handling of events. Women’s presence, speeches and photographs are often ignored or man-handled in reporting public events. What women say or think is not considered material for news or consideration while men are quoted copiously. The press must do better in the new or political culture.

Women in the media themselves must contribute to the creation of roles of the media in the new political culture. Some print media women are in the fore- front of the struggle for the positive recreation of the women’s image in our society. Still, we must change a situation where approximately 60 percent of women’s articles and programmes are about women in the context of love and marriage (women in Nigeria Media (WIN

1985). Women readers consume much of the pulp and gossip literature and soft media programmes – vanguard, prime people, Top News, Climax and ‘Behind the clouds’.

Women in the media must help educate the taste of women. Media women must find attractive ways of introducing women to social and political issues.

It was in recognition of the power of the media to eliminate stereotype images of women and provide women with easier access to information that paragraph 206 of the

‘Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women’ called for ‘the participation of women at all levels of communication policy and decision-making, in programmes design, implementation and monitoring’. We pray that the Nigerian media

20 should help in realizing these nationally necessary objectives in their performance in the new political period to come (Ogundipe-Leslie).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.

Women have been through decades of oppression and misrepresentation in the media .

They have been marginalized in terms of the quantity and quality of information carried about them in the mass media. Despite the meaningful and valuable contributions women have made in different spheres and domains, their efforts still go unsung by the media.

Reports about women are hardly given a historical, sociological or scientific approval.

Women appear in front-page news when they are portrayed in a negative light, especially in criminal activities and other vices.

Despite proven mental abilities in school, women are still considered weak, irrational, passive, and inferior, not good enough for certain jobs and thus cannot be entrusted with certain positions of authority. The dehumanization of women in the mass media through sensationalism and negative portrayal persists because men are still in the majority as media practitioners. Many Governmental and Non-Governmental bodies like

UNESCO, NGO’S and other individual writers like Wollstonecraft Mary, a British author, Marquis de Condorcet, a French philosopher, Ogundipe-Leslie Molara, spoke in favour of women’s right to vote and participate in various policy and decision making positions.

It is based on the above outlined misrepresentations of inequality of women by the society through the mass media that this problem lies and unless this issue is properly

21 addressed and women are put in their right footing and recognized as integral part of the society, this problem will remain unsolved.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study include the following:

(1) To find out whether Nigerian women are aware of their marginalization in the

media.

(2) To find out the extent to which the mass media portray women negatively.

(3) To find out which media misrepresent women.

(4) To find out the efforts made to minimize the discrimination on the image of

women.

(5) To find out other effective measures the media can employ to improve the

image and status of women.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

An empirical study of feminism in the mass media, redressing the imbalance and redefining the image of women is significant, not only because of its scholarly contribution to the articulation of the role of the media in tacking the problem, but also as a handy document for policy makers, media campaign planners and international social workers in the area of feminism.

The study will also be a reference material for students who may engage in further studies in the area of media campaign as well as for the general public who may require information on the feminism in the mass media and redefining the image of women.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Following the objectives of the study, based on the objectives of the study, the

research questions are as follows:

(1) To what extent are Nigerian women aware of their marginalization in the media?

(2) To what extent do the mass media portray women negatively?

(3) Which media misrepresent women?

(4) What efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of women?

(5) What other effective measures can the media employ to improve the image and

status of women?

1.6. THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

The study is anchored on two theories which include the Cultural Norms Theory

and Mainstreaming or Synchronization Theory. According to Folarin (2005.), the

Cultural Norms Theory charges that through selective presentation and

tendentious emphasis on certain themes, the mass media create the impression

among their audience that such themes were part of the structure or clearly

defined cultural norms of society. As a result, impressionable members of the

public tend to pattern their own behaviour along the line of such media

presentations. In citing the theory, the critics of the mass media tended to stress

the potentially negative consequence of such media treatment of issues, while the

exponents of the media stressed the potentially beneficial influences. The negative

perspective was illustrated by McLuhan (1964):

“In 1962, when Minneapolis had been for months without a newspaper, the Chief of police said: “sure’ I miss the news, but so far as my job goes, I hope the paper never come back. There is less crime around without a newspaper to pass around the ideas”.

According to Gerbner, Cultivation Analysis is based on five assumptions:

(1) Television is essentially and fundamentally different from other mass media. Unlike books, newspapers, and magazines, television requires no reading ability. Unlike movies, television requires no mobility or cash; it is in the home, and it is free. Unlike radio, television combines pictures and sound. It can be consumed from people’s very earliest to their last years of life.

(2) Television is the “central Cultural arm” of U.S. society. Gerbner and his colleagues

(Gross, Jackson-Beeck, Jeffries –Fox, 1978) wrote that television, as our culture’s primary storyteller, is “the chief creator of synthetic cultural patterns (entertainment and information) for the most heterogeneous mass publics in history, including large groups that have never shared in any common public message systems” (P.178). The product of this sharing of messages is the mainstreaming of reality, moving individual and different people toward a shared, television-created understanding of how things are.

(3) The realities cultivated by television are not necessarily specific attitudes and opinions but rather more basic assumptions about the “facts” of life. Television does not teach facts and figures; it builds general frames of reference. Television news present broad picture of “reality” with little regard for how its “reality” matches that of its audience.

(4) The major cultural function of television is to stabilize social patterns. That is, the existing power relationships of the culture are reinforced and maintained through

24 television images. Because the media industries have a stake in the political, social, and economic structures as they exist, their stories rarely challenge the system that has enriched them.

(5)The observable, measurable, independent contributions of television to the culture are relatively small. This is not a restatement of limited effects theory, instead, Gerbner and his colleagues explained its meaning with an “Ice-age analogy”:

Just as an average temperature shift of a few degrees can lead to an ice-age… so too can a relatively small but pervasive influence make a crucial difference. The “size” of an effect is far less critical than the direction of its steady contribution .(Gerbner, Gross, Morgan and Signorielli, 1980, P.14).

In other words, even though we cannot always see media effects, they do occur and eventually will change the culture, possibly in profound ways.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This has to do with the theme; Feminism in the Mass Media: Redressing the

Imbalance and Redefining the Image of Women. Gender being a social construct that often places certain restrictions upon both sexes. Representations of masculinity and femininity are constructed by the ways in which men and women are portrayed in film, television, magazines, newspapers, music, news broadcasts and on the internet.

Therefore, the mass media is an incredibly powerful force, which has the ability to evoke positive and/or negative changes within society and relations between men and women.

Furthermore, the undeniable power of representation, which is encompassed within media messages, holds the potential to influence the status, self-image and agency of men and women, as well as emerging notions of femininities and masculinities.

The truth is that in our modern world, there is, or certainly should not be, a singular definition for the terms femininity and masculinity. However, it seems that the mass media often dismisses this fact and perpetuates belief in a singular, rigid and discriminatory view of what is feminine and what is masculine.

This places producers of contemporary media in an extremely powerful position and effectively enables them to bring about particular social roles for both men and women.

It is evident that the media has the power to impact upon society and the roles of both men and women, boys and girls. With this in mind, it is essential that media literacy is integrated into all levels of the curriculum, so that students can recognize, analyze, and deconstruct the media messages, assumptions and stereotypes they are constantly being exposed to.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Media as target audience; planned and consistent advocacy for gender equality in the media’s workplace policies and conditions of service, as well as in editorial and advertising content.

Often gender and media activists are tackling both of these angles at the same time. The media cannot be used as an effective and credible tool to advance messages on gender equality if the messages it sends daily through reports on events and issues are gender-blind or negative about women’s roles and contribution in a society. Likewise, the

26 media cannot challenge the lack of women in decision-making in governance structures, if there is a paucity of women in leadership positions within the media.

There are no standards defining codes of conduct and there are limited opportunities for women working within the media. From a Civil Society perspective, there is a greater need for in-depth discussion and informed commentary on developments.

An x-ray of media coverage of gender issues in Nigeria depicts an inglorious image of women’s exclusion or marginalization in the mass media is not unrelated to the patriarchal systems practiced in most societies.

Limited technical and financial resources, as well as organizational and institutional challenges remain a major constraint to their expansion. One of the problems in mounting successful challenges is that the media codes tend to be too general to allow unambiguous interpretation.

The changes that are reshaping the world’s media, information and communication industries around the world affect all women and men. Concentration of media ownership in fewer and fewer hands, under-funding of public service broadcasting, commodification of news and information, commercialization of new information and communication technologies – all these, allied with trade and investment regimes that undermine the ability of nation states to pursue progressive media and information policies, limit not only the accountability of national media systems but also the diversity of views that find public expression.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

FEMINISM – This is that belief and aim that women should have the same rights and

opportunities as men and the struggle to achieve this aim.

GENDER – The fact of being male or female, issues of class, race and gender, ways of

talking about men and women.

FEMINITY – This means the qualities that are considered to be typical of women.

MAINSTREAMING – This refers to cultivation analysis, television’s ability to move

people towards a common understanding of how things are.

MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES – Is the explanations and predictions of Social

phenomena relating to mass communication to various aspects of our

personal and cultural lives or social systems.

OPINION LEADERS – These are people who initially consume media content,

interpret it in light of their own values and beliefs, and then pass it on to

opinion followers from two –Step- Flow-Theory.

STEREOTYPING – This is the application of a standardized image of conception applied

to members of certain groups, usually based on limited information.

MEDIA CAMPAIGN – This can be described as an organized, intensive form of

persuasive communication with specific aims and by an authoritative

sponsorship, publicized through the various media of mass

communication. Its measure consists of acknowledgement of viewing,

reading or hearing about sponsored information on feminity in the mass

media.

SOAP OPERA – A conventional term for a very wide range of radio and television

drama in ( long – running and frequent) serial form.

PORNOGRAPHY – Is used loosely to describe media content that involves description

or display of explicit sexual themes and scenes that go beyond the

normally accepted threshold for public acceptability with reference to

offence or perceived harm (in particular to children or women, who are

victimized in some forms of pornography). It is presumed that the main

aim of media pornography (as shared with the audience) is sexual arousal.

Publication of pornography is defined differently as an offence (or not) in

different jurisdictions.

MASS – The term describes a very large but amorphous set of individuals that engage in

similar behaviour, under external influence, and are viewed by their would

be manipulators as having little or no separate identity, forms of

organization or power, autonomy, integrity or self –determination. It

represents one view of the media audience. It is used with the same

negative connotations in a number of related expressions, including mass

behaviour, mass opinion, mass consumption, mass culture, mass society,

and so on, and of course ‘mass communication’ itself.

COMMUNICATION – The term has many different meanings and definitions, but the

central idea is of a process of increased commonality or sharing between

participants, on the basis of sending and receiving ‘messages’.

