VisitStatueofLiberty.com Contents

1 1 1.1 Design and construction process ...... 1 1.1.1 Origin ...... 1 1.1.2 Design, style, and symbolism ...... 2 1.1.3 Announcement and early work ...... 4 1.1.4 Construction in ...... 5 1.1.5 Dedication ...... 8 1.2 After dedication ...... 9 1.2.1 Lighthouse Board and War Department (1886–1933) ...... 9 1.2.2 Early National Park Service years (1933–1982) ...... 10 1.2.3 Renovation and rededication (1982–2000) ...... 11 1.2.4 Closures and reopenings (2001–present) ...... 12 1.3 Access and attributes ...... 13 1.3.1 Location and tourism ...... 13 1.3.2 Inscriptions, plaques, and dedications ...... 14 1.4 UNESCO World Heritage Site ...... 14 1.4.1 Physical characteristics ...... 14 1.5 Depictions ...... 14 1.6 See also ...... 16 1.7 References ...... 16 1.8 External links ...... 20

2 Statue of Liberty National Monument 21 2.1 History ...... 21 2.2 Significance ...... 21 2.3 Location and access ...... 21 2.3.1 Jurisdiction ...... 22 2.4 Related sites ...... 22 2.5 See also ...... 22 2.6 References ...... 22 2.6.1 Notes ...... 22 2.6.2 Further reading ...... 23 2.7 External links ...... 24

i ii CONTENTS

3 25 3.1 Geography and access ...... 25 3.2 History ...... 25 3.2.1 Great Oyster Island ...... 25 3.2.2 Bedloe’s Island ...... 25 3.2.3 Fort Wood ...... 26 3.2.4 Statue of Liberty ...... 26 3.2.5 Museum ...... 27 3.3 Jurisdictional disputes ...... 27 3.3.1 State dispute ...... 27 3.3.2 Federal ownership ...... 28 3.4 See also ...... 28 3.5 References ...... 28 3.6 External links ...... 29

4 30 4.1 Geography and access ...... 30 4.2 Early history ...... 30 4.3 Immigrant inspection station ...... 31 4.3.1 Primary inspection ...... 32 4.3.2 Medical inspections ...... 33 4.3.3 Eugenic influence ...... 34 4.3.4 Detention and deportation station ...... 34 4.3.5 Staff ...... 35 4.3.6 Records ...... 36 4.3.7 Notable immigrants ...... 36 4.4 Immigration museum ...... 36 4.4.1 South side of the island ...... 37 4.5 State sovereignty dispute ...... 38 4.6 Emergency services ...... 39 4.7 In popular culture ...... 39 4.8 See also ...... 40 4.9 References ...... 40 4.9.1 Notes ...... 40 4.9.2 Sources ...... 42 4.10 Further reading ...... 43 4.11 External links ...... 43 4.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ...... 44 4.12.1 Text ...... 44 4.12.2 Images ...... 47 4.12.3 Content license ...... 51 Chapter 1

Statue of Liberty

For other uses, see Statue of Liberty (disambiguation). presided over by President Grover Cleveland. The statue was administered by the United States Light- The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; house Board until 1901 and then by the Department of French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in Park Service. Public access to the balcony surrounding Harbor in , in the United States. The cop- the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916. per statue, a gift from the people of France to the peo- ple of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. 1.1 Design and construction pro- The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886. cess The Statue of Liberty is a robed female figure represent- ing , the Roman goddess. She holds a torch above her head, and in her left arm carries a tabula ansata in- 1.1.1 Origin scribed “July 4, 1776”, the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue According to the National Park Service, the idea for the became an icon of freedom and of the United States, Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Soci- abroad. ety and a prominent and important political thinker of his Bartholdi was inspired by French law professor and politi- time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation cian Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch aboli- commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. tionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after-dinner independence would properly be a joint project of the conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an French and U.S. peoples. Due to the post-war instabil- ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, ity in France, work on the statue did not commence until is supposed to have said: “If a monument should rise in the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united French finance the statue and the U.S. would provide the [7] site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head effort—a common work of both our nations.” The Na- and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully de- tional Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and signed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at [8] international expositions. that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In an- other essay on their website, the Park Service suggested The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison and its consequences, “With the abolition of slavery and Square Park in from 1876 to 1882. Fundrais- the Union’s victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye’s ing proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a re- 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of ality in the United States. In order to honor these achieve- funds. Publisher of the ments, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the started a drive for donations to complete the project that United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom that by calling attention to the recent achievements of gave less than a dollar. The statue was constructed in the United States, the French people would be inspired France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive the completed pedestal on what was then called Bed- monarchy.”[9] loe’s Island. The statue’s completion was marked by New York’s first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye’s comment was not

1 2 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

loe’s Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the is- land was owned by the United States government—it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: “land common to all the states.”[14] As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi vis- ited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue.[15] Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project.[13] But he remained concerned that popu- lar opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.[16]

Bartholdi’s design patent

Bartholdi’s Lion of intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi.[7] Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in [17] Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi’s, American to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he ap- the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La proached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, a plan to build Farge’s Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to de- [17] “Progress” or "Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia",[10] a velop the concept following his return to France. He huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian fe- also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster male fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. of these was the , a monumental sculpture Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which though it was never erected. There was a classical prece- during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three dent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the [18] high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and car- Statue of Liberty. ried a light to guide ships.[11] Any large project was further delayed by the Franco- 1.1.2 Design, style, and symbolism Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and de- Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express posed. Bartholdi’s home province of Alsace was lost to the idea of American liberty.[19] In early American his- the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed [7] tory, two female figures were frequently used as cultural in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the symbols of the nation.[20] One of these symbols, the per- United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was [12] sonified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In United States in the manner that Britannia was identified June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of [13] with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to repre- introduction signed by Laboulaye. sent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure Arriving at , Bartholdi focused on Bed- of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded 1.1. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 3

cerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet.[22] Delacroix’s figure wears a pileus,[20] and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head.[23] In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invari- ably wears a pileus.[24] The seven rays form a halo or aureole.[25] They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents,[26] and represent another means, be- sides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.[21] Bartholdi’s early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in de- pictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor’s mother,[27] but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact.[28] He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering to ex- perience a changing perspective on the statue as they pro- Detail from a fresco by Constantino Brumidi in the U.S. Capi- ceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical con- tol in Washington, D.C., showing two early symbols of America: tours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge [21] Columbia (left) and the Indian princess scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:

The surfaces should be broad and simple, as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans.[20] The defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated other significant female icon in American culture was in the important places. The enlargement of a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, By exaggerating the forms, in order to render especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure them more clearly visible, or by enriching them adorned most American coins of the time,[19] and repre- with details, we would destroy the proportion sentations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, including Thomas Crawford's Statue of Freedom (1863) should have a summarized character, such as atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.[19] one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is nec- Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke essary that this character should be the product republican ideals commonly used representations of Lib- of volition and study, and that the artist, con- ertas as an allegorical symbol.[19] A figure of Liberty was centrating his knowledge, should find the form also depicted on the Great Seal of France.[19] However, and the line in its greatest simplicity.[29] Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolution- ary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix's Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this paint- evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a bro- ing, which commemorates France’s Revolution of 1830, a ken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the half-clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise of the fallen.[20] Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolu- over a broken chain, half-hidden by her robes and dif- tion, and so Bartholdi’s figure would be fully dressed in ficult to see from the ground.[23] Bartholdi was initially flowing robes.[20] Instead of the impression of violence in uncertain of what to place in Liberty’s left hand; he set- the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue tled on a tabula ansata,[30] used to evoke the concept a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing of law.[31] Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United progress, for the figure to hold.[21] States Constitution, he chose to inscribe “JULY IV MD- Crawford’s statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was CCLXXVI” on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country’s Declaration of Independence with the concept originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to [30] emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War of liberty. Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect President of the Confederate States of America, was con- Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, in the project.[28] As chief 4 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support.[35] In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco-American Union as its fundrais- ing arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World.[36] The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal.[37] The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia.[36] French monar- chists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life.[37] Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue’s announced name.[36]

Stereoscopic image of right arm and torch of the Statue of Lib- erty, 1876

Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye’s political allies sup- Thomas Crawford's Statue of Freedom ported the call, as did descendants of the French con- tingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less ideal- istically, contributions came from those who hoped for engineer,[28] Viollet-le-Duc designed a brick pier within [32] American support in the French attempt to build the the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. Af- Panama Canal. The copper may have come from mul- ter consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gau- tiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a thier & Co., Viollet-le-Duc chose the metal which would mine in Visnes, Norway,[38] though this has not been con- be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used clusively determined after testing samples.[39] Accord- to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and [28][33] ing to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 of this choice was that the entire statue would be light pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 ki- (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of los (128,000 pounds) of copper.[40] just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy’s Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, both made with the same method.[34] Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop.[41] In May 1876, 1.1.3 Announcement and early work Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition,[42] and By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in in New York as part of the Centennial festivities.[43] The the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because 1.1. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 5 of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition cat- On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated alogue, and while some reports correctly identified the on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 work, others called it the “Colossal Arm” or “Bartholdi Paris World’s Fair. Fundraising continued, with models Electric Light”. The exhibition grounds contained a of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construc- number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgo- tion activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were ers’ interest, including an outsized fountain designed by also offered.[50] The French government authorized a lot- Bartholdi.[44] Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the tery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a exhibition’s waning days, and visitors would climb up to terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds.[45] Af- 250,000 francs had been raised.[51] ter the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New The head and arm had been built with assistance from York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Viollet-le-Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leav- Park for several years before it was returned to France to ing no indication of how he intended to transition from join the rest of the statue.[45] the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier.[52] The During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi ad- following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services dressed a number of groups about the project, and urged of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel.[50] the formation of American committees of the Franco- Eiffel and his structural engineer, , de- American Union.[46] Committees to raise money to pay cided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid struc- York, Boston, and Philadelphia.[47] The New York group ture, which would force stresses to accumulate in the eventually took on most of the responsibility for Amer- skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skele- ican fundraising and is often referred to as the “Ameri- ton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the can Committee”.[48] One of its members was 19-year-old statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Har- , the future governor of New York bor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he and president of the United States.[46] On March 3, 1877, loosely connected the support structure to the skin us- on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a ing flat iron bars[28] which culminated in a mesh of metal joint resolution that authorized the President to accept straps, known as “saddles”, that were riveted to the skin, the statue when it was presented by France and to select providing firm support. In a labor-intensive process, each a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took saddle had to be crafted individually.[53][54] To prevent office the following day, selected the Bedloe’s Island site galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron that Bartholdi had proposed.[49] support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.[55] Eiffel’s design made the statue one of the earliest exam- 1.1.4 Construction in France ples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the ob- servation point in the crown.[56] Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long.[57] As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that com- pleted segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure.[58] The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret.[59] The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue’s as- sembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on-site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe’s Island.[60] In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fix- ing a copper plate onto the statue’s big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Mor- ton.[61] The skin was not, however, crafted in exact se- The statue’s head on exhibit at the Paris World’s Fair, 1878 6 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

quence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of should design American public works—the selection of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to Italian-born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capi- visitors.[62] Some work was performed by contractors— tol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi’s exacting spec- a naturalized U.S. citizen.[68] Harper’s Weekly declared ifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town its wish that “M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had of Montauban.[63] By 1882, the statue was complete up 'gone the whole figure' while they were about it, and given to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting re- us statue and pedestal at once.”[69] porters to lunch on a platform built within the statue.[64] stated that “no true patriot can countenance any such ex- Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chair- penditures for bronze females in the present state of our man of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, finances.”[70] Faced with these criticisms, the American builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was for- committees took little action for several years.[70] mally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to Design New York.[65] The statue remained intact in Paris pend- ing sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.[66]

Richard Morris Hunt's pedestal under construction in June 1885 Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, June 1885, showing (clockwise from left) woodcuts of the completed statue in Paris, The committees in the United States faced great difficul- Bartholdi, and the statue’s interior structure ties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression The foundation of Bartholdi’s statue was to be laid in- that persisted through much of the decade. The Lib- side Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe’s Island erty statue project was not the only such undertaking that constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had later known as the Washington Monument sometimes served as a recruiting station.[71] The fortifications of the stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three-and- structure were in the shape of an eleven-point star. The a-half decades to complete.[67] There was criticism both statue’s foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it of Bartholdi’s statue and of the fact that the gift required would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years from the Atlantic Ocean.[72] In 1881, the New York com- following the Civil War, most Americans preferred real- mittee commissioned to design the istic artworks depicting heroes and events from the na- pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, tion’s history, rather than allegorical works like the Lib- indicating that he expected construction to take about erty statue.[67] There was also a feeling that Americans nine months.[73] He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) 1.1. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 7

in height; faced with money problems, the committee re- duced that to 89 feet (27 m).[74] Hunt’s pedestal design contains elements of classical ar- chitecture, including Doric portals, as well as some el- ements influenced by Aztec architecture.[28] The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue.[74] In form, it is a trun- cated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are iden- tical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue it- self rises.[75] According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal “craggily evokes the power of an ancient Eu- rope over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty”.[74] The committee hired former army Gen- eral Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work.[76] Construction on the 15-foot-deep (4.6 m) foun- dation began in 1883, and the pedestal’s cornerstone was laid in 1884.[73] In Hunt’s original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Fi- nancial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks.[77][78] This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut.[79] The concrete mass was the [78] Unpacking of the face of the Statue of Liberty, which was deliv- largest poured to that time. ered on June 17, 1885 Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, de- Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover tailed fabrication and construction drawings, and over- Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to sight of construction. In completing his engineering for provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An at- the statue’s frame, Giæver worked from drawings and tempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, [80] sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel. sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, Fundraising groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The [84] committee organized a large number of money-raising statue in return for relocating it. events.[81] As part of one such effort, an auction of art Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to do- York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000— nate an original work. She initially declined, stating she the equivalent of $2.3 million today.[85] Pulitzer pledged could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she to print the name of every contributor, no matter how was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who small the amount given.[86] The drive captured the imag- had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These ination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy publishing the notes he received from contributors. “A Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express young girl alone in the world” donated “60 cents, the her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue.[82] result of self denial.”[87] One donor gave “five cents as The resulting sonnet,"", including the a poor office boy’s mite toward the Pedestal Fund.” A iconic lines “Give me your tired, your poor/Your huddled group of children sent a dollar as “the money we saved to masses yearning to breathe free”, is uniquely identified go to the circus with.”[88] Another dollar was given by a with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in “lonely and very aged woman.”[87] Residents of a home the museum in its base.[83] for alcoholics in New York’s rival city of — 8 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

the cities would not merge until 1898—donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons.[89] A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35.[87] As the do- nations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.[90]

