U UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date: April 24, 2009 I, L illian Vasi , hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Philosophy in It is entitled: Post-Partition Limbo States: Failed State Formation and Conflicts in Northern Ireland and Jammu-and-Kashmir Student Signature: Lillian Vasi This work and its defense approved by: Committee Chair: Dr. Joel Wolfe Dr. Laura Jenkins Dr. Dinshaw Mistry Approval of the electronic document: I have reviewed the Thesis/Dissertation in its final electronic format and certify that it is an accurate copy of the document reviewed and approved by the committee. Committee Chair signature: Dr. Joel Wolfe Post-Partition Limbo States: Failed State Formation and Conflicts in Northern Ireland and Jammu-and-Kashmir A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D.) in the Department of Political Science of the College of Arts and Science 13 April 2009 by Lillian Vasi M.A., University of Cincinnati, 1998 Committee Chair: Professor Joel Wolfe Committee Member: Professor Laura Jenkins Committee Member: Professor Dinshaw Mistry Abstract Failed states have been described in scholarly publications as states that no longer function as bordered regions within which exist a functional government providing for the inhabitants border security, political stability, transparency, economic development, cultural independence, supportive infrastructure, and a judicial system based on rule of law maintaining order effectively. A subset of the failed state perspectives developed and defined in this research project is the limbo state model. The central concept of a limbo state is that the region or state, while displaying traits of statehood, such as having a border, an infrastructure, seeming economic development, and semblance of a functioning government, is not an independent sovereign state but is actually a minor limbo state controlled by another major sovereign state that actually controls the minor state in the military, economic, and political realms. The limbo state model is based on four empirical explanatory concepts that define the “limbo” aspects of this model. Briefly, these four explanatory concepts are: 1) patterns of invasions by and political and administrative domination by a state occupying the limbo state over a period of years; 2) patterns of weak leadership within the limbo state; 3) patterns of settlers immigrating to the occupied limbo state resulting in diverse religious and ethnic groups with their own agenda of cultural preservation with resulting partition of the land leading to incomplete or denied self-rule as well as sectarian conflicts; and 4) patterns of complex and paradoxical responses expressed by members of the indigenous population. Northern Ireland and Jammu-and-Kashmir are model examples of limbo states ii meeting conditions established in the four explanatory concepts. In addition to validating the limbo state model, the explanatory concepts provide explanations for three concerns regarding limbo states specifically and failed states in general. These concerns are : 1) why these limbo states are not able to become typical modern nation-states with a defined border wherein exists a functioning government within the state approved by the indigenous population and providing for its inhabitants a personal, incorruptible security network as well as border security, political stability and transparency, economic development, cultural independence, supportive and continuously updated infrastructure, and a judicial system based on rule of law maintaining order effectively; also, 2) how state-society relations impact development of sovereign authority for the occupied state; and 3) how state-international system relations undermine state sovereignty. The final task offered in the last chapter of this study is speculation on current and future usefulness of the limbo state model. iii iv Acknowledgments I want to thank my husband, Rahib N. Vasi, M.D., and my son, Antar Y. Vasi, for the patience they displayed whenever I was just too busy with research and writing to be involved with daily family activities. I want to thank members of the dissertation committee for their assistance and support and in keeping me along the path toward completion of the dissertation. Dr. Joel Wolfe, chairperson of the committee as well as chair of the department, was involved in my research and writing at the time that I started graduate coursework at U.C. Dr. Laura Jenkins joined the dissertation committee just as I was formulating the research question and helped with concepts and editing. Dr. Denshaw Mistry joined the committee providing guidance as needed during the research and writing process. The committee members’ invaluable suggestions and help provided the guidance needed to complete the task. v Table of Contents Chapter Topics Page I. Introduction 1 A. Summary of Limbo State Model Perspective 1 B. Overview of Northern Ireland and Jammu-and-Kashmir 4 C. Research Question and Plan of Study 9 D. Limbo State Model