CULTURE – In the present context it has a primary reference to the symbolic artifacts

produced by, media industries, but it also has a hinder reference to

customs, practices and meaning associated with the mass communication

process (production and reception). It is sometimes used to refer to the

wider framework of beliefs, ideology, and so on, of society (the

‘superstructure’) that provides the context of media operation.

INEQUALITY – This means the unfair difference between groups of people in society,

when some have more wealth, status or opportunities than others.

ILLIBERAL –This means not allowing much freedom of opinion or action.

STIGMATIZE – To treat somebody in a way that make them feel that they are very bad

or unimportant.

DISCRIMINATION – The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society

less fairly than others.

DEHUMANIZATION – To make somebody lose their human qualities such as kindness,

pity.

SOCIETY – People in general, living together in communities.

CITIZENSHIP – The legal right to belong to a particular country and accepting the

responsibilities of it.

BROADCAST – To send out programmes on television or radio or tell many people

about something, television programmes.

EDITOR – A person who is in charge of a newspaper, magazine or part of one, and who

decides what should be included.

SENSATIONALISM – This means a way of getting people’s interest by shocking words

or by presenting facts and events as worse as or more shocking than they

really are.

MISREPRESENTATION – To give information about somebody or something that is

not true or complete so that other people have the wrong impression about

them.

ASYMMETRY – This means having two sides or part that are not the same in size or

shape.

REFERENCES

Babatunde, K. (2005). The Theories of mass communication. An introduction Text. Stirling - Horden publishers (Nig) Ltd: Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

Brunsdon, C. (2000). The Feminist, the Housewife and the soap opera: Oxford University Press.

Bryant, J. (2003:427). “The appeal and impact of media sex and violence: in A.N. Valdivia (ed) A companion to media Studies, Oxford: Blackwell.

Bryant, J. (2002). Media Effects: Advances in theory and Research Hillsda, e, NJ: Erilbaum.

Cappella , J. (2002). ‘Cynicism and social trust in the new media environment,’ Journal Of communication.

CIRDDOC (2002). Violence against Women. CIRDDOC Public Education Series, No. 8 Enugu , Nigeria: Fuorth Dimension Publishers.

Cullen, K. (2000). Encyclopedia of women’s History in America. Facts on file 2nd ed.

Ezeigbo, T. Gender Issues in Nigeria; A feminine Perspective. Lagos, Nigeria. Vista Books.

Gallagher, M. (2001). Gender Setting: New Agendas for media monitoring and Advocacy. London: Zed Books in association with WACC, London.

Howard, A. (2000). Handbook of American women’s History, sage, 2nd edd.

Mba, N. (1982). Nigeria women mobilized, bukele: South California Press.

Nweke, T. (1989:2003). Women in Nigeria Society: the media women in Nigeria Today. London: Zed Books.

Okonjo, K. (1985). ‘dual Stratification,’ In Ogundipe – Leslie molara (ed) Not Spin on on the Axis of maleness: women in Nigeria, sisterhood is Global. New York: Double Day and Pelican Books.

Okunna, C. (2002). “ Mass Media Gender Images and the Nigerian Girl Child. Paper Presented at summit 2000: Youth Children and the media. Toronto, may 2000.

Schenken, S. (1999). From Suffrage to the Senate: An Encyclopedia of American Women in politics. 2 vols ABC – CL 10.

The World Book Encyclopedia. (2004). World Book Inc. a Scott Fetzer company, 233 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60601 Vol. 21

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

The subordinate roles of women to men all over the world have been well documented in the media and in the literature on women and development. All over the world the gender issues relating to women or any other disadvantaged group centre around this major problem of subordination. Since the decade for women (1976-1985) most governments have taken major economic, political and social actions to promote the improved status of women. One of these actions is the creation of focal points for women in many countries including Nigeria. But like all initiatives governments alone cannot cope with the required gender needs that will lead to equitable distribution of resources and power. Hence Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOS) and Community Based

Organizations (CBOS) as well as well meaning individuals in decision making positions need to play a complementary role in the development and employment of women. Since

1946, when the United Nations established a department for the advancement of women, the status of women has become an issue of paramount concern to all member –

Countries. In Nigeria, the National Council of Women Societies (NCWS) founded in

1958, spearheaded the initiatives for the advancement of women especially in uplifting the status of women in all spheres of life (Fagbemi.A.O.)

2.1. REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN THE MEDIA.

An examination of gender and communication in Nigeria generates a lot of misgivings and despondency about the possibility of effecting meaningful change in media representation of women, as the media continue their ‘symbolic annihilation’ of

34 women. The Nigerian society is still largely content with retaining cultural and religious practices that dehumanize women and deny them their fundamental human rights.

However, the hazards of presenting an overall review of issues and trends in this now vast field are rooted in even more complex questions than differential levels of access and use. One of the most important lessons from feminist media theory over the past twenty years has been that women’s experiences of discrimination, and indeed of identity itself, is heavily determined by differences in terms of class, economic status, age, sexuality, religion, race and nation. The inadequacies of ‘women and media’ studies that conflate the condition of white heterosexual, middle–class women with the condition of all women are now acknowledged, and contemporary media research has tried to grapple with more complex understandings of gender identity and experience.

(Gallagher,2002 P.2)

According to Gallagher,2002, the November 1995 International Comparative

Study found that out of 239 organizations studied, only eight (3%) were headed by women. A further eight had female deputy directors. Most of these were small radio companies or news magazines, and almost all were in Latin America (Gallagher, 1995a).

In 2000 the International Federation of Journalists carried out a survey covering 70% of its membership in 39 countries. It found that although more than a third of journalists are women, less than 3% of senior media executives and decision-makers are female (Peter,

2001). In the newly emerging media industries, the picture does not look much better. A study of the major telecommunications and e-companies in the USA established that only

13% of top executive are women (Jamieson, 2001). The European Union’s database on women in decision-making shows that in 2001 women held only 9% of senior

35 management jobs in the telecommunications industry in Europe (European Database,

2001).

Why do so few women break through the glass ceiling? It can be argued that survival and success in the media–particularly in market–driven systems–are dictated by the logic of commerce, to which male journalists are equally subject. Of course there is an element of truth in this. But particularly when it comes to the most senior editorial jobs another–perhaps parallel, perhaps predominant–logic seems to operate. As Canadian

Journalist Huguette Roberge puts it a decade ago: “One woman at a time (…) One at a time. We barely manage to fill the shoes left by one another” (quoted in Pelletier et al.

1989, p.91). In the years since then, the situation has barely changed. Gail Evans, former executive Vice President of CNN, believes that women themselves bear some responsibility for this. If there are “six seats at the {management} and five of them are held by men, and one is held by a woman, every other woman in the organization thinks there is one seat open. There isn’t. There are six seats open” (See Evans 2001). Wherever the responsibility lies, the ‘one at a time’ mentality vis a vis women in senior editorial management precludes the possibility of women building up the kind of power base necessary for real change – either in terms of media output or in the way that media institutions are organized.

But by far the most common obstacle to advancement that women media professionals report is the problem of male attitudes. One of the most important implications of the male dominance within media organizations is that women are judged by male standards and performance criteria. Often this means a constant effort to be taken seriously, and ‘to prove that you are as good as a man’. The hazards of not being taken

36 seriously include the risk of sexual harassment – a problem mentioned by women surveyed in 2001 IfJ study, and in countries as different as Belgium (De Claque, 2002),

Finland (Cassava et al., 1993) Senegal (Van den Wijngard, 1992) and Tunisia (AJT,

1991).Thus while their male colleagues use time after work to develop the ‘old boys’ network, some women may limit their after work contacts because they prefer to avoid

‘risky’ situations.

Perceptions of editorial management as a tough and virile domain, where men in smoke–filled rooms make decisions, are enough to stop some women from trying to become part of a world they regard as alien. Even in Sweden, generally presented to be among the most advanced in terms of gender equity, it seems that women must struggle against male–defined norms to reach a senior media management position (Djerf–Pierre,

2002). In certain sectors of the media, the overwhelmingly male culture appears to make it most impossible for women to feel comfortable, and thus to thrive professionally. A recent study of employment in British advertising found that the creative branch of the creation and design of adverts–is actually losing women. Only 17% of copywriters are women–down from 20% in 1990. Similarly, only 14% of art directors are women–the lowest level ever recorded (Klein, 2000).

The study argues that the stereotypical ‘laddish atmosphere in most creative departments is off–putting to women’. “It’s a bit like walking into the lion’s den”, said one female creative. Another said: “women find the atmosphere childish, petulant and myopic and they don’t want to put up with that”. The implications of this for advertising output seem obvious. According to research from Japan, where the advertising industry is a ‘highly political, middle–aged male–dominated sphere’ the creative process is shaped

37 by chauvinistic conventions of ‘Japanese’ feminity–cute, consumerist, obedient and tradition–oriented (Badurina Haemmerle, 2002). In a highly dramatic way, coverage of war exposes the masculine agenda of the news media, and the implicit ‘rules of the game’ that permeate media organizations. There has been considerable analysis of the absence of women’s voices even images in the reports filed from Afghanistan during and after the war in 2001 (See curry Jansen, 2002; Dunn, 2002; fried man, 2002; Joseph, 2001). Others have highlighted the ways in which women reporters themselves were side lined in the news coverage. For example, one respected British weekly newspaper ran a section dedicated to “women‘s views of the war–as though these women are not real reporters, because they were not men”. The result is that women’s views of the war were “sectioned off from other, mainstream views, and thus trivialized as weak, feminine, motherly and lily–livered rather than as valid, informed opinion” (Roper, 2002). Reflecting on women’s role in the reporting of this and other conflicts, one scholar concludes:

If women are at the fore front of an alternative rhetoric and Action against war, then there are dozens of powerful men (some who head countries, some who head newsrooms) who’ll make sure that these views are berated and second - rate – thus ensuring that the dominant language of war and ‘justice’ conquers and that the patriarchal order which supports this rhetoric is sustained” (major, 2002, p.143).

The ‘rules of the game’ also mean that most news organizations demand a willingness to express view points quickly, with bold affirmation and authority. Not all women feel comfortable with this. For instance, one British journalist noted that many of her female colleagues wanted to ‘pause’ on the unfolding of the complex events of

September 11, so as to register the scale of what was happening, before rushing into print

38 as so many men seemed ready to do (See Branston, 2002). These gender–based differences undoubtedly affect women’s perceived status within media organizations, and their chances of promotion. In their study of journalists in Fin land, Kuusava et al. (1993) concluded that women’s skills are undervalued. A journalist writing about ‘hard politics’ is supported and regarded as good promotion material. Someone writing about ‘human’ and ‘everyday’ issues is seen as unambitious (because apparently uninterested in the top priorities of the organization), and tends to remain a rank–and–file reporter. The subtlety and circularity of this process, which reflects and constructs power relations between women and men in the profession, is aptly described by Eric Neveu (1997) with respect to French journalism. The journalists he interviewed referred again and again to the conditions and professional interactions of daily news gathering and writing, conditions in which women are unlikely to succeed unless they play by the male rules. These include the practice of working late, which is perceived as the price of success – a price which women often regard as taking too high a toll on their family lives, and the male fascination with political power games, which often converts the journalist into an

‘insider’ with privileged access to sources in the political sphere.