Construction

On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new-found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère.[91] [92] After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.[93] Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately there- after, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel’s iron frame- Unveiling of the Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World work was anchored to steel I-beams within the con- (1886) by Edward Moran. Oil on canvas. The J. Clarence crete pedestal and assembled.[94] Once this was done, Davies Collection, Museum of the City of New York. the sections of skin were carefully attached.[95] Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect Park at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while in- Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade stalling the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As [96] during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders floodlights on the torch’s balcony to illuminate it; a week threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers ve- York tradition of the ticker-tape parade.[101] toed the proposal, fearing that ships’ pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes A nautical parade began at 12:45 p.m., and President in the torch—which was covered with gold leaf—and Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across [102] placed the lights inside them.[97] A power plant was in- the harbor to Bedloe’s Island for the dedication. De stalled on the island to light the torch and for other elec- Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French trical needs.[98] After the skin was completed, renowned committee, followed by the chairman of the New York landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer committee, Senator William M. Evarts.A French flag of New York’s and Brooklyn’s Prospect draped across the statue’s face was to be lowered to unveil Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe’s Island in antici- the statue at the close of Evarts’s speech, but Bartholdi pation of the dedication.[99] mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts’s address.[101] President Cleveland spoke next, stating that 1.1.5 Dedication the statue’s “stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man’s oppression until Liberty enlightens [103] A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of the world”. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the for- called upon to speak, but he refused. Orator Chauncey [100] M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy mer New York governor, presided over the event. [104] On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in address. New York City; estimates of the number of people who No members of the general public were permitted on the watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a island during the ceremonies, which were reserved en- million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then tirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers were Bartholdi’s wife and de Lesseps’s granddaughter; of- from across America. General Stone was the grand mar- ficials stated that they feared women might be injured shal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, in the crush of people. The restriction offended area once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to Battery suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they 1.2. AFTER DEDICATION 9 could to the island. The group’s leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women’s right to vote.[103] A scheduled fire- works display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.[105] Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue’s torch not be lit until the United States became a free na- tion “in reality":

“Liberty enlightening the world,” indeed! The expression makes us sick. This govern- ment is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own bor- ders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the “liberty” of this coun- try is such as to make it possible for an in- offensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku-kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his prop- erty destroyed. The idea of the “liberty” of this country “enlightening the world,” or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.[106]

1.2 After dedication Government poster using the Statue of Liberty to promote the sale of Liberty Bonds 1.2.1 Lighthouse Board and War Depart- ment (1886–1933) effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtu- ally invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel’s design.[98] In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue’s transfer to the War De- partment, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse.[107] A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe’s Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.[108] The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled, Statue of Liberty ca. 1900 I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the myself, “Lady, you're such a beautiful! [sic] statue’s dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely You opened your arms and you get all the for- visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as eigners here. Give me a chance to prove that “more like a glowworm than a beacon.”[98] Bartholdi sug- I am worth it, to do something, to be someone gested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect in America.” And always that statue was on my light, but this proved too expensive. The United States mind.[109] Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch’s Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly 10 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused 1.2.2 Early National Park Service years by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As (1933–1982) early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue.[110] Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized $62,800 for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out.[111] There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting.[112] The Army Corps of Engi- neers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, “softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful.”[113] The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.[113] On July 30, 1916, during , German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, , in what is now part of , close to Bedloe’s Island. Carloads of dyna- mite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain Bedloe’s Island in 1927, showing the statue and army build- and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven ings. The eleven-pointed walls of Fort Wood, which still form people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, the statue’s base, are visible. mostly to the torch-bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue the island was about $100,000. The narrow ascent to the transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, torch was closed for public safety reasons, and it has re- the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe’s [104] mained closed ever since. Island.[107] With the Army’s departure, the NPS began to That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his transform the island into a park.[117] The Works Progress father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old build- raise $30,000 for an exterior lighting system to illumi- ings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, nate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contrib- and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the utors but failed to reach the goal. The difference was qui- statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration etly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor—a fact that work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power ca- from the statue’s halo so their rusted supports could be ble brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights replaced. Rusted cast-iron steps in the pedestal were re- were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Bor- placed with new ones made of reinforced concrete;[118] glum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were re- the torch, replacing much of the original copper with placed, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, the pedestal.[119] The statue was closed to the public from successfully illuminating the statue.[114] May until December 1938.[118] After the United States entered World War I in 1917, im- During World War II, the statue remained open to vis- ages of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment itors, although it was not illuminated at night due to posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged Amer- wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, ican citizens to support the war financially. This im- 1943, and on D-Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed pressed upon the public the war’s stated purpose—to se- “dot-dot-dot-dash”, the Morse code for V, for victory. cure liberty—and served as a reminder that embattled New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944–1945, and France had given the United States the statue.[115] beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illumi- nated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority un- each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was der the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National illuminated every night, all night.[120] In 1946, the inte- Monument.[107] The only successful suicide in the statue’s rior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.[119] of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue’s breast and landing on the In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe’s base.[116] Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the 1.2. AFTER DEDICATION 11

project, though the government was slow to grant funds statue.[127] for it.[121] Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of Pres- ident Lyndon Johnson in 1965.[107] In 1972, the immi- 1.2.3 Renovation and rededication (1982– gration museum, in the statue’s base, was finally opened 2000) in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The mu- seum’s backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.[94]

September 26, 1972: President Richard Nixon visits the statue to open the American Museum of Immigration. The statue’s raised right foot is visible, showing that it is depicted moving forward. July 4, 1986: First Lady (in red) reopens the statue to the public. In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue Main article: Restoration of the Statue of Liberty where she and others from the National Organization for (1984–86) Women's New York chapter draped an enormous banner See also: over a railing which read “WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE!"[122][123] The statue was examined in great detail by French and Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War American engineers as part of the planning for its cen- veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside tennial in 1986.[128] In 1982, it was announced that the down from her crown. They left December 28 follow- [124] statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful ing a Federal Court order. The statue was also sev- study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly eral times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to more when strong winds blew and there was a significant abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive [125] was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved Baltic Nations rally. in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the replaced.[129] Although problems with the armature had focal point for , a regatta of tall ships from been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replace- all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July ments for some of the bars had been installed, much of 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island.[126] The day the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the over the years.[130] 12 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

In May 1982, President announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Cen- tennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair , to raise the funds needed to complete the work.[131] Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations.[132] The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.[133] In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the du- ration of the renovation. Workers erected the world’s largest free-standing scaffold,[28] which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corro- sion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper.[134] The re- storers’ work was hampered by the asbestos-based sub- stance that Bartholdi had used—ineffectively, as inspec- tions showed—to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed “moon suits”, with self-contained breathing circuits.[135] Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new Liberty Enlightening the World copper was added where necessary.[136] The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which [144] had a patina that closely resembled the statue’s; in ex- pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within [145] change, the laboratory was provided some of the old cop- the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder. per skin for testing.[137] The torch, found to have been July 3–6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend", leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. with an exact replica of Bartholdi’s unaltered torch.[138] President Reagan presided over the rededication, with Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoul- French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July der; the National Park Service insisted that they be re- 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail,[146] and the statue was paired instead.[139] The original torch was removed and reopened to the public on July 5.[147] In Reagan’s dedica- replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is cov- tion speech, he stated, “We are the keepers of the flame ered in 24-carat gold.[31] The torch reflects the sun’s rays of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see.”[146] in daytime and lighted by floodlights at night.[31] The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low-carbon corrosion-resistant 1.2.4 Closures and reopenings (2001– stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to present) the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Lib- moves.[140] To prevent the ray and arm making contact, erty Island were immediately closed to the public. The the ray was realigned by several degrees.[141] The light- island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal ing was again replaced—night-time illumination subse- and statue remained off-limits. The pedestal reopened [147] quently came from metal-halide lamps that send beams of in August 2004, but the National Park Service an- light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing nounced that visitors could not safely be given access to off various details.[142] Access to the pedestal, which had the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emer- been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, gency. The Park Service adhered to that position through [148] was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set the remainder of the Bush administration. New York of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue’s reopen- [149] the renovation.[143] A modern elevator was installed, al- ing a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President lowing handicapped access to the observation area of the Barack Obama's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a “special gift” to America, the statue 1.3. ACCESS AND ATTRIBUTES 13

FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it.[159] It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca-Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas.[160] Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.[159]

1.3 Access and attributes

1.3.1 Location and tourism The Statue of Liberty on September 11, 2001 as the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burn in the background

would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.[148] The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012,[1][150][151] only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy.[152] Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Tourists aboard a Circle Line ferry arriving at Liberty Island, Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the June 1973 dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson an- The statue is situated in on Liberty nounced that both islands would remain closed for an in- Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise definite period for repairs to be done.[153] Due to lack the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed were ceded by New York to the federal government in to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at 1800.[161] As agreed in an 1834 compact between New night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay’s Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory was severely damaged, stated that it would be “optimisti- despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state cally ... months” before the island was reopened to the line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of public.[154] The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created public on July 4, 2013.[155] Ellis Island remained closed by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original for repairs for several more months but reopened in late island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.[162] [156] October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Is- No charge is made for entrance to the national monu- land was closed to the public due to the United States ment, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all vis- federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other itors must use, as private boats may not dock at the is- federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construc- [157] land. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises tion projects and buildings. to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, re- On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue placing Circle Line, which had operated the service since of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 1953.[163] The ferries, which depart from Liberty State million, 26,000-square-foot (2,400 m2) museum will be Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhat- able to accommodate all of the island’s visitors when it tan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the pub- opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which lic, making a combined trip possible.[164] All ferry rid- only 20% of the island’s visitors can visit.[158] The orig- ers are subject to security screening, similar to airport inal torch will be relocated here, and in addition to ex- procedures, prior to boarding.[165] Visitors intending to hibits relating to the statue’s construction and history, enter the statue’s base and pedestal must obtain a com- there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial plimentary museum/pedestal ticket along with their ferry view of the statue.[158][159] The museum, designed by ticket.[166] Those wishing to climb the staircase within the 14 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 peo- honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Lib- ple per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three erty. Two Americans—Pulitzer and Lazarus—and three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication Frenchmen—Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye—are de- and cameras—lockers are provided for other items—and picted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip must undergo a second security screening.[167] Ratner.[169]

1.3.2 Inscriptions, plaques, and dedica- 1.4 UNESCO World Heritage Site tions In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO “Statement of Sig- nificance” describes the statue as a “masterpiece of the human spirit” that “endures as a highly potent symbol— inspiring contemplation, debate and protest—of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity.”[170]

1.4.1 Physical characteristics

1.5 Depictions

The Statue of Liberty stands on Liberty Island. See also: Replicas of the Statue of Liberty and Statue of Liberty in popular culture There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are dis- [171] near the Statue of Liberty. played worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one-fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands • A plaque on the copper just under the figure in front on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger declares that it is a colossal statue representing Lib- sister.[171] A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the erty, designed by Bartholdi and built by the Paris Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan firm of Gaget, Gauthier et Cie (Cie is the French ab- for many years;[171] it now resides at the Brooklyn Mu- breviation analogous to Co.). [168] seum.[172] In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of Amer- • A presentation tablet, also bearing Bartholdi’s name, ica, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty cam- declares the statue is a gift from the people of the paign in 1949–1952, donated about two hundred replicas Republic of France that honors “the Alliance of the of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches two Nations in achieving the Independence of the (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across [173] United States of America and attests their abiding the United States. Though not a true replica, the friendship.”[168] statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 • A tablet placed by the New York committee was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions— commemorates the fundraising done to build the the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the pedestal.[168] Statue of Liberty.[174] Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the • The cornerstone bears a plaque placed by the exterior of the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Freemasons.[168] Las Vegas.[175] • In 1903, a bronze tablet that bears the text of Emma As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been de- Lazarus's sonnet, "The New Colossus" (1883), was picted on the country’s coinage and stamps. It appeared presented by friends of the poet. Until the 1986 ren- on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 cen- ovation, it was mounted inside the pedestal; today tennial, and on New York’s 2001 entry in the state quar- [176] it resides in the , in the ters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the base.[168] American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential • “The New Colossus” tablet is accompanied by a Dollar series of circulating coins.[26] Two images of the tablet given by the Emma Lazarus Commemorative statue’s torch appear on the current ten-dollar bill.[177] Committee in 1977, celebrating the poet’s life.[168] The statue’s intended photographic depiction on a 2010 1.5. DEPICTIONS 15

A replica of the Statue of Liberty forms part of the exterior decor at the New York-New York Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip

Head of Liberty, U.S. airmail stamp, 1971 issue

As viewed from the ground on Liberty Island forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.[178] Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional Reverse side of a Presidential Dollar coin institutions. Between 1986[179] and 2000,[180] New York

State issued license plates with an outline of the statue to [182] either the front or the side of the serial number.[179][180] jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate The Women’s National Basketball Association's New Athletic Association's 1996 Men’s Basketball Final Four, York Liberty use both the statue’s name and its image played at New Jersey’s Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo.[183] The Libertarian Party in their logo, in which the torch’s flame doubles as a [184] basketball.[181] The New York Rangers of the National of the United States uses the statue in its emblem. Hockey League depicted the statue’s head on their third The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In 16 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY music, it has been evoked to indicate support for Amer- 1.7 References ican policies, as in Toby Keith's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)", and in op- Notes position, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Rea- [1] “Statue of Liberty National Monument”. National Park gan administration.[185] In film, the torch is the setting Service. December 31, 2007. Retrieved October 12, for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock's 1942 movie 2011. Saboteur.[186] The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the [2] Schneiderman, R.M. (June 28, 2010). “For tourists, Apes, in which it is seen half-buried in sand.[185][187] It Statue of Liberty is nice, but no Forever 21”. The Wall is knocked over in the science-fiction film Independence Street Journal. Retrieved October 12, 2011. Day [188] and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off.[189] In Jack Finney's time-travel novel Time and Again, the right [3] “National Monument Proclamations under the Antiquities Act”. National Park Service. January 16, 2003. Archived arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madi- [190] from the original on October 25, 2011. Retrieved October son Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Hold- 12, 2011. stock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979, [4] National Park Service (1994). National Register of His- toric Places, 1966–1994: Cumulative List Through Jan- uary 1, 1994. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. Where would science fiction be without the p. 502. ISBN 978-0-89133-254-1. Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted [5] “New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – [E]arth—giants have uprooted it, aliens have Hudson County”. New Jersey Department of Environ- found it curious ... the symbol of Liberty, of mental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Re- optimism, has become a symbol of science fic- trieved August 2, 2014. tion’s pessimistic view of the future.[191] [6] “Statue of Liberty National Monument” (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. September 14, 1976. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 1.6 See also [7] Harris 1985, pp. 7–9.

[8] Joseph, Rebecca M.; Brooke Rosenblatt; Carolyn Kine- brew (September 2000). “The Black Statue of Liberty Rumor”. National Park Service. Retrieved July 31, 2012.

[9] “Abolition”. National Park Service. Retrieved July 7, 2014.

[10] “The Statue of Liberty and its Ties to the Middle East” (PDF). University of Chicago. Retrieved February 8, 2017.

[11] Harris 1985, pp. 7–8. Approximate heights of various notable statues: 1. Spring Temple Buddha 153 m (incl. 25 m pedestal and 20 m [12] Khan 2010, pp. 60–61. throne) 2. Statue of Liberty 93 m (incl. 47 m pedestal) [13] Moreno 2000, pp. 39–40. 3. The Motherland Calls 91 m (excl. pedestal) 4. Christ the Redeemer 38 m (incl. 8 m pedestal) [14] Harris 1985, pp. 12–13. 5. Statue of David 5.17 m (excl. 2.5 m pedestal) [15] Khan 2010, pp. 102–103.

[16] Harris 1985, pp. 16–17. • List of the tallest statues in the United States [17] Khan 2010, p. 85. • Place des États-Unis, in Paris, France [18] Harris 1985, pp. 10–11.

• The Statue of Liberty, 1985 Ken Burns documentary [19] Sutherland 2003, pp. 17–19. film [20] Bodnar, John (2006). “Monuments and Morals: The Na- • Statues and sculptures in New York City tionalization of Civic Instruction”. In Warren, Donald R.; Patrick, John J. Civic and Moral Learning in America. • List of statues by height Macmillan. pp. 212–214. ISBN 978-1-4039-7396-2. 1.7. REFERENCES 17

[21] Turner, Jane (2000). The Grove Dictionary of Art: From [50] Khan 2010, p. 137. Monet to Cézanne : Late 19th-century French Artists. Ox- ford University Press US. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-312-22971- [51] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 32. 9. [52] Khan 2010, pp. 136–137. [22] Khan 2010, pp. 96–97. [53] Moreno 2000, p. 22. [23] Khan 2010, pp. 105–108. [54] Khan 2010, pp. 139–143. [24] Blume, Mary (July 16, 2004). “The French icon Marianne [55] Harris 1985, p. 30. à la mode”. The New York Times. Retrieved October 12, 2011. [56] Harris 1985, p. 33.

