DOCSLIB.ORG

AMERICAN NEUTRALITY in the 20TH CENTURY: the Impossible Dream

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
AMERICAN NEUTRALITY in the 20TH CENTURY: the Impossible Dream INSTITUTEFOR NATIONAL STRATEGICSTUDIES A popular Government, without popular information or the means of acquiring it, is but a Prologue to a Farce or a Tragedy; or perhaps both. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance; And a people who mean to be their own Governors, must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives. JAMES MADISON to W. T. BARRY August 4, 1822 AMERICAN NEUTRALITY IN THE 20TH CENTURY: The Impossible Dream JOHN N. PETRIE McNair Paper 33 January 1995 INSTITUTE FOR NATIONAL STRATEGIC STUDIES NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIVERSITY Washington, DC NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIVERSITY [] President: Lieutenant General Ervin J. Rokke [] Vice President: Ambassador William G. Walker INSTITUTE FOR NATIONAL STRATEGIC STUDIES [] Director: Hans A. Birmendijk Publications Directorate & NDU Press [] Fort Lesley I. McNair [] Washington, D.C. 20319-6000 [] Phone: (202) 475-1913 [] Fax: (202) 475-1012 [] Director: Frederick Kiley [] Chief, Publicatiom Branch: George C. Maerz [] Editors: Jonathan W. Pierce, Mary A. Sommerville rn Editor for this volume: Mary A. Sommerville [] Secretary: Laura Hall [] Circulation Manager: Myma Morgan INSS publishes McNair Papers to provoke thought and inform discussion on issues of U.S. national security in the post-Cold War era. These monographs present current topics related to national security strategy and policy, defense resource management, international affairs, civil-military relations, military technology, and joint, combined, and coalition operations. Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations, expressed or implied, are those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Defense University, the Department of Defense, or any other U.S. Government agency. Cleared for public release; distribution unlimited. Portions of this publication may be quoted or reprinted without further permission, with credit to the Institute for National Strategic Studies, Washington, DC. A courtesy copy of reviews and teat'sheets would be appreciated. For sale by the U.S. Govemment Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, 1)(2 20402-9328 ISSN 1071-7552 For those in peril on the sea... those who have been... and those, like my father, who rest in peace beneath it. May their experience shorten the list of sailors who might join them in the future. Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................... vii PREFACE ................................ ix . INTRODUCTION ......................... 1 Assumptions and Considerations ............. 4 The Law of Neutrality and Relative Combat Power 7 Definitions and Clarifications ................ 9 Neutrality in the Modern World .............. 12 Neutrality and Civil War .................... 24 . THE CHANGE .......................... 29 The Beginning ........................... 29 The Spanish-American War ................. 31 The Change is Understood ................. 37 The Mexican Revolution .................... 39 Avoiding World War I ...................... 50 3. THE INTERWAR PERIOD ................. 61 The More Things Change .................. 61 The League of Nations ................... 62 The Havana Convention on Maritime Neutrality 65 The Kellogg-Briand Pact .................. 65 An Isolationist United States ................ 66 . THE FRUITS OF ISOLATIONISM ............ 69 Backing Into War ......................... 69 The Price of Violent Peace .................. 76 . ENTER THE UNITED NATIONS ............. 83 Recreating the Wheel of Peace .............. 83 The Charter ........................... 85 Exploitation and Escalation ................. 91 6. POSTWAR "PEACE" . .................... 93 Unequals in the Postwar World .............. 93 Still in Force ............................ 96 The Suez Crisis ......................... 98 Justice at the Expense of Peace? ............ 100 The Nixon Doctrine ...................... 106 The 1971 Indo-Pakistani War ............... 107 The Bloody Lebanese "Peace" . ............ 113 The War Powers Resolution ............... 119 Other Cases .......................... 122 . PERSPECTIVE ....................... 125 Historical Assessment .................... 125 The Future ............................ 128 The Role of Naval Diplomacy ............... 131 Does the Law Foster Peace with Justice? ..... 134 . PRESCRIPTION ....................... 137 Summary ............................ 137 Conclusion ............................. 153 ABOUT THE AUTHOR ...................... 155 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work would not have been possible without the assistance, guidance, patience, and understanding of many fine people. It would be impossible to pay appropriate attention to the contributions of each in this brief statement. The contributions of a few, however, cannot go unmentioned. Professor Alfred P. Rubin of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, whom I met when he held the Stockton Chair of Intemational Law at the Naval War College, through his support, guidance, and encouragement, more than anyone else, has made completion of this effort possible. The quality of this work is in large part the result of Professor Rubin's advice and counsel. Its deficiencies are my own. Together with his colleagues the late Professor Leo Gross of the Fletcher School and Howard S. Levie, Professor Emeritus of the St. Louis University School of Law and Adjunct Professor (for life) at the Naval War College, Professor Rubin provided me with an understanding of not only the meaning of the law but more