The male–defined rules of the game which determine journalistic culture – the customs and practices which prevail within the profession – must therefore be understood not simply in terms of working conditions, definitions of news worthiness, values and priorities. In a more fundamental sense these rules permeate the very essence of what journalism ‘is’ or is believed to be, by the majority of its practitioners. Comments from male editors in response to result of a 2002 survey detailing perceptions of gender – based discrimination among women in top newsroom jobs in the USA (Strupp, 2002).

The survey carried out in 2000 by the IFJ compared results with those from a similar survey conducted a decade earlier. Ten years after that first study, many issues remained unresolved. Women still lose out in appointments to the top jobs, have less access to training, earn less than their male co–workers, are confronted with job segregation, limited promotion perspectives, sexual harassment, and continue to be forced into impossible choices between career and family life. This last is one of the major reasons given by women who drop out of media jobs in their mid–30s (De Clerq, 2002).

Nevertheless, the belief that the gender balance in the media–particularly in its higher echelons–will shift ‘in time’, as more women graduates enter the profession, is remarkably persistent. Yet UNESCO data show that the predominance of female students in Mass Communication stretches back to at least 1980 in most of the so–called developed Countries, and to at least 1986 in Chile, Egypt, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico,

Nicaragua, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay and Tunisia. How can this be reconciled with women’s minority presence–especially in senior media jobs? There seems little doubt that women are discriminated against at the stage of recruitment, simply because they are women. Studies from various Countries show that male journalism graduates are more successful than females in finding jobs in the profession

(See Gallagher,1995a). Research released in 2002 by the Minority Media

Telecommunication Council (MMTC) in the United States found that in 1999 15% of broadcasters,19% of cable companies and 19% of newspapers internationally discriminated against women. Ethnic minority groups were even more severely disadvantaged: 20% of broadcasters, 36% of cable companies and 37% of newspapers intentionally discriminated against African Americans; 24% of broadcasters, 20% of

40 cable companies and 26% of newspapers intentionally discriminated against Hispanics

(Blumrosen and Blumrosen, 2002).

Studies show that after recruitment men advance more quickly than women

(Gallagher, 1995a), and women are well aware of this. An extensive 2002 cable industry survey in the USA conducted for the National Association of Minorities in

Communications (NAMIC) found that 21% of minorities and 22% of women employed in the cable industry perceived that their race or gender, respectively, had a negative impact on opportunities at their companies (NAMIC, 2002). A further 2002 US study, for the America Press. Institute and the Pew Center for Civil Journalism discovered that

64% of the women in senior newsroom jobs who don’t see opportunities to move up say it is because men are preferred for these positions. Only a handful of men (6%) in a similar situation see sexism as a barrier (AP1/pew, 2002). The experience of discrimination is not, of course, confined to the USA. Studies in other Countries also show that women media professionals are much more likely than their male colleagues to perceive gender – based discrimination as a career problem (De clerq, 2002).

The mass media tend to reinforce traditional attitudes and often present humiliating pictures of women, which do not all reflect changing attitudes in society, and especially the changing roles of the sexes – like their counterparts in most parts of the world, the mass media in Nigeria are to a large extent guilty of presenting stereotypes and atavistic image of women. In a specific Nigerian study focusing on Kano women,

Ayesha Imama confirmed this to be the case.

Her research on the image of women as presented in the broadcast media led her to conclude that:

…the media generally produces sexists images of women, presenting stereotypes and under- represent women. This analysis of programmes in Kano confirms the general picture. Both television and radio programmes under – represent female characters and women’s viewpoints. They present dominantly negative images of women, and put forward ideological themes sanctioning women’s control and subordination. In short, they broadcast significantly conservative ideologies which carry the massage women should acquiesce to, and men strengthen and maintain relations of gender subordination.

Much the same conclusions were reached about the print media by the participants of a workshop on “women and the media in Nigeria”, in June 1991. For instances, some of the points made were that:

In the print media, more interest is focused on the women as a sex symbol performing domestic roles. Interviews with female figures always include their beauty routine, the cosmetics they use, their Love tangles with their boss and their secret peccadilloes.

The image of women so often seen in the media is internalized by the whole society. A woman who has an opposing image is usually ridiculed to bring the back into the line.

Alternatively, she may be ignored especially if she is not in a position of power. The absence of positive female image in the media sends out a far- reaching message. Of equal concern is the demeaning nature of media material targeted at women. Media editors usually have a set of idea about what should interest women.. On the whole, the selection is of light entertainment, home – making tips and advice on how to keep their male counterpart happy.

Women make up 20 percent of media staff, but occupy about four percent of decision – making positions. Although, one reason for this is the far fewer educational opportunities for them. Eno Irukwu also suggested that:

There had existed the erroneous impression that women in the art, theatre, broadcasting and mass media were too assertive and wayward, not the right materials for marriage, home – making and motherhood. To the African mentality, this was abhorrent, and parents were known to have dissuaded their daughters from pursuing careers in the media. This attitude contributed to the small number of women in the early days of broadcasting and may also have resulted in the slow pace of their advancement to managerial positions. However, such ideas have change with time.

Although, as Ineka observed, this image of the female journalist is slowly changing, the damage done is taking much longer to redress. Because the job involves meeting very many people, most of them, men in powerful positions, some people suspect female journalists of immorality. It is common for dirty rumours to go round about alleged escapades of prominent female journalists and for that to be believed as general behaviour of all others. Needless to say that the same morality test rarely apply to male journalists. So, in conservative circle, journalism is not quite yet a recommendable3 job for a “decent” woman. Anyone who is quite familiar with how media editors work would know that many changes take place on their desks. So, if a reporter files a woman

– related story, what the reader eventually gets is still very likely to be the male (editor’s) perspective on the story. A few altered word in the report make all the difference. As

Davis et al puts it “what is selected for exposure (land what is not), how it is edited, constructed and presented and by whom – all this is of paramount importance in structuring (and limiting) our perceptions”.

There are many women in the media who have to fight with their families to continue in journalism. Some employers are reluctant to provide benefits such as extended maternity leave and flexible time arrangements. This is despite the recognition

43 that women work just as hard, if not much harder than men. These women get pigeon – holed into covering only those “soft” beats that do not really count for the male decision

– makers during promotion time.

2.2. THE INFLUENCE OF GENDER STEREOTYPES ON THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “stereotype is a fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true in reality: cultural / gender / racial stereoptypes”. ( AS Hornby, 2005. P.

1449).” Stereotypes are usually based on prejudice and could be detrimental, especially if they are negative. They may be useful in helping people know what to expect from others but, once adopted, stereotypes are difficult to change. People actually tend to remember information that supports a stereotype but may not recall such that contradicts their stereotypes (Hamilton, Sherman and Ruvolo, 1990).

The mass media are replete with several female stereotype representations ranging from the “bra–burning feminists to housewives, from sex–crazed Seductresses to neurotic career women” (Macdinald, 1995:13). Each of these representations carries a negative image, some kind of stigma. They are actually different forms of condemnation. The continuous, portrayal of women as sex objects, teenage girls whose sole function is to provide sexual satisfaction to their male partners or matrons whose only duty is house keeping, would delude the women into believing that the most they can accomplish in life is becoming housewives, mistresses or homemakers. Such representations can also lead them into seeing themselves as incapable of making significant contributions to

44 society. Consequently, it will affect the women by limiting their efforts towards personal and collective development.

The media also portray stereotype representations of men, for example, the

“macho man,” the “play boy” and the “new man”. Instead of denting their image, attracting condemnation, eliciting negative response or weakening male power, these images rather attract some measure of acceptance from the media audience. The “macho

– man” look and confident poise of the male models in St. Moritz advertisement and the

MTN’s “achieve what you want to achieve” advertisement are anything but demeaning.

The male “play – boy” image could pass for the female “mistress” image. But as the practice of the media is, the women mistresses have often been criticizes and branded all sorts of names including “whores,” “seductresses”, “dangerous babes”, “home – breakers”, “husband snatchers”.

The only female image which would have given the women some positive rating, that is, the image that come close to telling the true story of today’s woman – a career woman who tries to combine her job with running her home effectively but with some effort, the media will instead in a derogatory way position her as a “superman” or the

“superwoman” who effortlessly combines her career, children, sexual pleasure and leisure pursuits. The pattern of voiceovers in television advertisements have continued to reveal the inequalities in female representation in the media. Many of the advertisements come with male voice dominating, even in products that have very little to do with men.

Female voice are heard in areas considered “feminine” such as baby products, house – cleaning detergents, washing powders, sanitary products and some luxury goods targeted at men when the appeal is at a subliminal level. The marginalization of female voices is

45 so visible that some spot announcements considered “very important” can only be taken by a male voice. In many radio stations, disc jockeys are still predominantly males, irrespective of the fact there is no proof that men are better informed in the area of music.

Males also dominate in some desks in the media, such as sports, politics, foreign affairs and the military. Women are considered not ideal for such beats. The obvious question in all of these is: what justification or explanation do media operators have in marginalizing women this much?

Stereotyping according to the world book Encyclopedia 2004: 893, is the act of holding or promoting generalized and oversimplified beliefs about members of a group.

These beliefs which commonly involve personality traits, physical appearance, and types of behaviour, are called stereotypes. In many cases, the use of stereotypes is unfair and harmful. Some others based on such characteristics as ethnicity, life style, race, sex, and sexual orientation. Common negative stereotypes include the mistaken beliefs that women are overly emotional and that African Americans are lazy.

Whenever individuals are organized into groups, people expect group members to share some common qualities. For example, an observer might classify basketball players as tall or children as lively. Such general observations become stereotypes when they are exaggerated and applied to all members of a group without regard to individual characteristics. Stereotypes can provide a basis for prejudice that is, unfair negative attitudes or feelings directed at members of a group.

Numerous cultural, sociological, and psychological factors affect the creation and maintenance of stereotypes. Television programmes, motion pictures, and other mass media presentations can influence popular beliefs about certain groups. Families and peer

46 group are probably the most important sources of children’s attitudes toward other groups.