and Explanatory Concepts, and Organizing Information 15 1. Limbo State Model 15 2. Explanatory Concepts of the Limbo State Model 18 3. Organizing Information 21 E. Outline of Chapter Contents 23 II. State Formation Theories, Literature Review, Relevant Theories and Themes 27 Introduction 27 A. State Formation Theories 29 B. Literature Review of Failed States, Northern Ireland, and Jammu-and-Kashmir 49 1. Failed States 49 2. Northern Ireland 59 3. Jammu-and-Kashmir 66 vi C. Sovereignty, Nationalism, and Ethnicity 71 1. Sovereignty as Theme and Theory 71 2. Nationalism and Ethnicity 79 D. Partition 80 III. Northern Ireland 86 Introduction 86 A. Political History of Northern Ireland and the Conflict 90 1. Then and Now: The Battle of Boyne and Parades 90 2. Political History of Northern Ireland 95 3. Self-Identification in Northern Ireland 106 B. Decolonization and Partition 114 C. Organizations and Northern Ireland 124 1. Political Parties 124 2. Political Parties of the United Kingdom 132 3. Paramilitary Groups 133 4. Paradoxical Role of Organizations in Northern Ireland 145 5. Chronology of Power-sharing 148 6. Decommissioning 154 7. The Belfast Agreement and Opposition 160 D. Factors Contributing to Limbo State Status in Northern Ireland 170 IV. Jammu-and-Kashmir 183 Introduction 183 vii A. Political History of Jammu-and-Kashmir 192 1. Then and Now: Background Information on the Creation of Jammu-and-Kashmir 192 2. Political History of Jammu-and-Kashmir 201 a. Brief Background from the Third Century BCE to the Twentieth Century 201 b. The British in India and Jammu-and-Kashmir 209 3. Ethnic Identity and Conflict 220 B. Decolonization and Partitioning of India 223 1. Minor Partition 223 2. Major Partition 224 3. The Line of Control 231 C. Insurgency, Kashmiriyat, and the Voice of the People 234 1. Insurgency since 1989 234 2. Dissolution of then Call for Maintaining Kashmiriyat 241 3. Expressions of the Voice of the People: Results of Current Surveys Conducted in Jammu-and-Kashmir 246 D. Factors Contributing to Limbo State Status of Jammu-and-Kashmir 256 V. Conclusion 270 Introduction 264 A. Similarities between Northern Ireland=s and Jammu-and-Kashmir=s viii Limbo State Status 273 B. Differences between Northern Ireland=s and Jammu-and-Kashmir=s Limbo State Status 283 C. Limbo State Model: Closing Comments 287 Terminology 295 References 297 General 297 Northern Ireland 301 Jammu-and-Kashmir 304 Appendix A: Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 308 Appendix B: Chronological List of Dates of Irish History 311 Appendix C: Chronology of Events since Signing of the Belfast Agreement 313 Appendix D: Decommissioning Scheme 332 Appendix E.1: Chronology of Brief History of Kashmir 335 Appendix E.2: Timeline: Conflict Over Kashmir 340 Appendix E.3: Timeline: Insurgency in Kashmir 345 Appendix E.4: Update Timeline from 2005 to 2009 349 Appendix F: Mountains and Their Passes (Kashmir) 350 Appendix G: Treaty of Amritsar 352 Appendix H: Instrument of Accession 354 ix Appendix I: Government of India Act 1935 355 Appendix J: Indian Independence Act, 1947 356 Appendix K: Line of Control in J&K: A Part of Simla Agreement 371 Appendix L: Article 370 of the Indian Constitution 373 Appendix M: Article 356 Provisions 374 Appendix N: Security Council Draft Resolution Document No. 667 376 Appendix O: United Jihad Council Groups (Kashmir) 381 Appendix P: Full Text of MORI Survey on Kashmir 2002 383 Appendix Q: AngloBIrish Agreement 1985 388 Appendix R: Poll Conducted by Synovate India in Kashmir 393 Appendix S: ACNielson Poll Conducted in Jammu and Kashmir 394 Appendix T: GNP per capita 395 x List of Maps Map 3.1 Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland 101 Map 3.2 Northern Ireland Counties 102 Map 3.3 Northern Ireland Cities 103 Map 4.1 Jammu-and-Kashmir 196 xi Chapter I Introduction A. Summary of Limbo State Model Perspective Please note that in this research project NI will be used to refer to Northern Ireland unless for reasons of emphasis or clarity at which time the full name will be used. Also, J&K will be used to refer to Jammu-and-Kashmir (connected with dashes for clarity of the name of a one nation-state region) unless for reasons of emphasis or clarity at which time the full name will be used. Kashmiri refers to the inhabitants of J&K. The central research question is: Why, in the cases of Northern Ireland and Jammu-and-Kashmir, did state formation during decolonization by means of partitioning land not succeed in forming sovereign nation-states where the state provides for its population personal as well as border security, political stability, transparency, economic development, cultural independence, supportive infrastructure, and a judicial system based on rule of law maintaining order effectively? In other words, why did attempts at state formation actually lead to the creation of areas of contested governance in which protracted conflicts have been in existence since the early political history of each nation- state up to the present twenty-first century.