importantly its inescapable influence upon international relations in general. It was with Professor Levie that I began this work. I wrote its first draft as a paper for his law of war course at Naval War College. Since then, the Howard S. Levie Chair of Military Operational Law has been named in his honor. I received, more than instruction, inspiration from this gifted and insightful trio of gentlemen lawyers who nurtured the interest in the law which resulted in the present work. These men provided me with a perspective on the intemational scene and the effect of intemational law on my profession which prepared me for my duties in a manner few are afforded. Mr. Frank Uhlig, Jr., long time Editor, now Editor Emeritus, of the Naval War College Press provided opportunities and encouragement for--and recommendations to improve--my writing since we first met in the early 80's. His personal help with the manuscript was indispensibleo The greatest gifts these four men bestowed upon me are their patience with my shortcomings and their friendship despite them. Ms. Melissa Stack, my research assistant at National War College when the final draft was prepared also deserves special vii mention. Her hours in the library made it possible to finish this, carry a full teaching load, and fulfill my responsibilities in the Dean's Office. Finally, my wife Ann and our three children, Alex, Noel, and Sean, gave me the support, patience, and understanding which made the long hours away from them---even though working in the same house---possible. Ann frequently assumed the thankless roles of proofreader and style editor. Each of the children took their tum in the essential but lackluster task of "gofer". Later, Alex personally made the completion of this work possible. He put his college education in "Information Systems" to work to help me defeat my most formidable adversary in this effort--my computer. Most importantly though, the family sacrificed opportunities that will never come again to give me the chance to fulfill this goal. I can never adequately repay this gift of love. viii PREFACE This work began with a paper written in the spring of 1982 as a student at the College of Command and Staff at the Naval War College. My professional and personal interest in the Laws of War and Neutrality were nurtured throughout those studies and grew during master's and doctoral work at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. Each intemational crisis since has confirmed my belief that a more thorough consideration of this body of law could better inform policy makers. The chronology that follows demonstrates that the United States found the requirements of strict neutrality less than useful for fulfilling its policy imperatives throughout the 20th century. The reasons for this are varied, but all involve departures from the strict impartiality required of neutrals. The common thread running through them is that global interests make impartiality difficult to maintain and often cotmterproductive. It also becomes clear that this will continue for the future. Although the incidents explored stretch back over 100 years, history is not its focus. Incidents are cited only to show their relationship to the pattern of U.S. behavior, historical details are not elaborated. Further, incidents are looked at in the context of what was known at the time, without the benefit of hindsight. The loss of the battleship MAINE, for example, is now believed to have resulted from an accident; at the time it was believed to have been an attack. The detailed behavior of other nations was also not examined except in response to that of the United States, because while tiffs work is about international law, it is for the U.S. naval force and unit commanders who must understand that law. My personal knowledge of and involvement in highly sensitive U.S. policy implementation in Central America and Panama in the mid-1980s requires that those examples not be treated. This exclusion does not detract from the product and removes even the question of whether classified material was used
Load more

Recommended publications
  • World War I Concept Learning Outline Objectives
    AP European History: Period 4.1 Teacher’s Edition World War I Concept Learning Outline Objectives I. Long-term causes of World War I 4.1.I.A INT-9 A. Rival alliances: Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente SP-6/17/18 1. 1871: The balance of power of Europe was upset by the decisive Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War and the creation of the German Empire. a. Bismarck thereafter feared French revenge and negotiated treaties to isolate France. b. Bismarck also feared Russia, especially after the Congress of Berlin in 1878 when Russia blamed Germany for not gaining territory in the Balkans. 2. In 1879, the Dual Alliance emerged: Germany and Austria a. Bismarck sought to thwart Russian expansion. b. The Dual Alliance was based on German support for Austria in its struggle with Russia over expansion in the Balkans. c. This became a major feature of European diplomacy until the end of World War I. 3. Triple Alliance, 1881: Italy joined Germany and Austria Italy sought support for its imperialistic ambitions in the Mediterranean and Africa. 4. Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty, 1887 a. It promised the neutrality of both Germany and Russia if either country went to war with another country. b. Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to renew the reinsurance treaty after removing Bismarck in 1890. This can be seen as a huge diplomatic blunder; Russia wanted to renew it but now had no assurances it was safe from a German invasion. France courted Russia; the two became allies. Germany, now out of necessity, developed closer ties to Austria.