Stereotyping is the application of a standardized image or concept to members of certain groups, usually based on limited information. Because media cannot show all realities of all things, the choices media practitioners make when presenting specific people and groups may well facilitate or encourage stereotyping. Numerous studies conducted over the last 40 years have demonstrated that women and people of colour are consistently underrepresented in all media. An exhaustive analysis of prime – time programming on all the major television networks published in 2002, for example, came to these conclusions:

First, older adults, children, and women are underrepresented on comedies and dramas shown in prime- time network television. Second, white characters, men and middle-aged individuals are Over represented… third, women tend to be overrepresented in younger adulthood, but underrepresented in later middle – age. Fourth, older adults tend to be portrayed in a more negative fashion than young adults. Latino characters… were also underrepresented… {There is} “ghettoization” of black characters in a limited number of shows. Of the black characters in our sample, half were from only seven of the {61} shows {about 11% of the shows studied}. (Harwood and Anderson, 2002, p.89).

Any of a number of theories, especially cultivation analysis, symbolic interaction, and social construction of reality, can predict the probable out come of repeated and frequent exposure to these limited and limiting representations. They influence people’s perceptions and people’s perceptions influence their behaviours. Examine your own perceptions not only of women and people of colour but of the elderly, lawyers, college

47 athletes, and people sophisticated in the use of computers. What images or stereotypes come immediately to mind?

The release of new game industry demographic statistics, and not coincidentally the movie catwomen, recently put the issue of the portrayal of women in video game into the cultural forum. Games continue to be considered a “boy thing.” One reason is that game developers “have a blind spot to females”. They continue to operate under the assumption that boys are more interested in technology and are more technologically literate than girls (chmielewski, 2003), an unfounded assumption given the fact that not only are games increasingly of both genders, but there are more females than males online.

This situation has led groups such as the media Awareness Network (www.media

– awareness.ca) to raise concerns not only about the exclusion of and disregard for girls as players, but about the degradation of women through gender stereotyping. When “girl games” first became popular, their success was based on appearance and fashion content.

Barbie’s fashion Designer and cosmopolitan Virtual Makeover, for example, both emphasized the importance of clothing, hair, makeup, and body type. And when girls began gravitating to “boy games” like Grand Theft Auto 3, Lara Croft: Tomb Raider,

BMX XXX, and Extreme Beach Volleyball, what they found was women portrayed as prostitutes, victims, and sex objects; violence directed at women; an absence of strong female characters; and wildly mispropertioned body types, specifically unnaturally small waits and large breasts.

For many years women have striven to overcome the various social and cultural restrictions imposed on them by the society. While, for example, a man is valued for what

48 he ‘does’, a woman is valued for what she ‘is’ and her ability to produce children.

Women have for long been fighting against this stereotype. Today, however, many women have sought to re–define themselves by what they are. These women, including those in the media, have met with considerable difficulties and barriers. Although a good number of women have been in the communication profession in the past years, these women have not been treated any differently from women in other professions for instance, women have for long complained about being stereotyped as weak, not serious minded, apolitical, not having image of their own, as domestic housewives. These constantly affect the image of women in communication. In the light of the above, women in various parts of the world have of late been demanding their rights and for a redress for the social injustices and inequalities they have had to bear over centuries due to their gender.

According to a UNESCO report (1980), which indicated that women represent 50 percent of the adult world population, constitute one – third of the world’s official labour force, perform nearly two – thirds of all working hours, but receive only one – tenth of the world’s income? Women are said to be increasingly pressurizing for a better treatment in the society, essentially in areas of job opportunities, remuneration, taxation and child custody. The issue is the same in communication, women employed in media houses at various times complained about domination of men in the field. Their claim is t that women are under – represented and discriminated against while some issues that are of interest to women are not given adequate coverage quantitatively and qualitatively.

However, there is the contention that the changes in status and roles of women in the Nigerian society have necessitated the concern about what feature in women’s

49 columns. Presently, there is hardly a Nigerian newspaper that does not have at least once a week under whatever title, a specific issue about women. As a rule, the columns seem to contain tips on cooking, dieting, house and family keeping matters. But when more serious issues such as cancer are highlighted articles are either reprints from foreign sources or more of the writers’ opinions.

Apart from the stereotypes associated with the editorial policy, the social class of the readership also contributes in distorting women’s pages in newspapers. Research in this area indicates that women’s pages are read by relatively few women those with social status, including club women and the educated class, most times, these club women do not read news about organizations they do not belong to, and assume that they already know the news about their own, and as a result should not bother themselves with reading about them. On the other hand, it has been found that most educated women do not read newspapers and thus find it difficult to keep abreast with what goes on around them.

However, it is one thing to identify the problems associated with women’s pages in the newspapers and quite another to devote time to find practical solutions to the problems. It is also expected to be a success when women in the media start using their offices, beats, columns, programmes to highlight their own issues, thereby, correcting the embarrassing and uncomfortable stereotypes with which they have always been portrayed.

2.3. THE ROLE OF THE MASS MEDIA IN REDRESSING THE IMBALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN. ‘The Portrayal of women in the mass media has got tremendous impact and influence on society… No matter how much at variance with reality it was initially […] it literally becomes a self – fulfilling prophecy’. (Gender and Media Reader. Student Christian Movement (India). 2007.

For activists, research is not an end in itself but a means towards a greater goal.

For the Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP), that ‘greater goal’ is gender– balanced media, an intervention at the discursive level that can potentially contribute to stemming, indeed reversing, gender–based discrimination in practice. Comparative analysis of the results of the GMMPS of 1995, 2005 evidences little positive change in selected indicators of gender in media. In the context of news–making, in news content and in journalistic practice, gender bias and negative gender stereotyping have continued unabated.

According to Fab–Ukozor Theresa Nkem in Gender and Media in Nigeria,writes that, an X–ray of media coverage of gender issues in Nigeria depicts an inglorious image of women’s exclusion or marginalization.

Several non-governmental organizations have over the years joined efforts with the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) via the Global Media

Monitoring Project (GMMP) to create awareness as it concerns the under representation of women in the news. However, women have continued to attract poor visibility to the point that they are most of the time excluded in coverage that affects their lives as individuals. Undoubtedly, the marginalization and exclusion of women in the mass media is not unrelated to the patriarchal systems practiced in most societies. Hence, the current emphasis on Gender and Development (GAD) approach as an outcome of the Beijing

Platform for Action (BPFA), no doubt, bring to bear the need for media practitioners to appreciate the plight of women by promoting gender balance in all media, including structures, policies and content.

In this vein it becomes pertinent to reason that gate–keepers of news themselves should begin to change their mindsets and attitudes in favour of women rights agenda before they can positively perform the task of shaping gender realities. It was for this reason that the Nigeria Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ), Enugu State

Chapter, after having participated in the one–day seminar on “media, Gender and

National Development”, held on February 23, 2006 as part of the activities to mark the

“Who makes the News Campaign in Nigeria” organized a week of activities in May

2006. The programme was targeted at sensitizing their members on the need to work harder and promote their image and credibility in order to attract more responsible positions in their work places and in the long run influence better media portrayal for women.

The results of the GMMP 2005 equally show that similar studies if conducted in other societies will give the same result. Rather than give fair and balanced reports of issues from women’s and men’s angles, the news media either exclude women’s voices or portray them as objects that do not have an opinion, or worse still as objects that are only fine for advertising products. This trend does not only show symptoms of insensitivity, but poor media ethics. According to the Gender and Media Advocacy

Training Workshop for Central and Eastern Europe (2006), in its words said that:

“Workshop participants shared their experiences on how women are represented in the media in central and Eastern Europe, discussed the work of their respective organizations and exchanged ideas on how to redress gender imbalances in the media”.

Participants identified the prevalence of discrimination against women, domestic violence against women and media portrayals of women as common issues prevalent in

52 their respective Countries. Other concerns identified by participants included media ownership structures, the use of gender blind language, and the continuing production and reproduction of stereotyped roles for men and women in the educational system. The workshop focused on understanding the media (its structures and functioning), strategies for developing and implementing advocacy campaigns to promote gender equality and using the media to raise awareness on women’s issues and problems.

Results from the three GMMPS have consistently indicated that women rarely feature in the news and that when they do; they are rarely cited as experts or people in positions of authority. While men are frequently consulted to offer expert opinion, women repeatedly appear in a personal capacity as eye-witnesses, giving personal views or as representatives of popular opinion. Yet, there are significant number of women professionals who can offer expert opinions in their fields of expertise.

The overall objective is to redress the erroneous assumption that professional expertise is male, and to promote a more balanced representation of women in the media.

Participants also agreed on future collaborative research focusing on the image of women in the media. Gender and media advocacy can sometimes appear to be a daunting task.

You have identified issues of concern which, among others, include the marginalization and stereotyping of women in media portrayals in your local context, the use of violence against women to attract audiences, and the confining of women to lower positions in the newsroom. Determined to challenge and improve these, you are at once faced with some tough questions: what to do, when to do it and more importantly how to conduct a consistent, sustainable and successful advocacy campaign. Where do you begin?

Following the Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP) of 2005, the World

Association for Christian Communication (WACC) developed ‘mission impossible’: A

Gender and Media Advocacy Toolkit. The toolkit is a practical resource for information, guidelines and tips on how to approach and conduct advocacy on gender and the media

Aimed primarily at activists and organizations concerned with gender in media, the toolkit covers a range of topics and offers concrete steps towards successful gender and media advocacy. The toolkit draws on diverse experiences of successful gender activism aimed at the media, and highlights case studies of successful initiatives aimed at changing gender representation and portrayal in and through the media. The toolkit is divided into two sections: section one defines the conceptual issues on gender and media advocacy. It examines why the media should be a focus of gender and feminist activism.

It highlights the key issues for gender and media advocacy using the findings of the

GMMP 2005. It also discusses the various target audience significant to achieving a change. Section two provides the practical information on the steps, tools and strategies that can be helpful in gender and media advocacy. It offers handy tips and pointers on how to engage with the media and to put gender on the news agenda.

Gender and media advocacy includes lobbying, campaigning, research, training, media monitoring, communication and alliance – building activities which seek to advance women’s rights and gender equality in and through the media. There are two angles to gender and media advocacy:

1. Media as target audience: Planned and consistent advocacy for gender equality in the media’s workplace policies and conditions of service, as well as in editorial and advertising content.

2. Media as partner and tool for getting across messages on gender equality: The strategic use of the media as a tool for advancing gender equality in all sectors, especially public policy, and to bring gender justice to the public’s attention.

At first glance, it may seem as if two different gender and media advocacy strategies are called for to address these two issues. But, by taking on the media as institutions within which the struggle for gender equality is situated, activists will create also the opportunities for priming the media to be a credible voice when it reports on and covers gender equality issues. Often gender and media activists are tackling both of these angles at the same time. The media cannot be used as an effective and credible tool to advance message on gender equality if the messages it sends daily through reports on events and issues are gender–blind or negative about women’s roles and contributions in a society. Likewise, the media cannot challenge the lack of women in decision–making in governance structures, if there is a paucity of women in leadership positions within the media.