[25] “Get the Facts (Frequently Asked Questions about the [57] Harris 1985, p. 32. Statue of Liberty)". Statue of Liberty. National Park Ser- vice. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [58] Harris 1985, p. 34.

[26] “Lady Liberty Reverse Statue of Liberty (1886)". Pres- [59] “La tour a vu le jour à Levallois”. Le Parisien (in French). idential $1 coin. United States Mint. Retrieved July 29, April 30, 2004. Retrieved December 8, 2012. 2010. [60] Khan 2010, p. 144. [27] Moreno 2000, pp. 52–53, 55, 87. [61] “Statue of Liberty”. pbs.org. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [28] Interviewed for Watson, Corin. Statue of Liberty: Building a Colossus (TV documentary, 2001) [62] Harris 1985, pp. 36–38.

[29] Bartholdi, Frédéric (1885). The Statue of Liberty Enlight- [63] Harris 1985, p. 39. ening the World. North American Review. p. 42. [64] Harris 1985, p. 38. [30] Khan 2010, pp. 108–111. [65] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 37. [31] “Frequently asked questions”. Statue of Liberty National [66] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 38. Monument. National Park Service. Retrieved August 10, 2010. [67] Khan 2010, pp. 159–160.

[32] Khan 2010, p. 120. [68] Khan 2010, p. 163.

[33] Khan 2010, pp. 118, 125. [69] Khan 2010, p. 161.

[34] Harris 1985, p. 26. [70] Khan 2010, p. 160.

[35] Khan 2010, p. 121. [71] Moreno 2000, p. 91.

[36] Khan 2010, pp. 123–125. [72] “Statistics”. Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Au- gust 16, 2006. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [37] Harris 1985, pp. 44–45. [73] Khan 2010, p. 169. [38] “News of Norway”. 1999. Archived from the original on September 16, 2011. Retrieved July 29, 2010. [74] Auchincloss, Louis (May 12, 1986). “Liberty: Building on the Past”. New York: 87. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [39] “Answers about the Statue of Liberty, Part 2”. The New York Times. July 2, 2009. Retrieved October 12, 2011. [75] Bartholdi, Frédéric (1885). The Statue of Liberty Enlight- [40] Sutherland 2003, p. 36. ening the World. North American Review. p. 62.

[41] Khan 2010, pp. 126–128. [76] Harris 1985, pp. 71–72.

[42] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 25. [77] Sutherland 2003, pp. 49–50.

[43] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 26. [78] Moreno 2000, pp. 184–186.

[44] Khan 2010, p. 130. [79] “Branford’s History Is Set in Stone”. Connecticut Human- ities. [45] Harris 1985, p. 49. [80] STRUCTUREmag – Structural Engineering Magazine, [46] Khan 2010, p. 134. Tradeshow: Joachim Gotsche Giaver

[47] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 30. [81] Khan 2010, pp. 163–164.

[48] Moreno 2000, p. 94. [82] Khan 2010, pp. 165–166.

[49] Khan 2010, p. 135. [83] Moreno 2000, pp. 172–175. 18 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

[84] Levine, Benjamin; Story, Isabelle F. (1961). “Statue of [114] Harris 1985, pp. 136–139. Liberty”. National Park Service. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [115] Moreno 2000, pp. 148–151.

[85] “Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. [116] Harris 1985, p. 147. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present/". MeasuringWorth. Re- [117] Moreno 2000, p. 136. trieved October 20, 2011. (Consumer price index)

[86] Bell & Abrams 1984, pp. 40–41. [118] Moreno 2000, p. 202.

[87] Harris 1985, p. 105. [119] Harris 1985, p. 169.

[88] Sutherland 2003, p. 51. [120] Harris 1985, pp. 141–143.

[89] Harris 1985, p. 107. [121] Moreno 2000, pp. 147–148.

[90] Harris 1985, pp. 110–111. [122] “Honorees”. Lapride.org. January 4, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2012. [91] Harris 1985, p. 112. [123] “The Feminist Chronicles, 1953-1993 - 1970 - Feminist [92] “The Isere-Bartholdi Gift Reaches the Horsehoe Safely” Majority Foundation”. Feminist.org. Retrieved Novem- (PDF). The Evening Post. June 17, 1885. Retrieved ber 6, 2012. February 11, 2013. [124] 1973 World Almanac and Book of Facts, p. 996. [93] Harris 1985, p. 114. [125] Moreno 2000, pp. 72–73. [94] Moreno 2000, p. 19. [126] Harris 1985, p. 143. [95] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 49. [127] Moreno 2000, p. 20. [96] Moreno 2000, p. 64. [128] Harris 1985, p. 165. [97] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 36. [129] Harris 1985, pp. 169–171. [98] Harris 1985, pp. 133–134. [130] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 38. [99] Moreno 2000, p. 65. [131] Moreno 2000, pp. 204–205. [100] Khan 2010, p. 176. [132] Moreno 2000, pp. 216–218. [101] Khan 2010, pp. 177–178. [133] Daw, Jocelyne (March 2006). Cause Marketing for Non- [102] Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 52. profits: Partner for Purpose, Passion, and Profits. Hobo- ken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4. ISBN 978-0- [103] Harris 1985, p. 127. 471-71750-8. [104] Moreno 2000, p. 71. [134] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 81. [105] Harris 1985, p. 128. [135] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 76. [106] “Postponing Bartholdi’s statue until there is liberty for col- [136] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 55. ored as well”. The Cleveland Gazette. Cleveland, Ohio. November 27, 1886. p. 2. [137] Harris 1985, p. 172.

[107] Moreno 2000, p. 41. [138] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 153.

[108] Moreno 2000, p. 24. [139] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 75.

[109] Sutherland 2003, p. 78. [140] Hayden & Despont 1986, pp. 74–76.

[110] “Answers about the Statue of Liberty”. The New York [141] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 57. Times. July 1, 2009. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [142] Moreno 2000, p. 153. [111] “To paint ”. The New York Times. July 19, 1906. p. 1. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [143] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 71.

[112] “How shall “Miss Liberty"'s toilet be made?". The New [144] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 84. York Times. July 29, 1906. pp. SM2. Retrieved October 19, 2011. [145] Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 88.

[113] Harris 1985, p. 168. [146] Sutherland 2003, p. 106. 1.7. REFERENCES 19

[147] “History and Culture”. Statue of Liberty. National Park [165] “For Your Safety and Security”. Statue of Liberty. Na- Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. tional Park Service. Retrieved August 30, 2011.

[148] Chan, Sewell (May 8, 2009). “Statue of Liberty’s Crown [166] “Frequently Asked Questions”. Statue of Liberty. Na- Will Reopen July 4”. The New York Times. Retrieved tional Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. October 20, 2011. [167] “Frequently asked questions: Reserving tickets to visit the [149] Neuman, William (July 5, 2007). “Congress to Ask Why crown”. Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Re- Miss Liberty’s Crown is Still Closed to Visitors”. The New trieved October 20, 2011. York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. [168] Moreno 2000, pp. 222–223. [150] Raja, Nina (August 10, 2010). “Liberty Island to remain open during statue’s renovation”. CNN. Retrieved Octo- [169] Harris 1985, p. 163. ber 20, 2011. [170] “Statue of Liberty”. World Heritage. UNESCO. Re- [151] “Statue of Liberty interior to re-open next month”. AP via trieved October 20, 2011. Fox News. September 11, 2012. Retrieved May 6, 2016. [171] Moreno 2000, pp. 200–201. [152] Powlowski, A. (November 2, 2012). “Statue of Liberty closed for 'foreseeable future'". NBC News. Archived [172] “Collections: American Art: Replica of the Statue of Lib- from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved erty, from Liberty Storage & Warehouse, 43–47 West November 2, 2012. 64th Street, NYC”. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved Oc- tober 20, 2011. [153] Mcgeehan, Patrick (November 8, 2012). “Storm leaves Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island cut off from visitors”. [173] Attoun, Marti (October 2007). “Little Sisters of Liberty”. The New York Times. Retrieved November 9, 2012. Scouting. Retrieved August 1, 2010.

[154] Barron, James (November 30, 2012). “Statue of Liberty [174] Moreno 2000, pp. 103–104. was unscathed by hurricane, but its home took a beating”. The New York Times. Retrieved December 1, 2012. [175] Goldberger, Paul (January 15, 1997). “New York-New York, it’s a Las Vegas town”. The New York Times. Re- [155] Long, Colleen (July 4, 2013). “Statue of Liberty reopens trieved October 20, 2011. as US marks July Fourth”. Yahoo! News. Retrieved July 4, 2013. [176] “Statue of Liberty postage stamps”. Statue of Liberty– Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. Retrieved October 20, 2011. [156] Foderaro, Lisa (October 28, 2013). “Ellis Island Welcom- ing Visitors Once Again, but Repairs Continue”. The New [177] “The redesigned $10 note”. newmoney.gov. Bureau of York Times. Retrieved October 19, 2014. Engraving and Printing. Retrieved October 20, 2011.

[157] Armaghan, Sarah (October 1, 2013). “Statue of Liberty [178] Severson, Kim; Healey, Matthew (April 14, 2011). “This Closed in Shutdown”. Wall Street Journal. Lady Liberty is a Las Vegas teenager”. The New York [158] Durkin, Erin (October 6, 2016). “Statue of Liberty get- Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. ting new $70M museum set to open in 2019”. NY Daily [179] “State to start issuing new license plates July 1”. The New News. Retrieved October 7, 2016. York Times. January 24, 1986. Retrieved October 20, [159] Plagianos, Irene (October 6, 2016). “See Designs for the 2011. New Statue of Liberty Museum”. DNAinfo New York. Re- [180] “State license plates to get new look”. The New York trieved October 7, 2016. Times. January 11, 2000. Retrieved October 20, 2011. [160] Pereira, Ivan (October 6, 2016). “Statue of Liberty Mu- seum to open in 2019”. am New York. Retrieved October [181] "'Liberty' for New York club”. The New York Times. 7, 2016. February 14, 1997. Retrieved October 20, 2011.

[161] “Early History of Bedloe’s Island”. Statue of Liberty His- [182] Lapointe, Joe (January 12, 1997). “Lady Liberty laces up torical Handbook. National Park Service. Archived from at the Garden”. The New York Times. Retrieved October the original on October 21, 2011. Retrieved October 20, 20, 2011. 2011. [183] Sandomir, Richard (March 29, 1996). “Final Four: States [162] “NEW JERSEY v. NEW YORK 523 U.S. 767”. put aside their rivalry and try a little cooperation”. The Supreme Court of the United States. 1998. Retrieved Oc- New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. tober 20, 2011. [184] Axinn, Mark (October 28, 2011). “The Statue of Lib- [163] Ramirez, Anthony (June 29, 2007). “Circle Line Loses erty after 125 years – by LPNY Chair Mark Axinn”. Pact for Ferries to Liberty Island”. New York Times. Re- Libertarian Party of the United States. Retrieved Novem- trieved October 20, 2011. ber 19, 2012.

[164] “NPS: Liberty and Ellis Island ferry map”. Ferry Map. [185] Morris, Tracy S. “The Statue of Liberty in Popular Cul- National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. ture”. USA Today. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 20 CHAPTER 1. STATUE OF LIBERTY

[186] Spoto, Donald (1983). The Dark Side of Genius: The Life • Views from the webcams affixed to the Statue of of Alfred Hitchcock. Ballantine. pp. 262–263. ISBN 978- Liberty 0-345-31462-8. • Made in Paris The Statue of Liberty 1877–1885 – [187] Greene, Eric; Slotkin, Richard (1998). Planet of the Apes many historical photographs as American myth: race, politics, and popular culture. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. p. • Statue of Liberty at Structurae 52. ISBN 978-0-8195-6329-3. Retrieved October 20, 2011. • Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. NY-138, "Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, [188] 10 Movies That Hated The Statue Of Liberty >> Page 6 Manhattan, New York, New York County, NY", of 10 at the Wayback Machine (archived March 24, 2014) 404 photos, 59 color transparencies, 41 measured [189] 'Cloverfield' Release Will Be Test of Online Hype : NPR drawings, 10 data pages, 33 photo caption pages at the Wayback Machine (archived April 14, 2008) • HAER No. NY-138-A, "Statue of Liberty, Admin- [190] Darrach, Brad (June 26, 1970). “The spy who came in istration Building", 6 photos, 6 measured drawings, from 1882”. Life. p. 16. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 1 photo caption page

[191] Nicholls, Peter (1979). The Encyclopedia of Science Fic- • HAER No. NY-138-B, "Statue of Liberty, Conces- tion. St Albans, Herts, UK: Granada Publishing Ltd. p. sions Building", 12 photos, 6 measured drawings, 1 14. ISBN 978-0-586-05380-5. photo caption page

Bibliography

• Bell, James B.; Abrams, Richard L. (1984). In Search of Liberty: The Story of the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island. Garden City, New York: Double- day & Co. ISBN 978-0-385-19624-6.

• Harris, Jonathan (1985). A Statue for America: The First 100 Years of the Statue of Liberty. New York City: Four Winds Press (a division of Macmillan Publishing Company). ISBN 978-0-02-742730-1.

• Hayden, Richard Seth; Despont, Thierry W. (1986). Restoring the Statue of Liberty. New York City: McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 978-0-07- 027326-9.

• Khan, Yasmin Sabina (2010). Enlightening the World: The Creation of the Statue of Liberty. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0- 8014-4851-5.

• Moreno, Barry (2000). The Statue of Liberty Ency- clopedia. New York City: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7385-3689-7.

• Sutherland, Cara A. (2003). The Statue of Liberty. New York City: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978- 0-7607-3890-0.