    [Show full text]
  • Modernism 1 Modernism
    Modernism 1 Modernism Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement, its set of cultural tendencies and array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Modernism was a revolt against the conservative values of realism.[2] [3] [4] Arguably the most paradigmatic motive of modernism is the rejection of tradition and its reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[5] [6] [7] Modernism rejected the lingering certainty of Enlightenment thinking and also rejected the existence of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator God.[8] [9] In general, the term modernism encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social, and political conditions of an Hans Hofmann, "The Gate", 1959–1960, emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 collection: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. injunction to "Make it new!" was paradigmatic of the movement's Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but approach towards the obsolete. Another paradigmatic exhortation was also as a teacher of art, and a modernist theorist articulated by philosopher and composer Theodor Adorno, who, in the both in his native Germany and later in the U.S. During the 1930s in New York and California he 1940s, challenged conventional surface coherence and appearance of introduced modernism and modernist theories to [10] harmony typical of the rationality of Enlightenment thinking.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 12. the Avant-Garde in the Late 20Th Century 1
    Chapter 12. The Avant-Garde in the Late 20th Century 1 The Avant-Garde in the Late 20th Century: Modernism becomes Postmodernism A college student walks across campus in 1960. She has just left her room in the sorority house and is on her way to the art building. She is dressed for class, in carefully coordinated clothes that were all purchased from the same company: a crisp white shirt embroidered with her initials, a cardigan sweater in Kelly green wool, and a pleated skirt, also Kelly green, that reaches right to her knees. On her feet, she wears brown loafers and white socks. She carries a neatly packed bag, filled with freshly washed clothes: pants and a big work shirt for her painting class this morning; and shorts, a T-shirt and tennis shoes for her gym class later in the day. She’s walking rather rapidly, because she’s dying for a cigarette and knows that proper sorority girls don’t ever smoke unless they have a roof over their heads. She can’t wait to get into her painting class and light up. Following all the rules of the sorority is sometimes a drag, but it’s a lot better than living in the dormitory, where girls have ten o’clock curfews on weekdays and have to be in by midnight on weekends. (Of course, the guys don’t have curfews, but that’s just the way it is.) Anyway, it’s well known that most of the girls in her sorority marry well, and she can’t imagine anything she’d rather do after college.
    [Show full text]
  • Submarines in the United States Navy - Wikipedia Page 1 of 13
    Submarines in the United States Navy - Wikipedia Page 1 of 13 Submarines in the United States Navy There are three major types of submarines in the United States Navy: ballistic missile submarines, attack submarines, and cruise missile submarines. All submarines in the U.S. Navy are nuclear-powered. Ballistic subs have a single strategic mission of carrying nuclear submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Attack submarines have several tactical missions, including sinking ships and subs, launching cruise missiles, and gathering intelligence. The submarine has a long history in the United States, beginning with the Turtle, the world's first submersible with a documented record of use in combat.[1] Contents Early History (1775–1914) World War I and the inter-war years (1914–1941) World War II (1941–1945) Offensive against Japanese merchant shipping and Japanese war ships Lifeguard League Cold War (1945–1991) Towards the "Nuclear Navy" Strategic deterrence Post–Cold War (1991–present) Composition of the current force Fast attack submarines Ballistic and guided missile submarines Personnel Training Pressure training Escape training Traditions Insignia Submarines Insignia Other insignia Unofficial insignia Submarine verse of the Navy Hymn See also External links References https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines_in_the_United_States_Navy 3/24/2018 Submarines in the United States Navy - Wikipedia Page 2 of 13 Early History (1775–1914) There were various submersible projects in the 1800s. Alligator was a US Navy submarine that was never commissioned. She was being towed to South Carolina to be used in taking Charleston, but she was lost due to bad weather 2 April 1863 off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.