In targeting the media to bring about more gender sensitivity and awareness to the editorial content and to ensure equal opportunity and equal access for women in media work places, gender and media activists are at the same time opening the space to engage more effectively with the media in getting across messages on gender equality. There is no easy way of dismantling the obstacles faced by women media professionals.

Mentoring systems, networking, improved recruitment procedures, management and skills training, family–friendly working conditions, setting numerical targets to redress gender imbalance in creative and decision–making post, regular monitoring, performance assessments–all these can help. But the hardest task is to change the attitudes which

55 foster inequalities, and the organizational culture that supports these attitudes. To pursue those goals, some media companies have adopted polices and action programmes. These are more often found in the broadcast media than in the press, and more often in the publicly funded than in the commercially financed sector. In that sense, market trends do not present a promising scenario for women. The pursuit of equal opportunities does not easily coincide with the pursuit of maximum financial gain. Moreover the overall context of competition in which the public media now operate has an impact on employment structures and policies – for example, by increasing the use of short–term contract and casual staff, the majority of whom are women (Gallagher, 2000). Major public broadcasters such as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), the Canadian

Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and various others which launched optimistic and well–funded equality programmes in the

1970s and 1980s, have had to struggle to justify such expenditure in the very different economic–and ideological–climate of the past decade.

But do these programmes and policies make any real different? Indeed are they actually necessary? It goes without saying that policies alone change absolutely nothing if they are not backed up by commitment at the highest level, and by line managers who

‘own’ policies and who are themselves given proper advice and support in implementing them. Given those conditions, progress does seem possible. For instance, a European review of equality policies concluded that broadcasting organizations in Den mark,

Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom that pursue a vigorous policy of positive action have managed to increase the proportion of women in their management and decision–making echelons (Gallagher 2000).

Media representations in general and of women in particular, are deeply embedded in political and economic contexts. For instance, in Asia the media in many

Countries have recently seen a spectacular transformation with arrival of new commercial cable and satellite channels, and the privatization of old state–run media has led to new market oriented content. Current studies from this region highlight the tensions and conflicts that such changes introduce into representation of women. The findings indicate a greater diversity in women’s roles and a more away from the subordinate housewife– mother image. However, studies from India and Singapore point to the often contradictory ways in which the media and advertising are accommodating to women’s multiple identities in contemporary society. Images of the ‘new woman’ as an independent consumer whose femininity remains intact, or as a hard–headed individualist, whose feminine side must be sacrificed, illustrate new stereotypes of women–whose ‘femaleness’ is always the core issue (for example Wildermuth, 2002;

Malhotra and Rogers, 2000; Lee, 1998). Others not the emergence of new and highly sexualized image in the commercial media, for example, in Cambodia and Korea–images that are considered shocking and culturally intrusive.

The numbers tell only a tiny part of the story–Behind them lies a power structure– social, political and economic–in which men are considered to be central and predominant. News values intertwine with political priorities to portray a particular view of what is important. For instance, despite China’s declaration during the welcoming ceremony of the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women that ‘gender equality is a basic state policy’, analysis of the Official party newspapers in the years following the

FWCW has shown that this is the least mentioned basic state policy. In 1996 the

People’s Daily (circulation two million) published over 5,000 articles that mentioned education policy, 400 that mentioned environmental protection, and 221 that mentioned family planning. But only 20 articles mentioned equality between women and men

(Yuan, 1999).

Issues that are particularly central in women’s lives come low down in the scale of what is regarded newsworthy. At best, they may become ‘news’ in coverage around a particular event such as Women’s Day. For instance, studies by the Media Monitoring

Project in South Africa have shown that while coverage of women’s issues increased dramatically in the run–up to National Women’s Day (9 August), there is an equally drastic decline immediately afterwords. And despite the increase in coverage around

Women’s Day, most of it fails to represent women as active participants in society. For example, the initiatives of civil society organizations are largely ignored. Infact, the overall conclusion from this study is that the sharp increase and decrease in stories around Women’s Day, allied with inadequate reporting, serve only to underline the marginalization of women in society (Media Monitoring Project, 1998).

These kinds of data illustrate just how deeply embedded is the problem of women’s portrayal in the media. It is not simply a matter of notching up a few percentage points in the share of women’s time on air or in print. What is at stake is not just the number of women who appear in the media, but their ability to influence. Despite the small shifts noted in some contemporary analyses, by and large media content still reflects masculine vision of the world and of what is important. The very fundamental nature of this vision means that women’s portrayal in the media will not be improved by increasing the number of women journalists, or by getting rid of the worst excesses of

58 sexism in advertising. What it actually required is a social and political transformation, in which women’s rights–and women’s right to communicate–are truly understood, respected and implemented both in society at large and by the media. In effect, whether or not a ‘critical mass’ of women working in the media can make on imprint on media content is a secondary question to the need for wider and deeper social change. This can be illustrated by an analysis of how the media reflect the experiences of two specific groups–older women, and women from ethnic minority communities.

A research from the USA shows that not only do women’s share of roles in prime– time television decline precipitously after the age of 40, but that as they get older, women are more likely to be cast in the role of ‘villain’. This increasing ‘villainization’ of age is, it seems, confined to women. It is actually reversed in the case of men who, as they get older, are less likely to be portrayed in the ‘villain’ role (Gerbner, 1998). The double standard is undoubtedly linked to a gender–based tendency to judge women in terms of youth and sexuality, and to regard ageing in women as synonymous with de– sexuality. Gender-based assumptions and cultural images of this sort help to shape older women’s lived experiences in sometimes devastating ways. In 1997 the Tanzanian Media

Women’s Association (TAMWA) highlighted a practice, based on beliefs about witchcraft that was leading to the killing of elderly women in one particular region of the country. TAMWA launched a well–publicized media campaign and public debate that resulted in a three–year plan of action to address the problem of the killings (Gallagher

2001). The example is an extreme one, but it reminds us that the ‘fantasy’ images of the media are rooted in particular cultural discourses, which reflect real power relations in society.

The issue of the lack of change in media content, despite the measurable presence of more women working in media organizations, has increasingly preoccupied feminist activists and researchers over the past decade. In an important 1994 essay the late Donna

Allen, founder of the Women’s Institute for Freedom of the Press, emphasized the need to bridge the gap between women’s groups and associations outside and inside the media, if women’s experiences and viewpoints were to get a better hearing (Allen, 1994). At more or less the same time, groups such as Cotidiano Mujer in Urugay, the Media

Advocacy Group in India (now known as the centre for Advocacy and research),

Women’s Media Watch in Jamaica–to mention just a few–were simultaneously thinking along the same lines (Gallagher, 2001). Their view was that without interaction and dialogue–between researchers, activists, audiences, advertisers, journalists, radio and television producers–there could be no way out of the impasse in which the debate about gender portrayal appeared to be locked. From this position, establishing a dialogue means not simple trying to get certain ‘over locked’ issues or events covered in the media–the traditional feminist approach–but working to promote an entire perspective, a gender vision within the media. In essence this approach is a form of media education. It argues that the predicable patterns of gender stereotyping also tend to produce predictable, tire media output–and that paying some attention to gender can lead to more creative, higher equality content. In other words it tries to convince media practitioners that gender is a professional issue. Important key words in this endeavour include ‘diversity’ ‘balanced’,

‘pluralism’, ‘creativity’, ‘innovation’ and ‘equality’. The development of critical media skills, aimed at engaging the general public in various types of critique and debate around media practices, is another strategy that has been vigorously and successfully pursued

60 over the past decade. Groups like Media Watch (Canada), the Women’s Media Centre

(Cambodia), Women’s Media Watch (South Africa), the Forum for citizens’ Television

(Japan), and ZORRA (Belgium) are among those who have spearheaded innovative media literacy approaches with a focus on gender. Apart from programmes aimed at the general public, some groups target specific audiences. For instance in addition to its main website, Media Watch (Canada) has a special website for young people aged under 25 which included media literacy tools and topics packaged and presented with a youthful audience in mind. Women’s Media Watch (Jamaica) has been working with young men to analyse media images of masculinity, sexuality and violence (Nicholson and small,

2002).

In many ways, media education is the bedrock on which other approaches can take root. A media literate public can help to ensure that policies and codes of practice are implemented, that monitoring studies are given credence, and that complaints and protests are listened to. Above all, an informed and media literate audience is in a position to evaluate media content, to make its opinion known, and to push for change.

Counter balancing the homogenizing trends exemplified by Google News is the fact that the Internet has brought women’s news and views into the public domain with countless websites targeted specifically, if not exclusively, at women. Many of the early sites have not survived, and some have reoriented their columns away from ‘serious’ news to more

‘popular’ content. Yet, despite the unfulfilled ‘revolution’ that many commercial sites promised, at least in the USA, it seems clear that the web has changed things for a lot of women–primarily in terms of creating strong online communities. “Women’s sits encourage women of all ages to become their own publishers and then thrust the content

…in front of eyes of millions…. Every point of view is being expressed in the public eye, and that’s a start’ (Brown, 2000). Despite the vast amount of content available on the

World Wide Web, however, little of it can be of relevance or use to most women in most parts of the world. A web search is early 2000 found some 200,000 websites related to women and gender, but only a fraction of these originated in developing Countries

(Fontaine, 2000). For most women, content–whether in the established media or the new ones–is directly linked to use. If women are to benefit from ICTS, there must be more relevant content. This pertains to both susbstance and language. Moreover, it is important that the new technologies such as computer and internet do not deflect attention from technologies that have been around for longer–radio, television and video, print, CD–

ROMS. Often a mix of ‘traditional’ and new technology is the most appropriate choice.

In many situations, the combination of Radio and Internet is proving especially powerful.

One example is FIRE (Feminist Interactive Radio Endeavour), created in 1991 as a short wave radio programme in Costa Rica. In 1998 FIRE launched an Internet Radio initiative, to broadcast women’s perspective on issues and events around the world. Its web page contains text images and embedded sound files for ‘on demand’ listening

(CDEACF, 2000). A different example comes from South Africa, where just 7% of the population can access the Internet, but 90% has radio. Here, the women’s Net community radio project is based on appropriate technology use. It includes a web–based clearinghouse of radio content on women’s issues, whose main features are a database of searchable audio features, clips and news, links to gender resources for ‘radio on the

Internet’, and a help section that includes information about how to get connected and where to get the right software (Boezak, 2000). The principle of content repackaging that

62 under lies these and many other projects is a key to providing information to

‘unconnected’ women. Many ‘connected’ women–particularly in the global South–can and do act as bridges to unconnected groups in their communities by repackaging information they find online and sharing it through other communication channels such as print, fax, telephone, radio or theatre, sometimes also translating it into more accessible language (Far well et al., 1999; Morna and Khan, 2000). These new linkages and new approaches to information provision hold great promise in terms of bringing women to the centre of media and communication developments in the future. In the name of freedom of speech, the media claim the right to represent women as they wish.