1.8 External links

• Statue of Liberty National Monument

• Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation

• “A Giant’s Task – Cleaning Statue of Liberty”, Pop- ular Mechanics (February 1932) Chapter 2

Statue of Liberty National Monument

The Statue of Liberty National Monument is a United States national monument located in the U.S. states of Your huddled masses yearning to breathe New Jersey and New York comprising Liberty Island and free, Ellis Island.[5] It includes Liberty Enlightening the World, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. commonly known as the Statue of Liberty, situated on Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to Liberty Island, and the former immigration station at El- me, lis Island which opened in 1892 and closed in 1954. The I lift my lamp beside the golden door! monument is managed by the National Park Service as part of the National Parks of New York Harbor office. 2.3 Location and access 2.1 History

President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a national monu- ment in 1924.[1] In 1937, by proclamation 2250, Presi- dent Franklin D. Roosevelt expanded the monument to include all of Bedloe’s Island, and in 1956, an act of Congress officially renamed it Liberty Island.[6] Ellis Is- land was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon John- son in 1965.[2] The United States historic district, a single listing on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places, was designated in 1966.[7] The islands were closed during Hurricane Sandy in Octo- ber 2012 and suffered severe damage.[8][9][10][11][12] Lib- erty Island reopened July 4, 2013. Extensive repairs on Ellis Island are still being made.[13]

Ellis and Liberty Islands (bottom center) in Upper New York Bay 2.2 Significance at the mouth of the (left) near Liberty State Park

The Statue of Liberty is a world-famous symbol of free- The national monument is located in Upper New York [14] dom, given in the 1880s by France to the United States Bay east of Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey in celebration of friendship. Nearby Ellis Island was the and southwest of Battery Park at the tip of Manhattan in first stop for millions of immigrants to the U.S. in the late New York City. Entrance is free, but there is a charge for 19th and early 20th centuries. The national monument the ferry service that all visitors must use. recalls this period of massive immigration to the United States. In 2007, a concession was granted to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replac- Inside the statue, a plaque is engraved with words from ing the Circle Line which had operated the service since "The New Colossus", the poem by Emma Lazarus: 1953.[15] The waters are patrolled by the U.S. Park Po- lice[16][17] to enforce the restriction on private boat land- Give me your tired, your poor, ings. Ferries depart from both parks and all boats stop at

21 22 CHAPTER 2. STATUE OF LIBERTY NATIONAL MONUMENT both islands, enabling passengers to visit both islands and U.S. Supreme Court decisions. Liberty Island and the choose either destination on the return trip.[18][19] acreage on Ellis Island are part of New York City which are completely surrounded by the municipal borders of Tickets can be purchased at in Battery 2 Park or at the Communipaw Terminal in Liberty State Jersey City, including 24 acres (97,000 m ) created by Park. Along with the ferry ticket, visitors intending to land reclamation at Ellis Island and riparian areas. Juris- diction not superseded by the federal government falls to enter the statue’s pedestal must also obtain a complimen- [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] tary ticket[20] Those wishing to climb the 154 stairs to the appropriate state. the crown within the statue must obtain a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. Ten people per group, three groups per hour, are permitted 2.4 Related sites to ascend, allowing for a total of 240 per day. After an obligatory second security screening, they may bring only • Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital medication and cameras, leaving all other items in lockers • Communipaw Terminal provided.[20] • Castle Clinton 2.3.1 Jurisdiction • Liberty State Park • Battery Park •

2.5 See also

• List of National Monuments of the United States • Geography of New York Harbor • National Register of Historic Places listings in Hud- son County, New Jersey • National Register of Historic Places listings in New York County, New York

2.6 References

2.6.1 Notes

[1] “National Monument Proclamations under the Antiquities Act”. National Park Service. January 16, 2003. Retrieved August 1, 2009.

[2] “Ellis Island Time”. Staue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foun- dation. January 16, 2003. Retrieved August 15, 2010.

[3] National Park Service (1994). National Register of His- toric Places, 1966-1994: Cumulative List Through Jan- Statue of Liberty uary 1, 1994s. Washington DC: National Park Service. p. 502. ISBN 0-89133-254-5. Liberty Island and Ellis Island have been the property [4] “New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places of the United States government since 1800[6] and 1808, [21] — Hudson County”. New Jersey Department of Envi- respectively. Historical circumstances have led to the ronmental Protection - Historic Preservation Office. Re- unusual situation of Liberty Island and 3.3 acres (13,000 trieved August 2, 2014. m2) of Ellis Island being exclaves of one state, New York, located completely within another state, New Jer- [5] Frequently Asked Questions, National Park Service, ac- sey. The dominion, jurisdiction, and sovereignty of the cessed September 27, 2010. islands have variously been the subject of a colonial land [6] “Early History of Bedloe’s Island”. Statue of Liberty His- grant,[22] a provincial governor’s directive,[23] and an in- torical Handbook. National Park Service. Retrieved Au- terstate compact,[24] as well as several court cases and gust 19, 2010. 2.6. REFERENCES 23

[7] National Register of Historic Places [27] Rieff, Henry. “Intrepretations of New York-New Jersey Agreements 1834 and 1921” (PDF). Newark Law Review. [8] McGeehan, Patrick (November 8, 2012). “Storm Leaves 1 (2). Lady Liberty and Ellis Island Cut Off From Visitors”. The New York Times. Retrieved December 1, 2012. [28] “Statue of Liberty National Monument — Frequently Asked Questions”. NPS.gov. National Park Service. Re- [9] Fransco, Angel= (November 30, 2012). “Statue of Lib- trieved February 1, 2010. erty Was Unscathed by Hurricane, but Its Home Took a Beating”. pp. The New York Times. Retrieved Decem- [29] Central R. Co. of New Jersey v. Jersey City, 209 U.S. ber 1, 2012. 473 (1908) [10] Star-Ledger. November 22, 2012 http://www.nj.com/ hudson/index.ssf/2012/11/statue_of_liberty_and_ellis_ [30] Application of Devoe Manufacturing Company for a Writ is.html. Retrieved December 1, 2012. Missing or empty of Prohibition/Opinion of the Court - Wikisource, the free |title= (help) online library. En.wikisource.org. Retrieved on July 15, 2013. [11] Mcshane, Larry (November 30, 2012). “Statue of Liberty will remain closed as post-Hurricane Sandy repairs con- [31] National Park Service map showing portions of the island tinue”. Daily News. New York. Retrieved December 1, belonging to New York and New Jersey 2012. [32] NEW JERSEY v. NEW YORK 523 U.S. 767 page 779 [12] “After the Storm at Ellis Island”. National Park Service. Retrieved December 1, 2012.

[13] “Statue of Liberty July 4, 2013 Reopening — Statue of 2.6.2 Further reading Liberty National Monument”. National Park Service. Re- trieved July 10, 2013. Statue of Liberty: [14] “Statue of Liberty National Monument”. National Park Service. December 31, 2007. Retrieved July 24, 2008. • PBS documentary about statue of liberty

[15] Ramirez, Anthony (June 29, 2007). “Circle Line Loses • American Classic: Lady Liberty - slideshow by Life Pact for Ferries to Liberty Island”. New York Times. Re- magazine trieved August 15, 2010.

[16] “US Park Police”. Ferry Map. US Park Police. Retrieved • The Statue of Liberty article by Alexandra Kollon- August 15, 2010. tay, 1916.

[17] http://www.maritime-executive.com/pressrelease/ • Historical Information and Photographs us-department-interior-awards-moose-boats-contract-m1-44-patrol-boat/ • [18] “NPS: Liberty and Ellis Island ferry map”. Ferry Map. Gallery Images of the Statue of Liberty National Park Service. Retrieved August 15, 2010. Ellis Island: [19] “Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island”. Statue Cruises. Re- trieved August 18, 2010. • Ellis Island Historical Timeline [20] “Frequently asked questions”. Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Retrieved August 15, 2010. • Ellis Island timeline [21] Fort Wood • Free Search of Ellis Island Database - Port of New [22] The Duke of York’s Release to John Lord Berkeley, and York Arrivals 1892–1924 Sir George Carteret, 24th of June, 1664 • The Myth of Ellis Island Name Changes [23] Moss, Mitchell (Summer 1988). “New York vs New Jer- sey: A New Perspective”. Portfolio (PANYNJ). Jurisdiction: [24] General Services Administration Offices of General Council (February 11, 1963). “Ellis Island Its Legal Sta- tus” (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved March 3, • Supreme Court opinion in New Jersey v. New York 2011. (1998) [25] NEW JERSEY V. NEW YORK, 28 U. S. 461 (1830) • National Park Service map showing portions of the [26] Greenhouse, Linda (May 27, 1998). “The Ellis Island island belonging to New York and New Jersey Verdict: The Ruling; High Court Gives New Jersey Most of Ellis Island”. The New York Times. • American Memory from the Library of Congress 24 CHAPTER 2. STATUE OF LIBERTY NATIONAL MONUMENT

2.7 External links

• Statue of Liberty National Monument The official Historical Site handbook. • Statue of Liberty National Monument Visitor infor- mation.

Ellis Island:

• Ellis Island home page • Ellis Island Immigration Museum

• Ellis Island Visitor information Chapter 3

Liberty Island

Liberty Island is a federally owned island in Upper New to this construction created the rare situation of an exclave York Bay in the United States, best known as the location of one state, New York, being situated in another, New of the Statue of Liberty. The island is an exclave of the Jersey. New York City borough of Manhattan, surrounded by the The island is operated by the National Park Service, and waters of Jersey City, New Jersey. Long known as Bed- since September 11, 2001, guarded by around-the-clock loe’s Island, it was renamed by an act of the United States patrols of the United States Park Police Marine Patrol Congress in 1956. In 1937, by Presidential Proclama- Unit. Liberty Island is 2,000 feet (610 m) east of Liberty tion 2250 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, it became State Park in Jersey City and is 1.58 statute miles (2.6 part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and in [3] kilometers) southwest of Battery Park in Lower Manhat- 1966, was listed on the National Register of Historic tan. Public access is permitted only by ferries from either Places as part of Statue of Liberty National Monument, [4] of the two parks, which serve the national monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island. also stopping at Ellis Island.[8] Hornblower Cruises and Events, operating under the name Statue Cruises, holds the exclusive concession for ferry service to and from the 3.1 Geography and access island.

3.2 History

3.2.1 Great Oyster Island

At the time of European colonialization of the Hudson River estuary in the 17th century, much of the west side Upper New York Bay contained large tidal flats which hosted vast oyster beds, a major source of food for the Lenape people who lived there at the time. Several is- lands were not completely submerged at high tide. Three of them (later known as Liberty, Ellis, and Black Tom) were given the name Oyster Islands (oester eilanden) by the settlers of New Netherland, the first European colony in the Mid-Atlantic states. The oyster beds would re- Coin-operated binoculars on Liberty Island. The island offers main a major source of food for nearly three centuries.[9] panoramic views of New York Harbor. Landfilling after the start of the 20th century, particularly by Lehigh Valley Railroad and Central Railroad of New According to the United States Census Bureau, the island Jersey, eventually obliterated the beds, engulfed one is- has a land area of 59,558 square meters, or 14.717 acres, land and brought the shoreline much closer to the others. which is the property of New Jersey. A pact between New York and New Jersey states that New York has control of the Island, but taxes go to New Jersey, and the power 3.2.2 Bedloe’s Island comes from Jersey City. Liberty Island is located in the Upper New York Bay surrounded by the waters of Jersey After the surrender of Fort Amsterdam by the Dutch to City, Hudson County, New Jersey. Liberty Island is one the British in 1664, the English governor Richard Nicolls of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in granted the island to Captain Robert Needham. It was New York.[5][6][7] The historical developments which led sold to Isaac Bedloe on December 23, 1667. The island

25 26 CHAPTER 3. LIBERTY ISLAND

was retained by his estate until 1732 when it was sold for Siege of Fort Erie in 1813. The granite fortification fol- five shillings to New York merchants Adolphe Philipse lowed an 11-pointed star fort layout with mounting 24 and Henry Lane. During their ownership, the island was guns.[16][17] A larger fort mounting 77 guns was proposed temporarily commandeered by the city of New York to under the third system of US fortifications but was not establish a smallpox quarantine station.[10][11][12][13] built.[18] In 1746, Archibald Kennedy (later 11th Earl of Cas- By the time it was chosen for the Statue of Liberty, the silis) purchased the island and a summer residence was fort was disused and its walls were used as the distinc- established.[14] tive base for the Statue of Liberty given by France for In 1753, the island is described in an advertisement (in the 1886 centenary celebrations. It had become a part which “Bedlow’s” had become “Bedloe’s”) as being avail- of the base for the Statue of Liberty after the island was able for rental: first seen by the statue’s sculptor. The National Park Ser- vice (which had been created in 1916) took over opera- tions of the island in two stages: 2 acres (8,100 m2) in To be Let. Bedloe’s Island, alias Love 1933, and the remainder in 1937.[3] The military instal- Island, together with the dwelling-house and lation was completely removed by 1944.[19][20] lighthouse being finely situated for a tavern, where all kinds of garden stuff, poultry, etc., may be easily raised for the shipping outward bound, and from where any quantity of pickled oysters may be transported ; it abounds with 3.2.4 Statue of Liberty English rabbits.”[15]

In 1756, Kennedy allowed the island to again be used as a smallpox quarantine station, and on February 18, 1758, the Corporation of the City of New York bought the is- land for £1,000 for use as a pest house. When the British troops occupied New York Harbor in the lead-up to the American Revolutionary War, the is- land was to be used for housing for Tory refugees, but on April 2, 1776, the buildings constructed on the island for their use were burned to the ground.[15]

3.2.3 Fort Wood

US Coast Guard patrolling around Liberty Island, Statue of Lib- erty in the background

The statue, entitled Liberty Enlightening the World, was a gift from the people of France to mark the American Centennial. It was agreed that the Congress would autho- rize the acceptance of the statue by the President of the United States, and that the War Department would facil- itate its construction and presentation.[21] Fort Wood’s star-shaped walls became the base of the Statue of The construction of the statue was completed in France Liberty. in July 1884. The cornerstone was laid on August 5, 1884, and after some funding delays, construction of the On February 15, 1800, the New York State Legislature pedestal was finished on April 22, 1886. The statue ar- ceded the island to the federal government, for the con- rived in New York Harbor on June 17, 1885, on board struction of a defensive fort to be built there (along with the French frigate Isère,[22] was stored for eleven months Governors Island and Ellis Island). Construction of a fort in crates waiting for its pedestal to be finished, and was on the island in the shape of an 11-point star began in then reassembled in four months. On October 28, 1886, 1806 and was completed in 1811. Following the War of the Statue of Liberty was unveiled by President Grover 1812, the star-shaped fortification was named Fort Wood Cleveland. The name Liberty Island was made official after Lt. Col Eleazer Derby Wood who was killed in the by Congress in 1956.[23] 3.3. JURISDICTIONAL DISPUTES 27

3.2.5 Museum 3.3.1 State dispute

On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000-square-foot (2,400 m2) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island’s visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, An unusual clause in the 1664 colonial land grant that out- which only 20% of the island’s visitors can visit.[24] The lined New Jersey's borders reads: “westward of Long Is- original torch will be relocated here, and in addition land, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by [27] to exhibits relating to the statue’s construction and his- the main sea, and part by Hudson’s river” rather than tory, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an at the river’s midpoint, as was common in other colonial [28] aerial view of the statue.[24][25] The museum, designed by charters. FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland When the Province of New Jersey was separated from the around it.[25] It is being funded privately by Diane von Province of New York in 1674 it was argued that Staten Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca-Cola, Island belonged to the former. Then governor Edmund NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Andros directed that all islands in the bay that could be Robert Tisch, and Mellody Hobson and George Lucas.[26] circumnavigated within 24 hours were part of New York. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, Captain Christopher Billopp sailed around it within the and the project had garnered more than $40 million in allotted time[29] and was soon thereafter granted a manor fundraising as of groundbreaking.[25] at its southern tip.[30] The border came to be understood as being along the shore of the Hudson River, the Upper New York Bay, the , and . In 1824 the City of New York attempted to assert a ju- 3.3 Jurisdictional disputes risdictional monopoly over the growing steam ferry ser- vice in New York Harbor in Gibbons v. Ogden. It was deemed by the court that interstate transport would be regulated by the federal government. This did not resolve the border issue. In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit,[31] but the matter was resolved with a compact be- tween the states ratified by US Congress in 1834 which set the boundary line between them as the midpoint of the shared waterways.[7][32] This was later confirmed by the US Supreme Court in a 1908 case which also expounded on the compact.[33] In 1987, US Representative Frank J. Guarini and Gerald McCann, then mayor of Jersey City, sued New York City, contending that New Jersey should have dominion over Liberty Island because it is on the New Jersey side of the state line.[34] By default, since the court chose not to hear the case, the existing legal status was unchanged. Por- tions of the island that are above water are part of New York, while riparian rights to all of the submerged land surrounding the statue belong to New Jersey. The south- western section, 4.17 acres (1.69 ha),[35] of the island was created by land reclamation.[36][37] A 1997 United States Supreme Court decision involved such riparian rights around nearby Ellis Island. Being mostly constructed of artificial infill, New Jersey argued and the court agreed that the 1834 compact covered only the natural parts of the island, and not the portions added by infill. Thus it was agreed that the parts of the island The geography along the New Jersey banks of Upper New York made of filled land belonged to New Jersey while the orig- Bay before landfilling. Liberty Island’s location near New Jersey inal natural part belonged to New York.[38] This proved led to the state’s attempts to assert jurisdiction. impractical to administer and New Jersey and New York subsequently agreed to share jurisdiction of the entire There have been a number of disputes regarding the ju- island.[6][31] This special situation only applies to Ellis Is- risdictional status of Liberty Island. land and part of Shooters Island. 28 CHAPTER 3. LIBERTY ISLAND