    [Show full text]
  • The Nixon Theory of the War Power: a Critique
    California Law Review VOL. 60 MAY 1972 No. 3 The Nixon Theory of the War Power: A Critique Francis D. Wormuth* On March 11, 1966, the Legal Adviser of the State Department, Leonard Meeker, submitted to the Senate Committee on Foreign Rela- tions a memorandum that, despite its brevity, proved to be the fullest statement ever made of the legal case for the initiation of war in Viet- nam by President Johnson.' He offered several arguments. The framers of the Constitution had qualified the war clause. They in- tended that the President be free to repel sudden attacks upon the United States without Congressional authorization; with the shrinking of the globe this exception had grown into a power to repel an attack on any country, even one halfway around the earth, if he considered this necessary to safeguard American interests. One hundred twenty- five historic cases of unauthorized executive use of military force sup- plied validating precedents for Johnson's action. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution authorized the President to make war at will in Southeast Asia. The SEATO Treaty authorized him to defend Southeast Asia against Communism. And, finally, by passing appropriation acts, the Congress had endorsed the war. President Nixon, even while withdrawing troops from Vietnam, has continued to commit more troops in smaller numbers. Similarly, he has withdrawn some of the legal justifications adduced by Meeker but has advanced others to replace the arguments that have been re- * Professor of Political Science, University of Utah. A.B. 1930, M.A. 1932, Ph.D. 1935, Cornell University. 1. Meeker, The Legality of United States Participationin the Defense of Viet- Nam, 54 DEP'T STATE BuLL.
    [Show full text]
  • Federal Libraries/Information Centers Chronology
    LIBRARY OF CONGRESS THE FEDERAL LIBRARY AND BICENTENNIAL INFORMATION CENTER 1800 - 2000 COMMITTEE American Federal Libraries/Information Centers Chronology 1780 Military garrison at West Point establishes library by assessing officers at the rate of one day’s pay per month to purchase books—arguably the first federal library since it existed when the country was founded (predecessor to U.S. Military Academy Library) 1789 First official federal library established at the Department of State 1795 War Department Library established in Philadelphia as a general historical military library by Henry Knox, the first Secretary of War 1800 The Navy Department Library established on March 31 by direction of President John Adams to Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert 1800 Library of Congress (LoC) founded on April 24 1800 War Department Library collections destroyed in fire at War Office Building on November 8, soon after relocation to Washington 1802 The President and Vice President authorized to use LoC collections 1812 Supreme Court Justices authorized to use LoC collections 1812 Congress appropriates $50,000 for the procurement of instruments and books for Coast Survey 1814 British burn both State Department Library and LoC collections during War of 1812 1815 Congress purchases Thomas Jefferson’s private library to replace LoC collections and opens collections to the general public 1817 Earliest documentation of book purchasing for Department of Treasury library 1820 Army Surgeon General James Lovell establishes office collection of books
    [Show full text]
  • Sinking of the RMS Lusitania 1 Sinking of the RMS Lusitania
    Sinking of the RMS Lusitania 1 Sinking of the RMS Lusitania Sinking of the RMS Lusitania 1915 painting of the sinking. Date 7 May 1915 Time 14:10 – 14:28 Location North Atlantic Ocean, near Old Head of Kinsale, Ireland Cause Torpedoed by German U-boat. Outcome • 1,198 of the 1,959 people aboard killed, leaving 761 survivors. • Turned international opinion against Germany and led towards American entry into World War I. The sinking of the Cunard ocean liner RMS Lusitania occurred on 7 May 1915 during the First World War, as Germany waged submarine warfare against Britain. The ship was identified and torpedoed by the German U-boat U-20 and sank in 18 minutes. The vessel went down 11 miles (18 km) off the Old Head of Kinsale,[1] Ireland, killing 1,198 of the 1,959 people aboard, leaving 761 survivors. The sinking turned public opinion in many countries against Germany, contributed to the American entry into World War I and became an iconic symbol in military recruiting campaigns of why the war was being fought.[2] Lusitania had the misfortune to fall victim to torpedo attack relatively early in the First World War, before tactics for evading submarines were properly implemented or understood. The contemporary investigations both in the UK and the United States into the precise causes of the ship's loss were obstructed by the needs of wartime secrecy and a propaganda campaign to ensure all blame fell upon Germany. Argument over whether the ship was a legitimate military target raged back and forth throughout the war as both sides made misleading claims about the ship.