In the name of claiming the right to fair portrayal, women often find themselves denounced as ‘feminist police’. Those who are struggling for change are confronted by this double standard on a daily basis.

The situation is complicated by the fact that advocates for media change may indeed find themselves temporarily in the company of some unlikely and unwelcome travelers. Whether it is conservative groups whose aim is to limit sexual expression or authoritarian regimes that seek to censor media criticism, women striving for genuine diversity in the media must frequently side–step false allies. The shadowy presence of such unwanted company is just one of the things that can make it difficult to explain to media industry bodies, practitioners and policy–makers that the search for a policy framework within which rights and freedoms can be fairly evaluated has nothing to do with censorship, but every thing to do with openness and inclusivity. The two central axes of women’s critique of media are quite differently situated in relation to available policies and codes of conduct. Generally speaking, when it comes to issues of

63 employment, things are relatively clear. Many countries have policies, and even legislation, to prevent discrimination in the workplace. These apply to the media industry, just as they do to other occupational sectors. Frequently, media organizations have their own in–house policies and guidelines–sometimes quite elaborate–to ensure that women experience neither direct nor indirect discrimination. Although it is not always easy for employees to make effective use of these policy measures and codes, their very existence is a public statement of the rights and treatment to which women are entitled. Even if policies are implemented inadequately, or sometimes not at all, they do introduce an element of accountability against which organizations can be judged.

In the area of media content, however, the situation is utterly different. In their report on the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action’s media recommendations, Women Action 2000 concluded that one obstacle common to all regions is the lack of adequate media policy on fair gender portrayal. In many countries a strong ethos of freedom of expression means that self–regulatory measures are entrusted to media enterprises or to compliance/complaints authorities, who often action is left to private citizens, who must watch, challenge and litigate. However, in a survey of

Canadian women and men carried out for Media Watch in 2000, only 6% said they had tried to complain when they were offended by something they saw or heard in the media.

This suggests that a complaints–based system of regulation will catch only a very small proportion of those who encounter offensive content, and that other channels of public criticism are needed (Media Watch, 2000).

Another problem is that when codes are specific Vis `a vis the portrayal of women, this tends to be expressed in moralistic terms in relation to the depiction

64 provocative or obscene imagery. Often these exhortations reflect obsolete interpretations of public taste. For example, the Broadcasting Standards Code of the National

Association of Commercial Broadcasters of Japan includes a section on ‘sex’ whose portrayal must not, inter alia, “cause feelings of unpleasantness or consternation” and must “arouse undue passion on the part of the audience” (code reproduced in venkateswaran, 1996). In India the only relevant legislation is the Indecent

Representation of Women (prohibition) Act of 1986, which forbids ‘indecent representation’ of women in print media, including advertisements. The limitation of obscenity laws is not simply that they are incapable of dealing with the many aspects of gender portrayal that concern women today. The more profound problems is that if they are invoked they help to maintain an extremely conservative system of values to which many women do not subscribe.

In countries without well–developed structures for policy implementation, however, there is often a legitimate fear that legislation or codes of practice could simply strengthen the power of government to close or gap unfriendly media in an arbitrary way.

In newly emerging democracies, the specter of censorship is very real. For example, the

Women’s Media Centre in Cambodia believes that the best solution is media education– with programmes aimed at the general public, the media and relevant policy–makers–to build a climate in which the cultural assumptions that lead to stereotyping and women’s oppression are fully understood (Gallagher, 2001). Instinctive media relation to the idea of any kind of regulation, even voluntary, usually tends to be negative. From a position outside the media, it is sometimes difficult to understand vigorous opposition to attempts to introduce codes that reflect taken–for–granted precepts of civil society

65 organizations. While a requirement to ensure “accurate; fair and responsible reporting” may seem self–evident to some, by others it may be perceived as a jeopardizing

“fundamental guarantees to freedom of expression and editorial independence” (Index on

Censorship, 2002). In this mine field it is, however, important to work towards frameworks that encourage reflection on the potential conflicts between human rights, freedoms and responsibilities, and which acknowledge that ‘rights’ have a different legal basis from ‘freedoms’ (mclver, 2000).

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Survey method was used in carrying out this study because of its suitability to the nature of the research at hand, a guide for the researcher. Okoro (2001:37) described survey thus:

“Survey are useful in the measurement of public opinion, attitudes and orientations which are dominant among a large population at a particular period.” Also he went further to assert that, surveys are highly useful in the field of social/ behavioural sciences and , indeed, in any study area that has to do with human action.

According to Wimmer and Dominick (2005:167) in their book “Mass Media

Research”, described survey research thus:

“Survey research requires careful planning and execution, and the research must take into account a wide variety of decisions and problems.”

Over the years, most researchers find survey method of research very useful because of its advantages, convenience and cost effectiveness. For example, survey method;

(1) They are used to investigate problems in realistic settings. Newspaper reading,

television viewing, radio listening, and consumer behaviour patterns can be

examined where they happen rather than in laboratory or screening room

under artificial condition.

(2) The costs of surveys are reasonable when one considers the amount of

information gathered. Researchers also can control expenses by selecting from

four major types of surveys: mail, telephone, personal interview, and group

administration.

(3) A large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety of

people. Surveys allow researchers to examine many variables (demographic

and lifestyle information, attitudes, motives, intentions, and so on ) and to use

a variety of statistics to analyze the data.

(4) Survey are not constrained by geographic boundaries; they can be

conducted almost anywhere.

Data helpful to survey research already exist. Data archives, government documents, census materials, radio and television rating books, an voter registration lists can be used as primary sources (main sources of data) or as secondary sources

(supportive data) of information. With archive data, it is possible to conduct an entire survey study without ever developing a questionnaire or contacting a single respondent.

3.2. POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of the study cuts across both males and females in Enugu State but more particularly in the mass media especially in broadcasting who are aware that

Nigerian women are marginalized.

Enugu State, with its capital at Enugu, has a total population of 2.45 million going by census 2006 figure. The State was divided into three senatorial zones. Enugu West,

Enugu East and Enugu North. Out of the three senatorial zones, three towns were chosen through a random sampling technique. The towns chosen were Enugu Urban, Nsukka and

Agbani. Enugu Urban was chosen because of the metropolitan nature of the town. The town enjoys the presence of the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, Enugu, Nigeria

Television Authority Enugu, many Tertiary institutions, Army Barracks, Police Stations and Newspaper houses where many readers of newspapers, magazines and listeners and viewers of television broadcast are located and where some well exposed and educated people lives who can reason rationally as respondents.

Nsukka town is one of the towns that made up the area of the study and was chosen because of the presence of the University of Nigeria (UNN) from where learned people from different fields of disciplines were drawn as respondents. It also has other tertiary institutions like the Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) and also the Lion FM which is situated right inside the UNN.

Agbani town was also chosen because of the rising profile of the town as a cosmopolitan area. The presence of the Nigerian Law School and other State and Federal

Establishment in the town, provide avenues for drawing well exposed respondents from the area. Also, the inhabitants are exposed to private, federal and state owned radio and television stations.

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE

Based on the nature of the study and the size of the population under study, a sample of 300 respondents randomly was drawn from the study population. Sampling therefore, is the process of obtaining that small representative sample from the large population. A major educational Institutions in Enugu Urban and Nsukka town because of the presence of the University of Nigeria which embraces people from different fields of disciplines.

Wimmer and Dominick (2005:466) describe sample as a “ subgroup or subset of a population or universe.” Generally speaking, the larger the scope of the study, the larger the sample size should be.

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

The sample population for the study was drawn from the three chosen towns through random sampling which involves giving all members of the population an equal chance of being selected for the study.

Each of the three towns was randomly selected representing different areas where the respondents were picked. Random sampling technique was used in the study in order to make the sample representative of the population that yields it. This presupposes that all members of the population can be identified and reached. Because of the elimination of Bias, the method helps to increase the representative ness of the sample eventually to be chosen.

For each of the three towns, 100 respondents were selected. Attempts were made however, to balance both sexes (male and female) in the selection process and also to balance the social groups ( students, workers, artisans, media practitioners etc .)

TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF SAMPLE POPULATION

CATEGORY OF RESPONDENTS MALES FEMALES TOTAL

1. ENUGU URBAN TOWN

(a) NTA ENUGU 20 10 30 (b) FRCN ENUGU 15 5 20 (c) CIVIL SERVANTS 15 10 25 (d) ARTISANS 13 12 25

2. NSUKKA TOWN (a) UNN STAFF/STUDENTS 10 20 30 (b) COLLEGE OF MEDICAL SCIENCE (ESUT). 10 10 20 (c) OGIGE MARKEK TRADERS. 15 10 25 (d) BANK WORKERS 10 15 25

3. AGBANI TOWN (a) NIGERIAN LAW SCHOOL 15 15 30 STAFF/STUDENTS (b) CIVIL SERVANTS/ OFFICE 10 10 20 WORKERS (c) POLICE OFFICERS 15 10 25 (d) ARTISANS 10 15 25

TABLE 1:1 DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE POPULATION IN ORDER OF FEMINISM IN THE MASS MEDIA: REDRESSING THE IM BALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN

3.5 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

Self - administered questionnaire was the instrument used in this research for data collection. Obasi (1999) described the questionnaire as “a vital instrument for gathering information from people about their opinions, attitudes, behaviours and perceptions on given phenomena.

In the same angle, Sobowale (1983) quoted in Okoro (2001, page 52) stated that:

After subjects have been exposed to experimental stimuli the questionnaire can be and it is often used or elicits information from the subjects about what they have seen or experienced. It can also be employed when supplementary information is necessary after a content analysis to answer questions that Content analysis may not be able to answer.

In view of this position of the questionnaire in data collection, it becomes very important to properly construct questions that would measure actually what the researcher wants to measure. The questionnaire is designed in a way to elicit the answers necessary to provide the required solution to the research questions.

The questionnaire that was used in the study consisted of three major parts. Part one is the instruction section which gives a guide to the respondent on how to fill the questionnaires. Part two contains five questions Demographic and Psychographic characteristics of the respondents. Part three is the main body of the questionnaire, which starts from question number six to question number twenty-two, that is eighteen questions arranged and sequentially to elicit necessary data were structured while some others were unstructured that is open-ended. Open-ended questions and the opportunity to express their opinions based on their own discretions.

3.6 VALIDATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Wimmer and Dominick (2005, P. 159) defines validity as the degree to which an instrument actually measures what it sets out to measure and intimately connected with the procedures used in the analysis.

3.7 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The validated questionnaires were administered to three categories of respondents before the actual test. The idea was to determine the degree to which the pre-test agrees with the post-test. This buttresses what Wimmer and Dominick (2005; P156) say that a study is reliable when repeated measurement of the same material results in similar decisions or conclusions,

3.8 METHOD OF ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

The method of data presentation and interpretation that was used in the study was

Tabulation/Percentage methods. Tabulation helps to present the research data in a concise and comprehensive manner in such a way that anybody viewing it at once understands

77 what the research is all about as well as the result of the findings. The data collated from the field were analyzed using simple percentages and frequency distribution tables.