Panorama National Park Service building on Liberty Island from Liberty Island, with views of Manhattan and Jersey City

3.3.2 Federal ownership 3.4 See also Liberty Island has been owned by the federal government • since 1801, first as a military installation and now as a na- Castle Clinton tional landmark. Statue of Liberty National Monument, • Communipaw Terminal Ellis Island and Liberty Island, listed on the National Reg- ister of Historic Places since 1966, encompasses land • Geography of New York–New Jersey Harbor Estu- in both states[39] control of which is superseded by the ary United States. The undisputed boundary between New Jersey and New York is in the center of the Hudson River • Kentucky Bend and the Upper New York Bay, with Liberty Island situ- • ated well on the New Jersey side of the water line with Liberty Island and the Statue of Liberty in popular Liberty Island itself an exclave of the State of New York culture and a part of New York City, allowing the state and city • List of exclaves of New York to retain sovereignty of Liberty Island, serve process there and collect sales tax from Liberty Island • Prall’s Island souvenir shops.[6] • In response to a FAQ about whether the Statue of Liberty is in New York or New Jersey, the National Park Service, which oversees Liberty Island, cites the 1834 compact.[39] Question 127 on a examination piloted in 3.5 References 2006 asks “Where is the Statue of Liberty?" The U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services gives “New York [1] “Proclamation 2250: Enlarging the Statue of Liberty Na- Harbor” and “Liberty Island” as preferred answers, but tional Monument New York”. Code of Federal Regu- notes that “New Jersey,” “New York,” “New York City,” lations: Title 3—The President 1936–1938 Compilation. National Archives and Records Service, General Services and “on the Hudson” are acceptable.[40] Administration. 1968. pp. 120–121. The Statue of Liberty itself is claimed as a symbol by both New York and New Jersey. It was featured on New York [2] “New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – Hudson County”. New Jersey Department of Environ- license plates from 1986 through 2000 and on a special mental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Re- New Jersey license plate celebrating Liberty State Park trieved August 2, 2014. in Jersey City. The Statue is also seen on the New York State Quarter. The national monument was the symbol [3] “Early History of Bedloe’s Island”. Statue of Liberty His- of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, still used by the torical Handbook. National Park Service. Archived from Raritan Valley Line. (The Central Railroad of New Jer- the original on 2010-06-28. Retrieved 2010-08-19. sey Terminal is nearby). [4] Sutherland, Cara A. (2003). The Statue of Liberty. New Though it is uninhabited, the United States Geological York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0760738904. Re- Survey includes it as part of New York’s 8th congressional trieved 18 June 2016. district.[41] Both New York City and Jersey City have as- [5] Hudson County New Jersey Street Map. Hagstrom Map signed the island lot numbers. Utility services, including Company, Inc. 2008. ISBN 0-88097-763-9. electricity, water, and sewage, to Liberty and Ellis Islands are provided from the New Jersey side. Mail is delivered [6] New Jersey v. New York, 523 U.S. 767, page 779 (26 May from Battery Park.[42] 1998). 3.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 29

[7] “Statue of Liberty National Monument – Frequently [27] “The Duke of York’s Release to John Lord Berkeley, and Asked Questions”. National Park Service. Retrieved Sir George Carteret, 24 June 1664”. The Avalon Project 2010-02-01. Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy. Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 2012- [8] “Ferry System Map – Statue Of Liberty National Monu- 07-29. ment (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Ser- vice. Retrieved 2014-01-21. [28] Rieff, Henry. “Intrepretations of New York-New Jersey Agreements 1834 and 1921” (pdf). Newark Law Review. [9] Kurlansky, Mark (2006). The Big Oyster. New York: 1 (2). Random House Trade paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-345- 47639-5. [29] “New York vs. New Jersey: A New Perspective”. Port- folio. The Port Authority of NY and NJ. 1 (2). Summer [10] “Spell it with a “W” It should not be Bedloo’s Island but 1988. Archived from the original on 2012-02-22. “Bedlow’s"" (pdf). The New York Times. August 14, 1886. Retrieved 2011-04-08. [30] Mershon, S.L. (1918). English Crown Grants. New York: The Law and History Club. [11] Harvey, Cornelius Burnham (1900). “Genealogical His- [31] Greenhouse, Linda (27 May 1998). “The Ellis Island Ver- tory Of Hudson And Bergen Counties New Jersey Early dict: The Ruling; High Court Gives New Jersey Most of Settlers of Bergen County”. Retrieved 2012-12-13. Ellis Island”. The New York Times. [12] “History of the Statue of Liberty and Bedlow’s Island”. [32] United States Statues at Large: Volume 4 New York: Regimental Press. Archived from the original on February 4, 2008. [33] “Central R. Co. of New Jersey v. Jersey City, 209 U.S. 473 (1908)". Retrieved 2012-07-29. [13] “Lazaretto Quarantine Station, Tinicum Township, Delaware County, PA: History”. ushistory.org. Retrieved [34] “New Jerseyans’ Claim To Liberty Island Rejected”. The 2010-02-01. New York Times. Associated Press. 6 October 1987. Re- trieved 2010-01-27. [14] “Liberty Island Chronology”. Retrieved 2013-01-25. [35] “Is Liberty a Jersey Girl”. New Jersey Society of Profes- [15] “Historic Buildings as seen and described by famous writ- sional Land Surveyors. February 4, 2014. ers” (txt). archive.org. Retrieved 2010-02-01. [36] “Historic Fill of the Jersey City Quadrangle: Historic Fill [16] Wade, Arthur P. (2011). Artillerists and Engineers: The Map HFM-53” (pdf). New Jersey State Department of En- Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794- vironmental Protection. 2004. Retrieved 2014-08-31. 1815. CDSG Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-9748167-2-2. [37] http://www.njspls.org/?130 [17] Fort Wood at New York State Military Museum [38] “National Park Service map showing portions of the island [18] Roberts, Robert B. (1988). Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: belonging to New York and New Jersey”. Archived from The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United the original on February 23, 2010. States. New York: Macmillan. pp. 594–596. ISBN 0- [39] “Statue of Liberty National Monument”. National Park 02-926880-X. Service. 13 December 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-24. [19] “Fort Wood”. Retrieved 2012-07-29. [40] “Questions and Answers for New Pilot Naturalization Exam”. U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. 30 [20] Moreno, Barry (2000). The Statue of Liberty Encyclope- November 2006. Archived from the original on 5 Decem- dia. New York, N.Y.: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0- ber 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-01. 7385-3689-7. [41] Liberty Island: Block Group 9, Census Tract 1, New York [21] “Liberty’s Statue Full Programme of the Inaugural Cere- County, United States Census Bureau Archived copy at monies” (pdf). The New York Times. 10 October 1886. WebCite (July 22, 2007). Retrieved 2009-12-22. [42] “Statue of Liberty Lighthouse”. Archived from the origi- [22] “Delaware Division of Libraries Blog”. Retrieved 2012- nal on 2012-07-17. Retrieved 2012-07-29. 07-29.

[23] “USGS:LI”. Retrieved 2012-07-29. 3.6 External links [24] Durkin, Erin (October 6, 2016). “Statue of Liberty get- ting new $70M museum set to open in 2019”. NY Daily • News. Retrieved 2016-10-07. National Park Service Bedloe’s Island web site • National Park Service’s Statue of Liberty and Lib- [25] Plagianos, Irene (2016-10-06). “See Designs for the New Statue of Liberty Museum”. DNAinfo New York. Re- erty Island site trieved 2016-10-07. • Bedloe’s Island in 1867 at the Historical Society of [26] Pereira, Ivan (October 6, 2016). “Statue of Liberty Mu- Pennsylvania seum to open in 2019”. am New York. Retrieved 2016- • Statue Of Liberty Fire Brigade 10-07. Chapter 4

Ellis Island

For other uses, see Ellis Island (disambiguation). 4.1 Geography and access Ellis Island, in Upper New York Bay, was the gate- Ellis Island is located in Upper New York Bay, east of Liberty State Park and north of Liberty Island, in Jersey City, New Jersey, with a small section that is part of New York City.[10][11] Largely created through land reclama- tion, the island has a land area of 27.5 acres (11.1 ha), most of which is part of New Jersey. The 2.74-acre (1.11 ha) natural island and contiguous areas comprise the 3.3 acres (1.3 ha) that are part of New York.[11][12] The entire island has been owned and administered by the U.S. federal government since 1808 and has been oper- ated by the National Park Service since 1965.[13] Since September 11, 2001, the island is guarded by patrols of the United States Park Police Marine Patrol Unit. Public access is by ferry from either Communipaw Terminal in Liberty State Park or from Battery Park at the southern tip of Manhattan. The ferry operator, Hornblower Cruises and Events, also provides service to the nearby Statue of Liberty.[14] A bridge built for transporting materials and personnel during restoration projects connects Ellis Island with Liberty State Park, but is not open to the public. Proposals made in 1995 to use it or replace it with a new bridge for pedestrians were op- Ellis Island’s location in Upper New York Bay posed by the city of New York and the private ferry op- erator at that time.[15] Much of the island, including the entire south side, has been closed to the general public since 1954. The ren- ovated area on the north side was again closed to the way for over 12 million immigrants to the United States public after Hurricane Sandy in October 2012.[16] The as the nation’s busiest immigrant inspection station for [8] island was re-opened to the public and the museum over sixty years from 1892 until 1954. The island was partially re-opened on October 28, 2013, after major greatly expanded with land reclamation between 1892 renovations.[17][18][19] and 1934. Before that, the much smaller original island was the site of Fort Gibson and later a naval magazine. The island was made part of the Statue of Liberty Na- tional Monument in 1965, and has hosted a museum of 4.2 Early history immigration since 1990. Long considered part of New York state, a 1998 United Originally much of the west shore of Upper New York States Supreme Court decision found that most of the is- Bay consisted of large tidal flats which hosted vast oyster land is in New Jersey.[9] The south side of the island, banks, a major source of food for the Lenape popula- home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is closed tion who lived in the area prior to the arrival of Dutch to the general public and the object of restoration efforts settlers. There were several islands which were not com- spearheaded by Save Ellis Island. pletely submerged at high tide. Three of them (later to

30 4.3. IMMIGRANT INSPECTION STATION 31

be known as Liberty Island, Black Tom Island and Ellis Island) were given the name Oyster Islands by the set- tlers of New Netherland, the first European colony in the region. The oyster beds would remain a major source of food for nearly three centuries.[20][21][22] Landfilling to build the railyards of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey would eventually oblit- erate the beds, engulf one island and bring the shoreline much closer to the others.[23] During the colonial period Little Oyster Island was known as Dyre’s, then Bucking Island. In the 1760s, after some pirates were hanged from one of the island’s scrubby trees, it became known as Gibbet Island.[24] It was acquired by Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker and merchant possibly from Wales, Ellis Island buildings circa 1893 around the time of the American Revolution.[25] In 1785 he unsuccessfully attempted to sell the island:[26]

TO BE SOLD By Samuel Ellis, no. 1, Greenwich Street, at the north river near the Bear Market, That pleasant situated Island called Oyster Island, lying in New York Bay, near Powle’s Hook, together with all its improvements which are considerable;... — Samuel Ellis advertising in Loudon’s New York-Packet, January 20, 1785

The State of New York leased the island in 1794 and started to fortify it in 1795. Ownership was in ques- First Ellis Island Immigrant Station, opened on January 1, 1892. tion and legislation was passed for acquisition by con- Built of wood, it was completely destroyed by fire on June 15, demnation in 1807 and then ceded to the United States in 1897. 1808.[27] Shortly thereafter the War Department estab- lished a 14-gun battery, mortar battery (possibly of six mortars), magazine, and barracks.[28][29] This was part of what was later called the second system of US forti- fications. From 1808 until 1814 it was a federal arsenal. At the end of the War of 1812 was named as Fort Gibson, after Colonel James Gibson of the 4th Regiment of Riflemen, killed in the Siege of Fort Erie in that war.[30][31] Parts of the wall foundations of the fort were uncovered while excavating for the Immigrant Wall of Honor, and they are preserved with an interpre- tive plaque. The island remained a military post for nearly 80 years[32] before it was selected to be a federal immi- gration station.

Second Ellis Island Immigration Station, opened on December 4.3 Immigrant inspection station 17, 1900, as seen in 1905