    [Show full text]
  • Classical Music from the Late 19Th Century to the Early 20Th Century: the Creation of a Distinct American Musical Sound
    Portland State University PDXScholar Young Historians Conference Young Historians Conference 2019 May 1st, 12:30 PM - 1:45 PM Classical Music from the Late 19th Century to the Early 20th Century: The Creation of a Distinct American Musical Sound Ashley M. Christensen Lakeridge High School Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/younghistorians Part of the Music Theory Commons Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Christensen, Ashley M., "Classical Music from the Late 19th Century to the Early 20th Century: The Creation of a Distinct American Musical Sound" (2019). Young Historians Conference. 13. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/younghistorians/2019/oralpres/13 This Event is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Young Historians Conference by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: [email protected]. CLASSICAL MUSIC FROM THE LATE 19th CENTURY TO THE EARLY 20th CENTURY: THE CREATION OF A DISTINCT AMERICAN MUSICAL SOUND Marked by the conflict of the Civil War, the late 19th century of American history marks an extremely turbulent time for the United States of America. As the young nation reached the second half of the century, idle threats of a Southern secession from the union bloomed into an all-encompassing conflict. However, through the turbulence of the war, American music persisted. Strengthened in battle, the ideas of a reconstructed American national identity started to form a distinctly different American culture and way of life. This is reflected in the nation’s shift in the music written after the war.
    [Show full text]
  • Ladies and Gentlemen
    reaching the limits of their search area, ENS Reid and his navigator, ENS Swan decided to push their search a little farther. When he spotted small specks in the distance, he promptly radioed Midway: “Sighted main body. Bearing 262 distance 700.” PBYs could carry a crew of eight or nine and were powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-1830-92 radial air-cooled engines at 1,200 horsepower each. The aircraft was 104 feet wide wing tip to wing tip and 63 feet 10 inches long from nose to tail. Catalinas were patrol planes that were used to spot enemy submarines, ships, and planes, escorted convoys, served as patrol bombers and occasionally made air and sea rescues. Many PBYs were manufactured in San Diego, but Reid’s aircraft was built in Canada. “Strawberry 5” was found in dilapidated condition at an airport in South Africa, but was lovingly restored over a period of six years. It was actually flown back to San Diego halfway across the planet – no small task for a 70-year old aircraft with a top speed of 120 miles per hour. The plane had to meet FAA regulations and was inspected by an FAA official before it could fly into US airspace. Crew of the Strawberry 5 – National Archives Cover Artwork for the Program NOTES FROM THE ARTIST Unlike the action in the Atlantic where German submarines routinely targeted merchant convoys, the Japanese never targeted shipping in the Pacific. The Cover Artwork for the Veterans' Biographies American convoy system in the Pacific was used primarily during invasions where hundreds of merchant marine ships shuttled men, food, guns, This PBY Catalina (VPB-44) was flown by ENS Jack Reid with his ammunition, and other supplies across the Pacific.
