1 FEMINISM IN THE MASS MEDIA: REDRESSING THE IMBALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN BY UGWULOR CHINYERE CHRISTIANA PG/MA/07/43049 DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION FACULTY OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) DEGREE IN MASS COMMUNICATION 2 AUGUST, 2009 3 CERTIFICATION This project report written by Ugwulor, Chinyere.C, is certified as having met the requirements of the Department of Mass Communication and the School of Post Graduate Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for the award of a Master of Arts Degree in Mass Communication. ……………………………………… …………………………………… Church .S. Akpan (Ph.D) Date (Research Project Supervisor) ………….…………………………… …………………………………… Church .S. Akpan (Ph.D) Date Ag. Head of Department ……………………………………… …………………………………… External Examiner Date 4 DEDICATION I remain grateful to God Almighty, the author and finisher of my faith, for his love, care and mercy upon my life all this while. I have not forgotten my loving husband, Barrister O.E. Ugwulor, who stood by me under thick and thorn, making sure that I succeeded in life, for his financial, moral support, I say may God bless him abundantly. To my loving children, Ugochukwu, Chidera and Chiemeka, for their affectionate assistance, kudos to them. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to God Almighty for sustaining me through all these hurdles in life. My heartfelt gratitude to my husband for all his support financially and morally. God bless him immensely. My thanks go to my able supervisor and Head of Department, Dr. C.S. Akpan, for his patience and fatherly assistance while supervising my work, may God blessed him multiply. My kind regards to the typist Miss Charity Ezugwu who helped in making this research work a success. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page ……………………………………………………………………………… i Certification …………………………………………………………………………… ii Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………... iii Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………. iv Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………. v List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………… vii Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………... viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………………. 10 1.3 Objectives of the Study …………………………………………………………… 11 1.4 Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………….. 11 1.5 Research Questions ……………………………………………………………….. 12 1.6 Theoretical Framework …………………………………………………………..... 12 1.7 Scope of the Study ………………………………………………………………… 14 7 1.8 Limitations of the Study …………………………………………………………… 15 1.9 Definition of Terms ………………………………….……………………………. 17 References ……………………………………………………………………........ 21 CHAPTER TWO: LITERRTURE REVIEW 2.1 Representation of Women in the Media…………………………………………. 23 2.2 The Influence of Gender Stereotypes on the Representation of women…………… 33 2.3 The Role of the Mass Media in Redressing the Imbalance and Redefining the Image of Women…………………………………………………………..….. 39 References………………………………………………………………………… 56 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design…………………………………………………………………... 61 3.2 Population of the Study …………………………………………………………... 62 3.3 Sample Size …………………………………………………………………….… 63 3.4 Sample Technique ………………………………………………………………... 64 3.5 Instrument for Data Collection …………………………………………………… 65 3.6 Method of Analysis and Presentation of Data …………………………………... 66 8 References………………………………………………………......................... 68 CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 69 4.1 Demographic Data ………………………………………………………………. 69 4.2 Discussion and Interpretation of Data Relevant to each Research Questions…… 76 4.3 Findings …………………………………………………………………………. 79 References ……………………………………………………………………… 81 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 83 5.1 Summary ……………………………………………………………………….. 83 5.2 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 85 5.3 Recommendations ……………………………………………………………… 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………… 91 Appendix (Questionnaire)...……………………………………………………… 99 9 LIST OF TABLES Table 0:1 Tabular Representation of Sample Population……………………………… 64 Table 1: Sex of Respondents ………………………………………………………… 70 Table 2: Age of Respondents ………………………………………………………… 70 Table 3: Marital Status of Respondents ……………………………………………… 71 Table 4: Occupational Distribution of Respondents ………………………………… 71 Table 5: Educational Level of Respondents …………………………………………. 72 Table 6: To What extent are Nigerian Women aware of their marginalization in the Media?………………………………………………………………………. 72 Table 7: To what extent do the mass media portray women negatively?...................... 73 Table 8: Which media misrepresent women?................................................................... 73 Table 9: What efforts are made to minimize the discrimination on the image of women? 74 Table 10: What other effective measures can the media employ to improve the image and Status of women?............................................................................................. 75 Figure 1: Level of Exposure to Democracy and Government Activities …………….. 89 10 ABSTRACT This is a report of a study which evaluated the impact of FEMINISM IN THE MASS MEDIA: REDRESSING THE IMBALANCE AND REDEFINING THE IMAGE OF WOMEN. The survey method was adopted for the study, with structured questionnaire as the instrument of data collection. A sample of 300 respondents was picked from Enugu Urban, Agbani and Nsukka towns who responded to the questionnaire. The sample was determined using a random sampling technique. The findings showed among other things that 99 percent of the respondents were in affirmative that Nigerian women are aware of their being marginalize by their male counterparts in the media. Also, the findings showed that women are subordinate to men all over the world. 11 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY According to the World Book Encyclopedia (2004), women’s movements are group efforts, chiefly by women that seek to improve women’s lives or the lives of others. Probably the best-known women’s movements are those that have engaged in political efforts to change the roles and status of women on their own behalf are often referred to as feminist movements. Whether political, religious, or charitable, women’s movements have sought to achieve greater social, economic and political involvement for women. Throughout history, women have usually had fewer rights and a lower social status than men. The traditional role of wife and mother dominated, and most women’s lives centered around their households. Women’s movements first developed during the 1800’s in the United State and Europe and then spread to other parts of the world. The first women’s movements arose largely in response to the coming of modern urban and industrial society. The industrial age brought about great economic and political changes, creating upheaval in women’s traditional roles and causing women to question their status and situation. The first wave of women’s movements concentrated primarily on gaining voting rights for women. A second wave of women’s movements emerged during the 1960’s, another period of great political and social change in many areas of the world. These contemporary women’s movements have sought greater equality for women in the family, in the workplace, and in political life. Women’s movements have enabled large 12 groups of women to question and determine their rights and responsibilities. The specific goals and methods of these movements have varied from one time and place to another, depending on local customs regarding the treatment on women, on national political values and on economic conditions. But in almost every case, women’s movement have won greater freedom for women to act as self-sufficient individuals, rather than as dependent wives or daughters. In many societies, for example, people believed women to be naturally more emotional and less decisive than men. Women were also held to be less intelligent and less creative by nature. But research shows that women and men have the same range of emotional, intellectual, and creative characteristics. Many sociologists and anthropologists maintain that various cultures have taught girls to behave according to negative stereotypes (images) of femininity, thus keeping alive the idea that women are naturally inferior? Several developments during the late 1700’s and early 1800’s have set the stage for the rise of women’s movements. The thinkers of the Age of Reason questioned established political and religious authority and stressed the importance of reason, equality, and liberty. The new intellectual atmosphere helped justify women’s rights to full citizenship. On the eve of the French Revolution (1789-1799), the Marquis de Condorcet, a French philosopher, spoke in favour of women’s right to vote. The British author Wollstonecraft Mary argued for women’s rationality an equality with men in her book “A vindication of the Right of Women” (1792). In the American colonies, the Revolutionary war (1775-1783), fought in the name of liberty and equality, raised the 13 hopes of some women. Women supported the war with their sewing and farming, and by boycotting British goods and engaging in other forms of protest. Ogundipe Molara-Leslie writes that the media in Nigeria have not given women the space they need either structurally within media administration or psychologically in the representation of women’s images.