In the 35 years before Ellis Island opened, more than eight million immigrants arriving in New York City had and landfill was hauled in from incoming ships’ ballast been processed by New York State officials at Castle Gar- and from construction of New York City’s subway tun- den Immigration Depot in Lower Manhattan, just across nels, which doubled the size of Ellis Island to over six the bay.[32] The federal government assumed control of acres. While the building was under construction, the immigration on April 18, 1890, and Congress appropri- Barge Office nearby at the Battery was used for immi- ated $75,000 to construct America’s first federal immi- grant processing. gration station on Ellis Island. Artesian wells were dug, The first station was an enormous three-story-tall struc- 32 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND ture, with outbuildings, built of Georgia pine, containing all of the amenities that were thought to be necessary. It opened with celebration on January 1, 1892.[24] Three large ships landed on the first day and 700 immigrants passed over the docks. Almost 450,000 immigrants were processed at the station during its first year. On June 15, 1897, a fire of unknown origin, possibly caused by faulty wiring, turned the wooden structures on Ellis Is- land into ashes. No loss of life was reported, but most of the immigration records dating back to 1855 were de- stroyed. About 1.5 million immigrants had been pro- cessed at the first building during its five years of use. Plans were immediately made to build a new, fireproof immigration station on Ellis Island. During the construc- tion period, passenger arrivals were again processed at the Barge Office.[24] Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring won the 1897 competition to design the first phase, includ- ing the Main Building (1897–1900), Kitchen and Laun- dry Building (1900–01), Main Powerhouse (1900–01), and the Main Hospital Building (1900–01).[33] The present main structure was designed in French Renaissance Revival style and built of red brick with Arriving at Ellis, circa 1908 (Photo by Lewis Hine) limestone trim. After it opened on December 17, 1900, the facilities proved to be able to barely handle the flood of immigrants that arrived in the years before World War I. Writer Louis Adamic came to America from Slovenia , then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1913 and described the night he and many other immigrants slept on bunk beds in a huge hall. Lacking a warm blanket, the young man “shivered, sleepless, all night, listening to snores” and dreams “in perhaps a dozen different lan- guages”. The facility was so large that the dining room could seat 1,000 people. It is reported that the island’s first immigrant to be processed through was a teenager named Annie Moore from County Cork in Ireland.[34] After its opening, Ellis Island was again expanded with landfill and additional structures were built. By the time Film by Edison Studios showing immigrants disembarking from it closed on November 12, 1954, twelve million immi- the steam ferryboat William Myers, July 9, 1903 grants had been processed by the U.S. Bureau of Immi- gration.[32] It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed for points across the United States from the Armenians.[8] Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, located just across a narrow strait.[35][36] Others would have used one of the other terminals along the North River (Hudson 4.3.1 Primary inspection River) at that time.[37] At first, the majority of immi- grants arriving through the station were Northern and Between 1905 and 1914, an average of one million im- Western Europeans (Germany, Ireland, Britain and the migrants per year arrived in the United States. Immigra- Scandinavian countries). Eventually, these groups of tion officials reviewed about 5,000 immigrants per day peoples slowed in the rates that they were coming in, during peak times at Ellis Island.[38] Two-thirds of those and immigrants came in from Southern and Eastern Eu- individuals emigrated from eastern, southern and cen- rope, including Jews. Many reasons these immigrants tral Europe.[39] The peak year for immigration at Ellis came to the United States included escaping political Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 immigrants processed. and economic oppression, as well as persecution, des- The all-time daily high occurred on April 17, 1907, when titution, and violence. Other groups of peoples being 11,747 immigrants arrived.[24] After the Immigration Act processed through the station were Poles, Hungarians, of 1924 was passed, which greatly restricted immigra- Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Greeks, Syrians, Turks, and tion and allowed processing at overseas embassies, the 4.3. IMMIGRANT INSPECTION STATION 33 only immigrants to pass through the station were those Immigration, the United States Public Health Service who had problems with their immigration paperwork, operated an extensive medical service at the immigrant displaced persons, and war refugees.[40] Today, over 100 station, called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43, more million Americans—about one-third to forty percent of widely known as the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital. It the population of the United States—can trace their an- was the largest marine hospital in the nation. The med- cestry to the immigrants who first arrived in America ical division, which was active in the hospital wards, the at Ellis Island before dispersing to points all over the Barge Office at the Battery and the Main Building, was country.[41] staffed by uniformed military surgeons. They are best known for the role they played during the line inspection, Generally, those immigrants who were approved spent from two to five hours at Ellis Island. Arrivals were asked in which they employed unusual techniques such as the use of the buttonhook to examine immigrants for signs 29 questions including name, occupation, and the amount of money carried. It was important to the American gov- of eye diseases (particularly, trachoma) and the use of a chalk mark code. Symbols were chalked on the clothing ernment that the new arrivals could support themselves and have money to get started. The average the govern- of potentially sick immigrants following the six-second medical examination. The doctors would look at the im- ment wanted the immigrants to have was between 18 and 25 dollars ($600 in 2015 adjusted for inflation). Those migrants as they climbed the stairs from the baggage area with visible health problems or diseases were sent home to the Great Hall. Immigrants’ behavior would be stud- or held in the island’s hospital facilities for long periods ied for difficulties in getting up the staircase. Some im- of time. More than three thousand would-be immigrants migrants supposedly entered the country only by surrep- titiously wiping the chalk marks off, or by turning their died on Ellis Island while being held in the hospital fa- [46] cilities. Some unskilled workers were rejected because clothes inside out. they were considered “likely to become a public charge.” The symbols used were: About 2 percent were denied admission to the U.S. and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such • B – Back as having a chronic contagious disease, criminal back- ground, or insanity.[42] Ellis Island was sometimes known • C – Conjunctivitis as “The Island of Tears” or “Heartbreak Island”[43] be- • TC – Trachoma cause of those 2% who were not admitted after the long transatlantic voyage. The Kissing Post is a wooden col- • E – Eyes umn outside the Registry Room, where new arrivals were greeted by their relatives and friends, typically with tears, • F – Face hugs and kisses.[44][45] • FT – Feet During World War I, the German sabotage of the Black • Tom Wharf ammunition depot damaged buildings on El- G – Goiter lis Island. The repairs included the current barrel-vaulted • H – Heart ceiling of the Main Hall. • K – Hernia 4.3.2 Medical inspections • L – Lameness • N – Neck • P – Physical and Lungs • PG – Pregnancy • S – Senility • SC – Scalp (Favus) • X – Suspected Mental defect • x – Definite signs of Mental defect

Some other symbols or marks were used by U.S. Im- migrant Inspectors when interrogating immigrants in the Registry Room to determine whether to admit or detain Dormitory room for detained immigrants them, including:

To support the activities of the United States Bureau of • SI – Special Inquiry 34 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

• IV – Immigrant Visa • Mental: people to showed signs and/or his- tory of mental illness and intellectual disability. • LPC – Likely or Liable to become a Public Charge These included "feeblemindedness", “imbecility”, depression, and other illnesses that stemmed from • Med. Cert. – Medical certificate issued the brain such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy.

• Moral: people who had “moral defects” at the time 4.3.3 Eugenic influence were, but not limited to: homosexuals and those of "illicit sexuality", criminals, impoverished, and Many of the people immigrating to America hailed from other groups associated with degeneracy that devi- Europe, with Eastern Europe and Southern European im- ated from the considered “norm” or American soci- migrants being the primary groups. During this time pe- ety at the time. riod, eugenic ideals gained broad popularity and made heavy impact on immigration to the United States by way The people with moral and/or mental disability were of of exclusion of disabled and “morally defective” people. higher concern to officials and under the law, mandatorily These attributes of defect would become associated with excluded from immigrating to the United States. Persons certain racial/national normalities and give power to a with physical disability were under higher inspection and movement of creating a racially “superior America” via could be turned way on the basis of their disability. Much the reproduction of “old stock” white Americans due to of this came in part of the eugenicist belief that defects their membership to the "Nordic race" (a form of white were hereditary, espically those of the moral and men- supremacy). tal nature those these were often outwardly signified by physical deformity as well.[47] Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century held the belief that reproductive selection should be carried In 1898, a Chicago surgeon named Eugene S. Talbot out by the state as a collective decision.[47] For many eu- (Eugene Solomon) wrote “crime is hereditary, a ten- genicists, this was considered a patriotic duty as they held dency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily an interest in creating a greater national race. Henry Fair- defects.”[48] Likewise, George Lydston, a medicine and field Osborn's opening words to the New York Evening criminal anthropology professor, argued further in 1906 Journal in 1911 were, “As a biologist as well as a pa- that people with “defective physique” were not just crimi- triot...,” on the subject on advocating for tighter inspec- nally associated but that defectiveness was a primary fac- tions of immigrants of the United States. tor “in the causation of crime.”[49] >Between 1891 and 1930, Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted Eugenic selection occurred on two distinguishable levels: immigrations. Of this 25 million, 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 • State/Local levels which handles institutionalization were barred from entry. Approximately 4.4% of immi- and sterilization of those considered defective as grants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled well as the education of the public, marriage laws, or diseased per with 11% being deported when this num- and social pressures such as fitter family and better ber spiked to 8.0% in the years of 1918-1919. 1% of baby contests. immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes.

• Immigration control, the screening of immigrants for defects, was notably supported by Harry Laugh- 4.3.4 Detention and deportation station lin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office from 1910 to 1939, who stated that this was where With the passing of the Immigrant Quota Act of 1921, the “federal government must cooperate.” the number of immigrants being allowed into the United States declined greatly. The passing of the bill ended the era of mass immigration.[8] After 1924, Ellis Island be- At the time, it was a broadly popular idea that immigra- came primarily a detention and deportation processing tion policies had ought to be based off eugenics principles station.[24][50] in order to help create a “superior race” in America. To do this, defective persons needed to be screened by im- During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Is- migration officials and denied entry on the basis of their land was used to intern German merchant mariners and disability. “enemy aliens”—Axis nationals detained for fear of spy- ing, sabotage, and other fifth column activity. In Decem- Types of Defects often screened for: ber 1941, Ellis Island held 279 Japanese, 248 Germans, and 81 Italians removed from the East Coast.[51] Unlike • Physical: people who had hereditary or acquired other wartime immigration detention stations, Ellis Island physical disability. These included sickness and dis- was designated as a permanent holding facility and was ease, deformity, lack of limbs, being abnormally tall used to hold foreign nationals throughout the war.[52] A or short, "feminization", etc. total of 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese would be 4.3. IMMIGRANT INSPECTION STATION 35

lam movement.[53] Due to this action, he was immediately stripped of his Indonesian citizenship, causing him to be imprisoned for a few months on Ellis Island as “an illegal alien.”[53]

4.3.5 Staff

The station’s commissioners were:

1. 1890–1893 Colonel John B. Weber (Republican) 2. 1893–1897 Dr. Joseph H. Senner (Democrat) 3. 1898–1902 Thomas Fitchie (Republican) Radicals awaiting deportation, 1920 4. 1902–1905 William Williams (Republican) 5. 1905–1909 Robert Watchorn (Republican) 6. 1909–1913 William Williams (Republican), 2nd term 7. 1914–1919 Dr. Frederic C. Howe (Democrat) 8. 1920–1921 Frederick A. Wallis (Democrat) 9. 1921–1923 Robert E. Tod (Republican) 10. 1923–1926 Henry C. Curran (Republican) 11. 1926–1931 Benjamin M. Day (Republican) 12. 1931–1934 Edward Corsi (Republican) 13. 1934–1940 Rudolph Reimer (Democrat) 14. 1940–1942 Byron H. Uhl (actual title: district di- rector) 15. 1942–1949 W. Frank Watkins (district director) Immigrants being inspected, 1904 16. 1949–1954 Edward J. Shaughnessy (district direc- tor) ultimately detained at Ellis Island.[24] It was also a pro- cessing center for returning sick or wounded U.S. sol- Other notable officials at Ellis Island included James diers, and a Coast Guard training base. Ellis Island still R. O'Beirne (assistant commissioner, 1890–93), Edward managed to process tens of thousands of immigrants a F. McSweeney (assistant commissioner, 1893-1902), year during this time, but many fewer than the hundreds Joseph E. Murray (assistant commissioner, 1902–09), of thousands a year who arrived before the war. After [24] Byron Uhl (assistant commissioner, 1909-1940), Dr. the war, immigration rapidly returned to earlier levels. George W. Stoner (chief surgeon), Augustus Freder- Noted entertainers who performed for detained aliens and ick Sherman (chief clerk), Dr. Victor Heiser (sur- for U.S. and allied servicemen at the island included Rudy geon) (surgeon), Dr. Thomas W. Salmon (surgeon), Dr. Vallee, Jimmy Durante, Bob Hope, and Lionel Hampton Howard Knox (surgeon), Antonio Frabasilis (interpreter), and his orchestra. Peter Mikolainis (interpreter), Maud Mosher (matron), The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of Fiorello H. La Guardia (interpreter), Samuel Hays, (spe- communist or fascist organizations from immigrating to cial immigrant inspector)Roman Dobler (immigrant in- the United States. Ellis Island saw detention peak at spector), Philip Cowen (immigrant inspector) and Philip 1,500, but by 1952, after changes to immigration law and Forman (immigrant inspector, 1930s; chief of detention, policies, only 30 detainees remained.[24] deportation and parole, 1940s, 1950s) One of the last detainees was the Aceh separatist Hasan di Prominent amongst the missionaries and immigrant aid Tiro who, while a student in New York in 1953, declared workers were Rev. Michael J. Henry and Rev. Anthony himself the “foreign minister” of the rebellious Darul Is- J. Grogan (Irish Catholic), Rev. Gaspare Moretto (Italian 36 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

Catholic), Alma E. Mathews (Methodist), Rev. Georg Star Line, the Holland America Line, and the Austro- Doring (German Lutheran), Rev. Joseph L'Etauche American Line.[56][57] The Americanization of many im- (Polish Catholic), Rev. Reuben Breed (Episcopal), migrant families’ surnames was for the most part adopted Michael Lodsin (Baptist), Brigadier Thomas Johnson by the family after the immigration process, or by the sec- (Salvation Army), Ludmila K. Foxlee (YWCA), Athena ond or third generation of the family after some assimi- Marmaroff (Woman’s Christian Temperance Union), lation into American culture. However, many last names Alexander Harkavy (HIAS), and Cecilia Greenstone and were altered slightly due to the disparity between English Cecilia Razovsky (National Council of Jewish Women). and other languages in the pronunciation of certain letters of the alphabet.[58]

4.3.6 Records 4.3.7 Notable immigrants

Main article: List of notable Ellis Island immigrants

The first immigrant to pass through Ellis Island was Annie Moore, a 17-year-old girl from Cork, Ireland, who ar- rived on the ship Nevada on January 1, 1892.[59] She and her two brothers were coming to America to meet their parents, who had moved to New York two years prior. She received a greeting from officials and a $10 gold coin.[60] It was the largest sum of money she had ever owned. The last person to pass through Ellis Island was a Norwe- gian merchant seaman by the name of Arne Peterssen in 1954. Scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Is- land 4.4 Immigration museum

Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1902

Approach to the museum building. See also: Ellis Island Special The wooden structure built in 1892 to house the immi- A myth persists that government officials on Ellis Is- gration station burned down after five years. The sta- land compelled immigrants to take new names against tion’s new Main Building, which now houses the Im- their wishes.[54][55] In fact, no historical records bear migration Museum, was opened in 1900.[61] Architects this out. Immigration inspectors used the passenger Edward Lippincott Tilton and William Alciphron Boring lists given to them by the steamship companies to pro- received a gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition for the cess each foreigner. These were the sole immigration building’s design and constructed the building at a cost records for entering the country and were prepared not by of $1.5 million.[62] The architecture competition was the the U.S. Bureau of Immigration but by steamship com- second under the Tarsney Act, which had permitted pri- panies such as the Cunard Line, the White Star Line, vate architects rather than government architects in the the North German Lloyd Line, the Hamburg-Amerika Treasury Department’s Office of the Supervising Archi- Line, the Italian Steam Navigation Company, the Red tect to design federal buildings.[63] 4.4. IMMIGRATION MUSEUM 37

history. A construction budget of $150 million was re- quired for this significant restoration. This money was raised by a campaign organized by the political fundraiser Wyatt A. Stewart.[64] The building reopened on Septem- ber 10, 1990.[65] Exhibits include Hearing Room, Peak Immigration Years, the Peopling of America, Restoring a Landmark, Silent Voices, Treasures from Home, and Ellis Island Chronicles. There are also three theaters used for film and live performances.[66] On May 20, 2015 the Ellis Island Immigration Museum was officially renamed the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration, coinciding with the opening of the new Peopling of America galleries. The expansion tells the Ceiling of the Great Hall. entire story of American immigration, including before and after the Ellis Island era. The Peopling of Amer- ica Center was designed by ESI Design and fabricated by Hadley Exhibits, Inc. The architectural design was done by Highland Associates, with construction executed by Phelps Construction Group.[67] The Wall of Honor outside of the main building contains a partial list of immigrants processed on the island.[68] In- clusion on the list is made possible by a donation to sup- port the facility. In 2008 the museum’s library was offi- cially named the Bob Hope Memorial Library in honor of one the station’s most famous immigrants. The Ellis Island Medal of Honor is awarded annually at ceremonies on the island.