REFERENCES

Jackson, B. (1979). The demonstration of power; Violence profile No. 10. Journal Communication, 29(3).

Kincaid, D. (2000). Mass media, ideation and behaviour. Communication Research. Lowery, S. (1995). Milestones in mass Communication Research (3rd ed). White Plains. N.Y: Longman.

Lubbers, M. (2000). Exposure to newspapers and attitudes forward Ethnic minorities. Howard Journal of Communication, 11 (2).

Ohaja, E. (2003). Mass Communication Research and project Report Writing. John Letterman Ltd. Surulere, Lagos, Nigeria.

Okoro, M. (2001). Mass Communication Research: Issues and Methodologies. A.P. Express Publishers. 3 Obollo Road, Nsukka.

Rossler, P. (2001). Do talk shows cultivate adolescent’s views of the World? A Prolonged – exposure experiment. Journal Communication, 51 (1).

Wicks, R. (1992). Improvement overtime in recall of media information. Journal Of Broadcasting and Electronic media, 36(3).

Wimmer, R. (2001). Analysis of panel study participation methods. Replication of 1995 Results. Denver: Wimmer Research.

Wimmer, D. (2005). Mass Media Research, An Introduction. Wadsworth. Thomson Learning 10, Davis Drive Belmont, Ca 3094 USA.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter presents and analyses data gathered from the field work which is used in facilitating this research. Simple Percentages with tables were used in data explanation. The formular for the simple percentage is :

No. of Respondents x 100 Population 1

No. of Respondents means the total number of respondents who answered a particular question where as population is the total population sample.

PART A 4.1 Demographic Data In all the 300 copies of the questionnaires administered, 297 were returned and found usable, representing 99 percent rate. A breakdown of the returned questionnaires indicated that the University of Nigeria, Nsukka accounted for 105 (35.0%) responses; Enugu metropolis 102 (34.0%); and

Agbani town 90 (30.0%).

Male respondents dominated the sample by 155, giving rise to 52.2 percent while female respondents were 142, resulting to 47.8 percent (see table 1).

Table 1: Sex of Respondents Sex Frequency Percentage Male 155 52.2 Female 142 47.8 Total 297 100.0%

The age distribution of the respondents indicated that those within the age range of 15-30 years were 21, resulting 7.1 percent. Respondents within the ages of 31-40 years were 132, 44.4 percent while those respondents that fall within the age range of 41-50 were 123, 41.4 percent and respondents within the age range of 51-above were 21, 7.1 percent. (See table 2).

Table 2: Age of Respondents Age Range Frequency Percentage 18-30 21 7.1 31-40 132 44.4 41-50 123 41.4 50-above 21 7.1 Total 297 100.0%

The data on marital status indicated that a large number of respondents 165, representing 55.6 percent were married while 132, representing 44.4 percent were single (see table 3).

Table 3: Marital Status of Respondents Marital Status Frequency Percentage Married 165 55.6 Single 132 44.4 Total 297 100.0%

The data on occupational distribution showed that an increased number of the respondents 90 were civil servants, representing 30.0 percent; followed by student respondents who were 60, accounting for 20.0percent.

Another in line were businessmen/women respondents 57, representing 19.0 percent, while trader respondents 50, accounting for 17.0 percent. Also, housewife respondents, 40, representing 14.0 percent

Table 4: Occupational Distribution of Respondents Occupation Frequency Percentage Student 60 20.0 Civil servant 90 30.0 Businessman/woman 57 19.0 Trader 50 17.0 Housewife 40 14.0 Total 297 100.0%

Analysis of data on educational level of respondents showed that all have acquired one level of education or the other. About 35 (12.0%) had

82 attended Secondary School. Seventy (24.0%) respondents were graduates in tertiary education, Ninety (30.0%) respondents were post-graduates, Sixty- two (21.0%) respondents were undergraduates while forty (13.0%) respondents fell into others’ category. All the respondents were literacy encountered.

Table 5: Educational Level of Respondents Level of education Frequency Percentage Secondary school 35 12.0 Undergraduate 62 21.0 Graduate 70 24.0 Post-graduate 90 30.0 Others 40 13.0 Total 297 100.0% PART B Table 6: To what extent are Nigerian Women aware of their marginalization in the media? Options Frequency Percentage Yes 290 98 No 7 2 Total 297 100%

From the above, 290 respondents representing 98 percent agreed that they are aware of their marginalization in the media, while 7 respondents disagreed that they are not aware of their marginalization in the media.

Table 7: To what extent do the mass media portray women negatively? Station Frequency Percentage Television 150 51 Radio 110 37 Newspaper 37 12 Total 297 100%

Respondents that strongly agreed that television is often the medium that portrays the image of women negatively were 150 (51%), also respondents that agreed that radio is often the medium that portrays women negatively were 110 (37%) while respondents that disagreed that newspaper is often the medium that portrays women negatively were 37 (12%).

Table 8: Which media misrepresent women? Station Frequency Percentage Newspaper 187 63 Radio 110 37 Total 297 100%

From the table above, 187 respondents representing 63 percent agreed that newspaper is the media that misrepresent women while 110 respondents representing 37 percent believes that radio is the media that misrepresent women.

Table 9: what efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of women? Organizational Frequency Percentage Bodies Non-Governmental 200 67 Bodies (NGOS) Governmental Bodies 97 33 Total 297 100%

Respondents who agreed that the efforts made by Non-Governmental bodies to minimize the discrimination on the image of women by giving women a leadership position in the society, educating and enlightening people on the negative impacts of marginalization, training women in different skills and encouraging women’s education, also by publishing the efforts of women achievers in the media were 200 (67%) while respondents who said they do not know any non-governmental organizations promoting the course of women in the society were 97 (33%), The non-governmental organizations are as follows: Women Aid Collective (WACOL), Women in

Action (WIA), Women Lawyers Association (WLA), Pink Dove Initiative

(PDI), National Association of Women Journalist (NAWOJ), United

National International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF).

Table 10: What other effective measures can the media employ to Improve the image and status of women? Station Frequency Percentage Television 125 42 Radio 80 27 Newspaper 40 14 Interpersonal 20 7 Communication Magazine 12 4 Microphone 10 3 Film 10 3 Total 297 100%

From the above table, respondents who said that other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is through television by redressing and re-defining the image of women through the issue of gender sensitive language about media products and messages were 125 (42%), also respondents who agreed that through radio programmes on information dissemination and education, allowing more women to play active part in politics and leadership were 80 (27%), and respondent who agreed that other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is through newspaper were 40

(14%), while respondents who chose interpersonal communication as other effective measures the media can employ to improve the women the image

86 and status of women by giving women equal opportunity in all fields just as their male counter parts were 20 (7%), respondents who were in affirmative that other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is magazine were 12 (4%), again respondents who agreed that other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is microphone by encouraging women to be independent through different skills acquisition were 10 (3%), and respondents who said that other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is film were 10 (3%).

4.2 Discussion and interpretation of Data Relevant to each Research Question. Research Question 1: To what extent are Nigerian women aware of their marginalization in the media?

To answer this question, reference is made to table 6, and questions 6,

7, 8 out of the 297 questionnaires returned, 290 respondents representing 98 percent asserted that they are aware of their marginalization in the media while 7 respondents disagreed that they are not aware of their marginalization in the media were 7 (2%).

Research Question 2: To what extent do the Mass Media portray women negatively? The answer to this question is derived from table 7 and questions 9,10.

In all the media stations, 150 (51%) respondents strongly agreed that

Television is often the medium that portrays the image of women negatively,

110 (37%) respondents asserted that Radio is usually the medium that portrays women negatively also 37 (12%) respondents are in affirmative that newspaper is always the medium that portrays women negatively.

Research Question 3: Which media misrepresent women? To answer this question, reference was made to table 8 and questions

11,12, out of 297 questionnaires distributed 187 respondents representing

63% opined that newspaper is the medium that misrepresent women while respondents who agreed that the media which mostly used to misrepresent women is radio were 110 (37%).

Research Question 4: what efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of women? Data from table 9, and questions 17,18,19, provide answer to this question. In table 9, 200 respondents representing 67 percent asserted that efforts made by Non-Governmental bodies to minimize the discrimination on the image of women. By giving women a leadership position in the society, educating and enlightening people on the negative impacts of

88 marginalization while 97 respondents representing 33 percent affirmed that they do not know any non-governmental organizations promoting the course of women in the society,

Research Question 10: what other effective measures can the media employ to improve the image and status of women? From the data gathered in table 10, 125 respondents representing 42 percent opined that other effective measured the media can employ to improve the image and status of women is through television by redressing and redefining the image of women through the issue of gender sensitive language about media products and messages. Also, 80 respondents representing 27 percent agreed that radio is other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women, however, 40 respondents representing 14 percent were of the opinion that newspaper is the other effective measure the media can employ to improve the image and status of women while 20 respondents representing 7 percent consented that interpersonal communication is the other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women. Furthermore, 12 respondents representing 4 percent agreed that magazine is the other effective measures the media can employ to improve the effective measured image and status of women. Similarly, 10 respondents representing 3 percent observed that microphone is other effective measures the media can employ

89 to improve the image and status of women. Equally, 10 respondents representing 3 percent emphasized that film is other effective measures the media can employ to improve the image and status of women.

4.3 Findings 1. About 98% of Nigerian women agreed that they are aware of their marginalization in the media. This fact is made manifest by 290 respondents representing 98 percent while 7 respondents representing 2 percent disagreed that they were not aware of their marginalization in the media. 2. From the data gathered, it was observed that television has been pointed out as the media that portrays women negatively with 150 respondents representing 51 percent as against the rest of the media respectively 3. Newspaper was also indicated during the findings made as the media that misrepresents women with 187 respondents representing 63 percent. 4. Furthermore, the media employed other effective measures through which it can improve the image and status of women. These effective measures were through non-governmental bodies and governmental bodies and individuals by giving women leadership positions, educating and enlightening people on the negative impacts of marginalization, engaging women in politics, training women in different skills, also by publishing the efforts of women achievers in the media and in the society at large. Women should be regarded as

assets and instruments of development not as recessive, passive and never-do-wells as the society and the media perceive them to be. 5. Women should be regarded as assets and instruments of development not as recessive, passive and never-do-wells as the society and media perceive them to be.

REFERENCES

Aksoy, K. (2003). “The enlargement of meaning: Social Demand in a transnational context”. Gazette: The International Journal for Communication Studies, 65 (4-5): 365-388.