    [Show full text]
  • Maritime Patrol Aviation: 90 Years of Continuing Innovation
    J. F. KEANE AND C. A. EASTERLING Maritime Patrol Aviation: 90 Years of Continuing Innovation John F. Keane and CAPT C. Alan Easterling, USN Since its beginnings in 1912, maritime patrol aviation has recognized the importance of long-range, persistent, and armed intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance in sup- port of operations afl oat and ashore. Throughout its history, it has demonstrated the fl ex- ibility to respond to changing threats, environments, and missions. The need for increased range and payload to counter submarine and surface threats would dictate aircraft opera- tional requirements as early as 1917. As maritime patrol transitioned from fl ying boats to land-based aircraft, both its mission set and areas of operation expanded, requiring further developments to accommodate advanced sensor and weapons systems. Tomorrow’s squad- rons will possess capabilities far beyond the imaginations of the early pioneers, but the mis- sion will remain essentially the same—to quench the battle force commander’s increasing demand for over-the-horizon situational awareness. INTRODUCTION In 1942, Rear Admiral J. S. McCain, as Com- plane. With their normal and advance bases strategically mander, Aircraft Scouting Forces, U.S. Fleet, stated the located, surprise contacts between major forces can hardly following: occur. In addition to receiving contact reports on enemy forces in these vital areas the patrol planes, due to their great Information is without doubt the most important service endurance, can shadow and track these forces, keeping the required by a fl eet commander. Accurate, complete and up fl eet commander informed of their every movement.1 to the minute knowledge of the position, strength and move- ment of enemy forces is very diffi cult to obtain under war Although prescient, Rear Admiral McCain was hardly conditions.
    [Show full text]
  • America's Undeclared Naval War
    America's Undeclared Naval War Between September 1939 and December 1941, the United States moved from neutral to active belligerent in an undeclared naval war against Nazi Germany. During those early years the British could well have lost the Battle of the Atlantic. The undeclared war was the difference that kept Britain in the war and gave the United States time to prepare for total war. With America’s isolationism, disillusionment from its World War I experience, pacifism, and tradition of avoiding European problems, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved cautiously to aid Britain. Historian C.L. Sulzberger wrote that the undeclared war “came about in degrees.” For Roosevelt, it was more than a policy. It was a conviction to halt an evil and a threat to civilization. As commander in chief of the U.S. armed forces, Roosevelt ordered the U.S. Navy from neutrality to undeclared war. It was a slow process as Roosevelt walked a tightrope between public opinion, the Constitution, and a declaration of war. By the fall of 1941, the U.S. Navy and the British Royal Navy were operating together as wartime naval partners. So close were their operations that as early as autumn 1939, the British 1 | P a g e Ambassador to the United States, Lord Lothian, termed it a “present unwritten and unnamed naval alliance.” The United States Navy called it an “informal arrangement.” Regardless of what America’s actions were called, the fact is the power of the United States influenced the course of the Atlantic war in 1941. The undeclared war was most intense between September and December 1941, but its origins reached back more than two years and sprang from the mind of one man and one man only—Franklin Roosevelt.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 of 7 Three Ships Named USS Marblehead Since the Latter Part Of
    Three Ships named USS Marblehead The 1st Marblehead Since the latter part of the 19th century, cruisers in the United States Navy have carried the names of U.S. cities. Three ships have been named after Marblehead, MA, the birthplace of the U.S. Navy, and all three had distinguished careers. The 1st Marblehead. The first Marblehead was not a cruiser, however. She Source: Wikipedia.com was an Unadilla-class gunboat designed not for ship-to-ship warfare but for bombardment of coastal targets and blockade runners. Launched in 1861, she served the Union during the American Civil War. First assigned to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, she took part in operations along the York and Pamunkey Rivers in Virginia. On 1 MAY 1862, she shelled Confederate positions at Yorktown in support of General George McClellan's drive up the peninsula toward Richmond. In an unusual engagement, this Marblehead was docked in Pamunkey River when Confederate cavalry commander Jeb Stuart ordered an attack on the docked ship. Discovered by Union sailors and marines, who opened fire, the Confederate horse artillery under Major John Pelham unlimbered his guns and fired on Marblehead. The bluecoats were called back aboard and as the ship got under way Pelham's guns raced the ship, firing at it as long as the horse can keep up with it. The Marblehead escaped. Reassigned to the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, she commenced patrols off the southern east coast in search of Confederate vessels. With the single turreted, coastal monitor Passaic, in early-FEB 1863, she reconnoitered Georgia’s Wilmington River in an unsuccessful attempt to locate the ironclad ram CSS Atlanta.
    [Show full text]