Main Building, which now houses the Immigration Museum 4.4.1 South side of the island

Great Hall, where immigrants were processed

After the immigration station closed in November 1954, Ellis Island Hospital the buildings fell into disrepair and were abandoned. At- tempts at redeveloping the site were unsuccessful until its The south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Im- landmark status was established. On October 15, 1965, migrant Hospital, is closed to the general public and the Ellis Island was proclaimed a part of Statue of Liberty object of restoration efforts spearheaded by Save Ellis Is- National Monument. It was listed on the National Regis- land. ter of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Many of the facilities at Ellis Island were abandoned and Boston-based architecture firm Finegold Alexander + As- remain unrenovated.[69] The entire south side, called by sociates Inc, together with the New York architectural some the “sad side” of the island, is off limits to the gen- firm Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the restoration and eral public. The Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital oper- adaptive use of the Beaux-Arts Main Building, one of ated here from early 1902 to 1930.[70][71] The founda- the most symbolically important structures in American tion Save Ellis Island is spearheading preservation efforts. 38 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

The circumstances which led to an exclave of New York being located within New Jersey began in the colonial era, after the British takeover of New Netherland in 1664. An unusual clause in the colonial land grant outlined the ter- ritory that the proprietors of New Jersey would receive as being “westward of , and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson’s river”,[74] rather than at the river’s midpoint, as was common in other colonial charters.[75] Attempts were made as early as 1804 to resolve the status of the state line.[76] The City of New York claimed the right to regulate trade on all the waters. This was con- tested in Gibbons v. Ogden (22 U.S. 1) (1824),[77] which decided that the regulation of interstate commerce fell under the authority of the federal government, thus influ- encing competition in the newly developing steam ferry service in New York Harbor. In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit to clarify the border, but the case was never heard.[78] The matter was resolved with a compact between the states, ratified by U.S. Congress in 1834, which set the boundary line be- tween them as the middle of the Hudson River and New York Harbor.[79] This was later confirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in other cases which also expounded on [23][80][81] The New Ferry Building was built in 1936 in Art Deco style and the compact. is located in the so-called “hyphen” at the foot of the ferry basin, The federal government, which had bought the island in connecting the north and south sides of the island. 1808, began expanding the island by landfill, to accom- modate the immigration station opened in 1892. Land- filling continued in stages until 1934.[82] The New Ferry Building, built in the Art Deco style to re- place an earlier one, was renovated in 2008, but remains Nine-tenths of the current area is artificial island that did only partially accessible to the general public.[72] not exist at the time of the interstate compact. New Jer- sey contended that the new extensions were part of New As part of the National Park Service’s Centennial Initia- Jersey, since they were not part of the original island. In tive, the south side of the island was to be the target of a 1956, after the 1954 closing of the U.S. immigration sta- project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been tion, the then Mayor of Jersey City, Bernard J. Berry, rehabilitated.[73] commandeered a U.S. Coast Guard cutter and led a con- tingent of New Jersey officials on an expedition to claim the island.[83] In 1997, the state filed suit to establish its 4.5 State sovereignty dispute jurisdiction, leading New York City Mayor Rudolph Giu- liani to remark dramatically that his father, an Italian who immigrated through Ellis Island, never intended to go to New Jersey.[84] The border was redrawn using informa- tion based on studies using geographic information sci- ence.[85] The dispute eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in New Jersey v. New York 523 U.S. 767 (1998), that New Jersey had jurisdiction over all portions of the island created after the original compact was approved (effectively, more than 80% of the island’s present land). This caused several immediate confusions: some buildings, for instance, fell into the territory of both states. New Jersey and New York soon agreed to share ju- risdiction of the island. It remains wholly a federal prop- erty, however, and these legal decisions do not result in Mid-December 2014 aerial view of the area. In the foreground is Ellis Island, and behind it is Liberty State Park and Downtown either state taking any fiscal or physical responsibility for Jersey City the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of 4.7. IN POPULAR CULTURE 39

the historic properties.[78][86][87] Jews Care for Their Poor (educational film, 1914) The The ruling had no effect on the status of Liberty Island, Yellow Passport (1916), My Boy (1921), Frank Capra's 4.17 acres (1.69 ha) of which was created by land recla- The Strong Man (1926), We Americans (1928), The mation.[88][89] Mating Call (1928), Paddy O'Day (1935), Ellis Island (1936), Gateway (1938), Exile Express (1939), I, Jane For New York State tax purposes, it is assessed as Man- Doe (1948), and Gambling House (1951). In The God- hattan Block 1, Lot 201. Since 1998, it also has a tax father Part II, Vito Corleone immigrates via Ellis Island number assigned by the state of New Jersey.[90] as a boy. The opening scene of The Brother From Another Planet is set there. The island is visited by the characters in the 2005 romantic comedy, Hitch, and is the setting for 4.6 Emergency services the climactic battle in X-Men. Some films have focused on the immigrant experience, Emergency services on Ellis Island are provided by the such as the 1984 TV miniseries Ellis Island. The IMAX following emergency divisions of the National Park Ser- 3D movie Across the Sea of Time incorporates both mod- vice: ern footage and historical photographs of Ellis Island. The 2006 Italian movie The Golden Door, directed by • Police services and security are provided for the is- Emanuele Crialese, takes place largely on Ellis Island. land by the United States Park Police. Forgotten Ellis Island, a film and book, focuses on the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital.[91] The Immigrant is a • Fire suppression/protection is provided by the Na- 2013 American drama film directed by James Gray, star- tional Park Service’s Statue of Liberty/Ellis Island ring Marion Cotillard, Joaquin Phoenix, and Jeremy Ren- Division of Safety and Emergency Management ner.[92] Statue of Liberty Fire Brigade which consists of a crew of federal NPS firefighters who are trained and In 1982 The National Parks Department embarked on certified as Structural Firefighter I, Structural Fire- an 8-year renovation. During that time, David Simon- fighter II and/or Wildland Firefighters. The crew ton was part of the The Ellis Island Project: Documen- also provides fire suppression response to nearby tation/Interpretation and captured stunning, black and Liberty Island. white photos giving insight into immigrant’s lives. Pho- Since the nearest other National Park Service En- tographer Stephen Wilkes's series Ellis Island: Ghosts of gine Company is located in Fort Hancock in Sandy Freedom (2006) captured the abandoned south side of [93] Hook, New Jersey, the Statue of Liberty Fire Ellis Island. Brigade maintains a mutual aid agreement with the Ellis Island as a port of entry is described in detail in Jersey City Fire Department & FDNY for mutual Mottel the Cantor’s Son by Sholom Aleichem. aid assistance on Ellis Island should it be required. The Statue of Liberty/ Ellis Island Division of Safety Ellis Island: The Dream of America is a work for ac- & Emergency Management staffs the fire brigade. tors and orchestra with projected images by Peter Boyer, The fire brigade is led by a Fire Captain (crew composed in 2001-02. The song “The New Ground - Isle leader), two Lieutenants and has six collateral duty of Hope, Isle of Tears”, on the 2010 album Songs from the firefighters. Heart by the group Celtic Woman, is about Annie Moore and Ellis Island. • Emergency Medical Services are provided by Na- The USPS issued a 32¢ stamp on February 3, 1998 as tional Park Services Statue of Liberty/Ellis Island part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. Division of Safety and Emergency Management, which consists of a team of full-time NPS Emer- The island is accessible in the Spider-Man 2 video game gency Medical Technicians and Certified First Re- for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox by attaching to passing sponders. Patient transportation is coordinated with helicopters. Jersey City Medical Center ambulances, but emer- Irish Band The Corrs have a song called “Ellis Island, in- gency response and patient care falls solely upon the spire on the island of the same name on their album White National Park Service Emergency Medical Techni- Light. cians. The 1997 children’s novel The Orphan of Ellis Island con- cerns a contemporary child who becomes separated from 4.7 In popular culture his group on a school trip to the island. Ellis Island is also the central theme for the party the Ellis Ellis Island has been a source of inspiration or subject in sisters throw in the 2015 film “Sisters”. popular culture. Ellis Island was also featured in the 2014 Film “Winter’s Early films, including those from the silent era, which fea- Tale”. ture the station include Traffic in Souls (1913), How The 40 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

Ellis, a short, premiered in November 2015. [5] http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/reports/ ELLIS_ISLAND_-_HISTORIC_DISTRICT.pdf

[6] http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/maps/ellis_ 4.8 See also island.pdf

[7] http://www.neighborhoodpreservationcenter.org/db/bb_ • Immigration to the United States files/Ellis-Island--Main-Building--Interior-.pdf • Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital [8] “Ellis Island - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com”. HIS- • Angel Island, California TORY.com. Retrieved 2016-11-17. [9] Biskupic, Joan (May 27, 1998). “N.J. Wins Claim to Most • United States Immigration Station, Angel Island of Ellis Island”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2014- • Deer Island, Massachusetts 07-12. [10] Hudson County New Jersey Street Map. Hagstrom Map • Geography of New York-New Jersey Harbor Estu- Company, Inc. 2010. ISBN 0-88097-763-9. ary [11] Richard G. Castagna; Lawrence L. Thornton; John M. • Port of New York and New Jersey Tyrawski. “GIS and Coastal Boundary Disputes: Where • is Ellis Island?". ESRI. Archived from the original on Hoffman Island 2014-10-18. Retrieved 2013-11-17. The New York por- • Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina tion of Ellis Island is landlocked, enclaved within New Jer- sey’s territory. • [12] Shaw, Tammy L. “Supreme Court Decides Ownership • National Register of Historic Places listings in Hud- of Historic Ellis Island”. Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Legal Program. Retrieved 17 November 2013. son County, New Jersey • [13] “Frequently asked questions”. Ellis Island Part of Statue of National Register of Historic Places listings in New Liberty National Monument. National Park Service. Re- York County, New York trieved 2013-11-18.

• Philadelphia Lazaretto [14] “Ferry System Map - Statue Of Liberty National Monu- ment (U.S. National Park Service)". • Pier 21 [15] Setha Low, Dana Taplin, Suzanne Sheld (2005) • Save Ellis Island Rethinking Urban Parks, University of Texas Press; chapter 4. • German Emigration Center [16] “Statue of Liberty National Monument”. National Park • Castle Clinton Service. Retrieved 2013-04-25.

• List of New York City Designated Landmarks in [17] O'Brien, Kathleen (October 28, 2013). “Storm-damaged Manhattan on Islands Ellis Island reopens a day shy of Sandy anniversary”. The Star-Ledger. Retrieved 2013-11-01.

[18] Chinese, Vera (October 28, 2013). “Ellis Island reopens 4.9 References one year after Sandy”. New York Daily News. Retrieved 2013-11-14.

4.9.1 Notes [19] “Ellis Island: Part of Statue of Liberty National Monu- ment NJ,NY - Plan Your Visit”. National Park Service. [1] “Ellis Island - Hudson County, New Jersey.”. USGS. Re- Retrieved 2014-09-25. trieved 1 January 2011. [20] Appendix to Journal of the Sixteenth Senate of the State of [2] “Proclamation 3656 - Adding Ellis Island to the Statue of New Jersey, Belvidere, New Jersey: John Simeron, 1860 Liberty National Monument”. 2010-04-05. [21] Kurlansky, Mark (2006). The Big Oyster. New York: [3] National Park Service (2009-03-13). “National Register Random House Trade paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-345- Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. 47639-5. National Park Service. [22] The New York Times, March 1, 2006, accessed March 16, [4] “New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – 2008 Hudson County”. New Jersey Department of Environ- mental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Re- [23] “Central R. Co. of New Jersey v. Jersey City 209 U.S. trieved August 2, 2014. 473 (1908)". 4.9. REFERENCES 41

[24] Ellis Island – Timeline. The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island [44] Description of Kissing Post’s location Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2016-06-22. [45] Article and picture of Kissing Post plaque [25] “The Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island”. [46] Houghton, Gillian (2003). Ellis Island: A Primary Source [26] Moreno, Barry (2001) “Ellis Island Chronology Timeline History of an Immigrant’s Arrival in America. The Rosen (1674–2001)". National Park Service, Ellis Island Li- Publishing Group, New York. brary. Retrieved 2013-04-24. [47] Baynton, Douglas C. Defectives in the Land : Disability [27] Logan, Andy; McCarten, John (January 14, 1956). and Immigration in the Age of Eugenics. Chicago; Lon- “Invasion from Jersey”. Talk of the Town. The New don: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226- Yorker. Retrieved 2011-02-14. 36433-9.

[28] Wade, Arthur P. (2011). Artillerists and Engineers: The [48] Talbot, Eugene S. (1898). Degeneracy: Its Causes, Signs, Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794- and Results. London: Scott. 1815. CDSG Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-9748167-2-2. [49] Lydston, G. Frank (1906). The Diseases of Society: The [29] Fort Gibson, New York State Military Museum Vice and Crime Problem. Philadelphia, London, J.B. Lip- pincott Company. [30] Roberts, Robert B. (1988). Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United [50] Jaynes, Gregory (July 8, 1985), “American Scene: From States. New York: Macmillan. pp. 554–555. ISBN 0- Ellis Island to LAX”, TIME, retrieved 2011-03-06 02-926880-X. [51] J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, R. Lord. Confinement and [31] “Colonial and Early American New York - Ellis Island Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese Amer- Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument (U.S. Na- ican Relocation Sites “Department of Justice and U.S. tional Park Service)". Army Facilities: Temporary Detention Stations” (Na- tional Park Service) [32] “History & Culture - Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty [52] “Ellis Island” Densho Encyclopedia (accessed 11 June National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)". 2014) [33] Mausolf, Lisa B.; Hengen, Elizabeth Durfee (2007), [53] Conboy, Kenneth. Kopassus: Inside Indonesia’s Special Edward Lippincott Tilton: A Monograph on His Architec- Forces (November 16, 2002 ed.). Equinox Publishing. p. tural Practice (PDF), retrieved 2011-09-28 352. ISBN 979-95898-8-6. [34] “The Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island”. libertyellisfounda- [54] Name Changes at Ellis Island: Fact or Fiction?", Ances- tion.org. Retrieved 2016-11-18. try.com. Retrieved 2010-09-29. [35] Jersey City Past and Present Archived February 1, 2010, [55] “Why Your Family Name Was Not Changed at Ellis Is- at the Wayback Machine. land (and One That Was)". Archived from the original on [36] “Department of Environmental Protection”. 2015-11-28.

[37] Cunningham, John T. (2003). Ellis Island: Immigration’s [56] “The Statue of Liberty & Ellis Island”. Shining Center. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385- [57] US Dept of Justice American Names / Declaring Indepen- 2428-3. dence, Marian L. Smith, INS Historian, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, last updated January 20, 2006, [38] Harlan D. Unrau, Ellis Island Historic Resource Study (Denver: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Ser- accessed May 22, 2007 vice, 1984). [58] "The Effect of Immigration on Surnames", FamilyEdu- cation.com. Retrieved 2009-02-20. Excerpted from The [39] Introduction to Immigration from 1905-1945: Immigra- Complete Idiot’s Guide to Genealogy by Christine Rose and tion and Multiculturalism: Essential Primary Sources, Kay Germain Ingalls, 2005. 2006 [59] Passenger Record: Annie Moore, The Statue of Liberty – [40] The Brown Quarterly, Volume 4, No. 1 (Fall 2000): Ellis Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2013-04-24. Island/Immigration Issue [60] Ellis Island. p. 3. www.history.com Retrieved 2013-04- [41] Keeling, Drew. “How many people today have ancestors 24. who moved from Europe to the United States during 1900- 14?". Migration as a Travel Business. Retrieved 2014-12- [61] “Laws & Policies - Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty 12. National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)".

[42] National Park Service: Ellis Island, retrieved January 12, [62] “ELLIS ISLAND NATIONAL MONUMENT”. New 2006. York Architecture. Retrieved 5 August 2013.

[43] Davis, Kenneth (2003), Don't Know Much About Amer- [63] Lee, Antoinette J., Architects to the Nation: The Rise and ican History, HarperTrophy, ISBN 0-06-440836-1 (“Isle Decline of the Supervising Architect’s Office, Oxford Uni- of Tears” or “Heartbreak Island”, p. 123) versity Press, USA. 2000-04-20. ISBN 0-19-512822-2 42 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

[64] “World’s Premier Election Assistance NGO Appoints [81] “Ellis Island Its Legal Status” (PDF). General Services Chief Operating Officer: Top Republican strategist and Administration Office of General Counsel. February 11, fundraiser Wyatt A. Stewart, III to join the Interna- 1963. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-08-04. tional Foundation for Electoral Systems” (PDF) (Press re- lease). International Foundation for Electoral Systems. 30 [82] “Fort Gibson”. November 2009. Retrieved December 5, 2009. [83] Logan, Andy; McCarten, John (January 14, 1956). [65] “Ellis Island Part of Statue of Liberty National Monument “Invasion from Jersey”. The New Yorker. Retrieved (U.S. National Park Service)". 2011-02-14.