Chua, J. (2000). “Women, Culture, development: A new Paradigm for development Studies?” Ethic and Racial Studies, 23 (5), PP. 820-841.

Couldry, J .(2003). Contesting Media Power. Boulder, Co: Rowman and Littlefield.

Dahms, E. (2002). “Development from within: Community Development, Gender AND ICT’s in Floyal, C. et al (eds.) Feminist Challenges in the Information age. Opladen Leske Und Budrich.

Danida (2000). “Gender Equality in Danish Development Co- operation: A contribution to the Revision of Danish Development Policy”. Working paper 10.

Estrella, M .(2000). Learning from Change: Issues and Experiences in participatory Monitoring and evaluation. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Fettterman, D. (2001). Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Gazette (2004). Special Issue on the World Summit on the Information Society, No.3-4.

Hernanddez, V. (2000). “Feminist at Work. A case study of transforming power relationships in everyday life: Puntos de Encuentro”. In Institutionalization gender equality: commitment, policy and practice.

Oakley, A (2000). Monitoring and Evaluation of Empowerment: A resource document. Oxford: INTRAC.

Rodriquez, C. (2001 C). Race, Class and Gender in Yo Soy Betty La Fea: The National and the Transnational”. A paper delivered at the Global Fusion 2001: Mass Media, Free Trade, and Alternative Responses, Saint Louis, 10, October.

Stald, T. (2002). Global Encounters: Media and cultural Transformation. Luton: University of Luton Press.

Steeves, H. (2000). “Gendered Agendas: Dialogue and Impasse in creating social change”. In Wilkins (2000), PP. 7-26.

UNESCO, (2003). “Basic Text on the Information Society”. Paris: UNESCO WSIS Publications series.

USAID, (2000 a). “Women in Development”. Washington, DC: USAID.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY The study was designed to find out the extent to which the Nigerian women are aware of their marginalization in the media.

To generate data pertaining to the study, the survey method of research was adopted using the instrument of the questionnaire, from which the questions were constructed together with the study objectives and research questions.

From the findings of the data gathered for the study showed that majority of Nigerian women were aware of their marginalization in the media. The subordinate role of women to men all over the world has been well documented in the media and the literature on women development.

The Nigerian society is still largely content with retaining cultural and religious practices that dehumanize women and deny them their fundamental human rights and this is where the problem lies.

The mass media tend to reinforce traditional attitudes which often present humiliating pictures of women which do not all reflect changing attitudes in society and especially, the changing roles of the sexes like their

94 counterparts in most parts of the world. The mass media are to a large extent guilty of presenting stereotypes and atavistic image of women.

Numerous studies conducted over the last 40 years have demonstrated that women are consistently under represented in all media. This situation has led groups such as media awareness network (www. mediaawareness.com) to raise concern not only about the exclusion of and disregard for women, but about the degradation of women through gender stereotyping.

For many years women have striven to overcome the various social and cultural restrictions imposed on them by the society while for example, a man is valued for what he does, a woman is valued for what she ‘is’ and her ability to produce children. Women have for long been fighting against these stereotypes. Today, many women have sought to re-define themselves by what they are. These women, including those in the media, have met with considerable difficulties and barriers.

On the whole, the findings showed that the media being the gate- keepers of news themselves should begin to change their mindsets and attitudes in favour of women’s rights agenda before they can positively perform the task of shaping gender realities. The overall objective is to

95 redress the erroneous assumption that professional expertise is male, and to promote a more balanced representation of women in the media.

5.2 Conclusion.

The data from the study showed that Nigerian women are misrepresented and marginalized by the media through what the media present to the public on women.

The media should set the right agenda by making sure that they carry out balanced coverage of male and female activities. They should help in ensuring the elimination of all forms of discriminations against women by creating national awareness of women’s right. By so doing, they will help in removing the legal, religious constraints against the attainment of social justice and equality in the media and society as a whole.

The study has shown that women should be seen as those who have bright future and can do better in politics and positions of authority therefore, they should be given a chance to exhibit their talents. Also

Nigeria, being a developing country cannot achieve meaningful potentials without women’s full participation in all areas.

5.3 Recommendations The media inform us, entertain us, delight us, annoy us, they move our emotions, challenge our intellects and insult our intelligence. Media often

96 reduce us to mere commodities for sale to the highest bidder; media help define us; they shape our realities. The media so fully saturate our every day lives that we are often unconscious of their presence not to mention their influence.

According to pontiff, who wrote that:

“The mass media can and must promote justice and solidarity according to an organic and correct vision of human development by reporting events accurately and truthfully, analyzing situations and problems completely, and providing a forum for different opinions. An authentically ethical approach to using powerful exercises of freedom and responsibility, founded upon the supreme criteria of truth and Justice” (2005, p.54).

The media being a powerful instrument of development. Its relevance in the upliftment and empowerment of media women in Nigeria. However, findings from this study indicate that much need to be done. Occurring from the findings, the following recommendations were however made:

(1) The media should highlight the disadvantaged position of women and its negative impact on the economic and social development of Nigeria. A significant step would be to admit more women into journalism and other media professions. This will raise the image of women and erase some stereotypes.

(2) The mass media should focus on educational programmes on women since education is a human right and essential tool for achieving goal of equality, development and peace. Non-discriminating education benefits both boys and girls this contributes to more equal relationships between men and women thus lead to economic growth and sustainable development. (3) Since the media cannot alone shoulder the responsibilities of fostering women empowerment in Nigeria, then the government of Nigeria should enact laws to guard against various forms of violence against women, such as rape, domestic violence like wife battering and neglect, female Genital circumcision, sexual harassment and assault, also a unit should be created in the Nigeria Police Force to be run by women and to handle cases of violence against women. (4) The inclusion of women in decision-making positions within the media, as well as broader society should be advocated by the government. (5) The government should open a workshop focused on understanding the media strategies for developing and implementing advocacy campaigns to promote gender equality, and using the media to raise awareness on women’s issues and problems. (6) Government should take time to learn how the media work, how and why journalists choose the sources they do, how sub-editors do their jobs, and who are the key players in media decision-making. (7) Nigeria being a signatory to the agreements is bound to take specific measures to ensure women’s equal access to full participation in power structures and decision-making and such actions include measures to substantially increase the number of women with a view

to achieving equal representation of women and men, if necessary through positive action, in all government and public positions. A central question that then arises is: How do we ensure that some of the provisions of the various international conventions, treaties, declarations and resolutions to which Nigeria willingly signed onto, are internalized by all major stake-holders in the political process (including the primary beneficiaries-women) especially at the local government level”. Following issues act as guide to ensure women- sensitive electoral space ahead of the 2007 round of electrons, even though it is no doubt almost late for women to make significant impact. (8) Organized women’s groups, like the Nigeria Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ), play a key role. Their members are now almost ten times more likely to vote, nine times more likely to join a political party, and six times more likely to run for political office than previously (figure 1).

… after they were exposed to D & G (Democracy and Governance) concepts, became determined to actively participate in politics. They ceased to be afraid and are now ready to contest Elections among men.

odds of voting, joining a political party, Figure 1. and intending for Office After Being Exposed to various Levels of Democracy And Governance Activities.

10.0- 9.0 - 9.5 8.0 - 9.3 7.0 - 6.0 - 6.0 5.0 - 4.3 3.4 4.0 - 3.3 3.0 - 2.7 2.0 2.0 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 - 0.0 - NONE LOW MEDIUM HIGH

 Voting  Being a Party Member  Intention to Run for Elective Office

Level of Exposure to Democracy and Governance Activities Source: JHU/CCP and the Nigeria Democracy and Government Project, 1997-1998

The Democracy and Government (D&G) project supported by the US Agency for International Development, which was implemented in part by the Johns Hopkins University Population Communication Services (JHU/PCS) and the Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA) in the nine Nigerian States. These societal changes occurred during a difficult political transition (General Abacha’s plan to move the country toward a Democracy was viewed with skepticism after he removed the interim president when the 1993 elections were annulled). (9) The desire is for women to step forward and fulfill their leadership role in Nigeria without further delay. We cannot continue to

100 discriminate against women and assume that all is well. Women’s full participation in the policy making process, especially at the local government level of governance is a necessary but missing link in our desire for sustainable development and economic prosperity in Nigeria.

101

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School of Postgraduate Studies Faculty of Arts Department of Mass Communication University of Nigeria Nsukka. 10/8/2009.

Dear Respondent, I am a Post-Graduate student of the above Department. I am carrying out a research on the topic “Feminism in the Mass Media: Redressing the Imbalance and Redefining the Image of Women”. The research is for a Master of Arts and it is purely an academic research. I solicit for your assistance and be assured that any information supplied by you, will be treated in confidence. Thank you for your co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

Ugwulor, C.C.

106

QUESTIONNAIRE PART A DEMOGRAPHIC DATA.

Please thick good in the boxes where appropriate and give some short sentences where necessary. 1. Sex: Male Female 2. Age: 18 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 and above 3. Occupation: Student Civil servant Housewife Trader Businessman/ women Applicant 4 Educational level: Secondary School Under graduate Graduate Post-graduate Others 5 Marital Status: Married Single Other

107

PART B PSYCHOGRAPHIC DATA. 6. Which media do you watch, read or listen to? (a) Television (b) Radio (c) Newspaper 7. Why did you choose the medium? (a) Because of its reachness to large audience (b) Because of its visual and instantaneous effect on the audience 8. Are Nigerian women aware of their being marginalized by their male counterparts in the media? (a) Yes (b) No 9. Which medium often portrays the image of women negatively? (a) Television (b) Radio (c) Newspaper 10. Are women integral part of the society? (a) Yes (b) No 11. Which media is mostly used to misrepresent women? (a) Television (b) Radio (c) Newspaper

108

12. In what various ways do the media portray women negatively to members of the society? (a) Through Cultural representation (b) Through Programmes that portray women as never-do-wells (c) By Proving to the audience that women’s place are always in the kitchen (d) Through Programmes that place women as inferiors to the men (e) Through their Subordination of women 13. How can the Stereotypes of women be addressed?

(a) By promoting women achievers (b) By redefining their social roles (c) By allowing them participate in decision-making capacity 14. What other ways – (List)? ______15. Should women be given equal rights in positions of authority with their male counterparts in the media? (a) Yes (b) No 16. In what ways should women be given equal rights in positions of authority with their male counterparts in the media? (a) By appointing women as counterparts in decision-making (b) By involving women in political participation 17. Do you know any Non-Governmental organizations (NGOS) promoting the course of women in the society?

109

(a) Yes (b) No 18. List the Names of such NGOS?

______19. What numerous efforts have both the individuals, Governmental and Non-Governmental bodies made in helping to eradicate marginalization on the images of women? ______

20. What other effective measures can the media employ to improve on the image and status of women as integral part of the society? ______21. Which media can effectively be used to improve on the image and status of women as integral part of the society?______