[66] Shepard, Richard F. (September 7, 1990), “Inside, Reliv- [84] Sheahan, Matthew. “My Grandmother Is the Greatest”, ing the Immigrant’s Experience”, The New York Times, Knot Magazine, May 4, 2004. retrieved 2011-12-06 [85] Cho, George (2005), Geographic Information Science: [67] “Peopling Of America Center - The Statue of Liberty & Mastering the Legal Issues, John Wiley & Sons Ellis Island”. [86] National Park Service map showing portions of the island [68] “About the Wall of Honor - The Statue of Liberty & Ellis belonging to New York and New Jersey Archived Febru- Island”. ary 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.

[69] Janiskee, Bob (September 26, 2008). “At Statue of Lib- [87] “New Jersey v. New York 523 U.S. 767 (1998)". erty National Monument, Save Ellis Island, Inc., Works to [88] “HISTORIC FILL OF THE JERSEY CITY QUADRAN- Restore Ellis Island’s Time-Ravaged Buildings”. National GLE HISTORIC FILL MAP HFM-53” (PDF). New State Parks Traveller. Department of Environmental Protection. 2004. Retrieved [70] Chan, Sewell (26 October 2011). “Ellis Island’s Forgot- 2014-08-31. ten Hospital”. New York Times. Retrieved 27 December [89] “Is Liberty a Jersey Girl”. New Jersey Society of Profes- 2011. sional Land Surveyors. February 4, 2014. [71] Haberrman, Clyde (March 3, 1998), “The Other Ellis Is- [90] An inaugural choice: Will N.J. governor’s gala really be land”, New York Times Magazine, retrieved 2012-12-27 in New York?. “After the 1998 court event, both states [72] Coughlin, Bill (November 2011). “New Ferry Building agreed to share jurisdiction, even though the islands re- Ellis Island”. Historical Marker Database. Retrieved main a wholly federal property. To cement those claims, 2012-02-25. New York assigned Ellis Island the tax designation of Block 1, Lot 201. The state of New Jersey gave the place [73] Bomar, Mary A. (August 2007). “Summary of Park its own tax number.” Centennial Strategies” (PDF). National Park Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-15. Re- [91] Conway, Lorie, Forgotten Ellis Island : the extraordinary trieved 2008-02-15. story of America’s immigrant hospital, New York : Smith- sonian Books : Collins, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-124196-3 [74] “The Federal and State constitutions, colonial charters, and other organic laws of the state[s], territories, and [92] “2013 Official Selection”. Cannes Film Festival. 20 April colonies now or heretofore forming the United States of 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013. America /compiled and edited under the Act of Congress of June 30, 1906”. 18 December 1998. [93] Ellis Island: Ghosts of Freedom

[75] Rieff, Henry, “Interpretations of New York-New Jersey Agreements 1834 and 1921” (PDF), Newark Law Review 4.9.2 Sources

[76] “Ellis Island Its Legal Status” (PDF). General Services • Baur, J. “Commemorating Immigration in the Im- Administration Office of General Counsel. February 28, migrant Society. Narratives of Transformation at 1963. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-08-31. Retrieved 2010-09-25. Ellis Island and the Tenement Mu- seum”, in M. König, and R. Ohliger, eds., Enlarging [77] GIBBONS v. OGDEN, 22 U.S. 1 (1824) 22 U.S. 1 European Memory. Migration Movements in Histor- (Wheat.) Full text of the opinion courtesy of Find- ical Perspective (2006) pp 137–146. online law.com. • Baur, J. “Ellis Island, Inc.: The Making of an Amer- [78] Greenhouse, Linda (May 27, 1998). “The Ellis Island ver- ican Site of Memory,” in: H. J. Grabbe and S. dict: The Ruling; High Court Gives New Jersey Most of Schindler, (eds.), The Merits of Memory. Concepts, Ellis Island”. New York Times. Contexts, Debates (2008), 185-196. 'online [79] “Statue of Liberty National Monument - Frequently • Asked Questions”. NPS.gov. National Park Service. Re- Bayor, Ronald H. Encountering Ellis Island: How trieved February 1, 2010. European Immigrants Entered America (Johns Hop- kins University Press, 2014) 168 pp. [80] s:Application of Devoe Manufacturing Company for a Writ of Prohibition/Opinion of the Court • Bolino, A. The Ellis Island Source Book, (1985) 4.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 43

• Cannato, V. J., American passage : the history of • Encyclopædia Britannica Films, Inc (1946). Ellis Island, New York : Harper, 2009. ISBN 978- Immigration (Documentary). . 0-06-074273-7 Event occurs at 10:22. Retrieved 2009-01-20. Archive film contains scenes of Ellis Island and • Coan, P. M. Ellis Island Interviews: In Their Own New York City in the early 20th century. Words, 1998. • Guggenheim, Charles (director) (1989). Island of • Corsi, E. In the Shadow of Liberty: The Chronicle of Hope - Island of Tears (Documentary). National Ellis Island, 1935. Park Service. Event occurs at 28:24. Retrieved 2009-01-20. From 1892–1954, Ellis Island was the • Fairchild, A. Science at the Borders, 2004. port of entry for millions of European immigrants. • Lerner, Ed. K. Lee, Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, and Fascinating archival footage tells the moving story Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner. “Introduction to Im- of families with dreams of opportunity, leaving their migration from 1905–1945: Immigration and Mul- homes with what they could carry. ticulturalism: Essential Primary Sources”, Gale, 2006. p121. 4.11 External links • Moreno, B., Images of America:Children of Ellis Is- land, 2005. • Ellis Island home page • Moreno, B., Images of America:Ellis Island, 2003. • Ellis Island Visitor information • Moreno, B., Images of America:Ellis Island’s Fa- • Ellis Island Historical Timeline mous Immigrants, 2008. • Free Search of Ellis Island Database - Port of New • Moreno, B. Encyclopedia of Ellis Island, 2004. York Arrivals 1892–1924 Google Books • Ellis Island: Faces of America on YouTube, video • Moreno, B. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Ellis Is- celebrating immigrants at Ellis Island, ca. 1900- land (Fall River Press, 2010) 1926 • Pitkin, T. M. Keepers of the Gate, 1975. • Supreme Court opinion in New Jersey v. New York (1998) • Yew, E., M.D., “MEDICAL INSPECTION OF IMMIGRANTS AT ELLIS ISLAND, 1891-1924”, • National Park Service map showing portions of the Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. island belonging to New York and New Jersey 56, No. 5, June 1980, New York Academy of Medicine. • The History of Ellis Island • Eerie Ellis Island, Then And Now - slideshow by NPR 4.10 Further reading • History and Photos of Ellis Island Baggage & Dor- • General Services Administration Offices of General mitory Building Council (February 11, 1963). “Ellis Island Its Le- • The Ellis Island Experience - Articles, Documents gal Status” (PDF). National Park Service. Archived and Images - Gjenvick-Gjønvik Archives from the original (PDF) on 2012-08-04. • The short film Island of Hope - Island of Tears • Ellis Island: Blocks 9019 thru 9023, Block Group (1989) is available for free download at the Internet 9, Census Tract 47, Hudson County, NJ; and Block Archive 1000, Block Group 1, Census Tract 1, New York County, New York; United States Census Bureau. • Emigrants Landing at Ellis Island a film from 1903 by Alfred C. Abadie from the World Digital Library • Report of the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization under joint resolution of Senate and House of January 29, 1892, submitted by Mr. Stump. Ordered to be printed July 28, 1892. By United States Congress, House Committee on Im- migration and Naturalization.

• Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied, 1982 report; 44 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

4.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

4.12.1 Text

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rateer, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Wizardist, Sergecross73, Mcoupal, Brandon5485, RibotBOT, Hauganm, Pooping pants, 9jules9, Elaborat- ing, Doulos Christos, Drdpw, GhalyBot, Lalaland1000, Inktvis~enwiki, Elizabeth Linden Rahway, Shadowjams, Twothousandandnine, Erik9, Samwb123, Ye olde minr, Pigboot, Captain Weirdo the Great, Darkcelldarkcell, Helloaday, Prari, FrescoBot, Canton Viaduct, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Pepper, Beasties29, StaticVision, Alaphent, JMS Old Al, Hansonhess11, Dalyup!, D'ohBot, Magic Lemur, Daboymany, DaltonCox78, Masterknighted, HJ Mitchell, ONEunited4ever, Spindocter123, Over The Desk, BenzolBot, M2545, Kwiki, Parklands cobbler, Cannolis, Italick, Citation bot 1, Javert, Intelligentsium, Peetlesnumber1, Biker Biker, Av9, Pinethicket, Bernarddb, HRoestBot, LittleWink, Jonesey95, Professional106, Therustinator132, Martinvl, Smuckola, Jonas brother lover(joe), Thewetrat, RedBot, 46 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

MastiBot, Thinking of England, Phearson, SpaceFlight89, Footwarrior, Jujutacular, Hsanchia, Saayiit, Dac04, Turian, White Shadows, TobeBot, Zonafan39, Chopin06, Amoal, Pinkygonzales, Audiohifi, Flame111, Vrenator, GreatBritain1843, WPPilot, TheLongTone, Baz- zaro123, Davish Krail, Gold Five, Juju73700, Diannaa, Binx6693, JV Smithy, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, Jujubee96, Reach Out to the Truth, Bonzolive, Ajayit302, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Foxxy497, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Jackehammond, Beyond My Ken, Dmitrdmi, NerdyScienceDude, Darknesslover5000, Nxclass, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, DASHBot, Stevepoppers, EmausBot, Cricobr, Mr- prez27, Chilliwacker, Gfoley4, Ajraddatz, Da500063, LibRocks, Jakedeut12, Mattman4593, NotAnonymous0, Gwillhickers, Stuntman crow, Socob, Wikiturrican, Tommy2010, Thom the man, Wikipelli, Rusty1111, P. S. F. Freitas, Snortonfire, Briannalong, Bad Gopher Gear, Ida Shaw, Illegitimate Barrister, Antigrandiose, Sadpwner, Wackywace, Wisespider123, Eniagrom, Qassander, Christina Silver- man, Jarodalien, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, David J Johnson, UltimaRatio, Jess567, Zlatan Ramić, Ocean Shores, Campbell-53515, Eduno- ramus, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, JQQ, L Kensington, Fragileautopsy, Alborzagros, Newsonline12, LisaSandford, Orange Suede Sofa, RandomLurker, Carly.munyard, ChuispastonBot, CoolCameron56, HandsomeFella, Ytrewwasd, Drummer743, EBundy, DASHB- otAV, 22zach919, Alex 01king, Mjbmrbot, AnddoX, ClueBot NG, Markjholloway, Branaman, Stantonjones, Madkin999, Bulldog73, Fawzyano, Yu61nus, Greenlantern787, IfYouDoIfYouDon't, Iwsh, 0x010C, Vwenzel~enwiki, Delaywaves, Kelseybear1997, Vejlenser, Rigoureux, North Atlanticist Usonian, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Barong, Mouloud47, Cbrittain10, George Ponderevo, ProjectMan- hattan, HIDECCHI001, Ludwigpk, Максим Пе, CitationCleanerBot, Mondarats, Clowfacejoe, Bobsyouruncle(notreally), Thegoofyboy, HolyBaloney, Ap58, Alarbus, A.BourgeoisP, Wheeke, LinusE8, NemesisIII, GoShow, Metalello, Hridith Sudev Nambiar, Kirtash Shek, Ea- gerToddler39, Kanghuitari, Dexbot, Ryanbrz, Svpnikhil, Jamesx12345, Sriharsh1234, Alexschmidt711, Radarm, Tyler LaShay, Forgot to put name, Epicgenius, Femdork, Redd Foxx 1991, Cristo Vlahos, Msundqvist, Mr. Lama, Gixce93, Mandruss, Finnusertop, Kew Gardens 613, Kind Tennis Fan, Jordankestler, AnotherNewAccount, Sexygazelle, Pdeck2013, Monkbot, Monopoly31121993, Huiva, Falongen, Caleb Woods, Handpolk, Downcant, MeropeRiddle, RaMb0VII, TheCoffeeAddict, Eric0928, KasparBot, Sweepy, Feminist, PepeMemer, Allenkong11, JaneSwifty, Chalssy, WelcometoJurassicPark, JJMC89 bot, GreenC bot, Rhdzxjtsr, Info2Learn, Zwifree, Bender the Bot, Justeditingtoday, Thapa 75, Sheila Ki Jawani, MfortyoneA and Anonymous: 2349 • Statue of Liberty National Monument Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty_National_Monument?oldid= 768087051 Contributors: JimWae, Vsmith, Crm18, Voyager, Alansohn, Sjö, Eoghanacht, Str1977, Doncram, Arthur Rubin, Smack- Bot, Wehwalt, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Shoreranger, Cydebot, JohnInDC, Jllm06, Waacstats, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, Djflem, Hugo999, Malik Shabazz, Deor, Station1, WOSlinker, Oshwah, Rhvanwinkle, Acps110, Pubdog, Lightmouse, JL-Bot, Randy Kryn, ClueBot, TransporterMan, Niceguyedc, Excirial, OptimumPx, WikHead, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Dude- manfellabra, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Slash Johnstone, FrescoBot, I dream of horses, Vrenator, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, GoingBatty, SporkBot, Donner60, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Dracolich1111, Frietjes, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alfred899, Compf- reak7, BattyBot, Padenton, MadGuy7023, Epicgenius, Mandruss, Kind Tennis Fan, Ingfbruno, Lboniello, JJMC89 bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 48 • Liberty Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_Island?oldid=775399655 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Leandrod, Mod- ster, Cadastral, Bogdangiusca, Jengod, WhisperToMe, Dpbsmith, AnonMoos, Owen, PBS, Postdlf, Davodd, Hadal, Mushroom, DigiBul- let, Xanzzibar, Decumanus, JamesMLane, Taco~enwiki, Jacob1207, JerseyDevil, Ciciban, Bobblewik, JimWae, Allissonn, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Acad Ronin, Jayjg, ChrisRuvolo, Ulflarsen, Bender235, Shmuel, Aude, RoyBoy, Jpgordon, 23skidoo, Smalljim, Viriditas, Obradovic Goran, Pharos, Caeruleancentaur, Alansohn, HenkvD, Drat, Alai, Ghirlandajo, Deror avi, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Josephf, SDC, HiFiGuy, Tzadikv, BD2412, Eoghanacht, FlaBot, Gurch, King of Hearts, DVdm, VolatileChemical, Yurik- Bot, Notyourbroom, Hede2000, James100, Fnorp, Bruxism, TimSPC, Cleared as filed, MaxVeers, Foofy, Evrik, BusterD, Emanspeaks, Crisco 1492, Garion96, SmackBot, Goldfishbutt, C.Fred, Jcbarr, Mauls, Gilliam, Hmains, Averette, Bluebot, Bazonka, Chancemichaels, O.perrin, Aflin, Egsan Bacon, Backspace, FreakyFlyBry, Dr pda, Valenciano, UVnet, Skinnyweed, Wv235, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Val- fontis, J 1982, Michael Bednarek, BigMacSC99, TheHYPO, Shnikees, Iridescent, Dogthehellrider, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, LeRoi, Iced Kola, Ckuzyk, Mistermind, Mbshaver, Acabtp, Myasuda, Cydebot, Reywas92, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, DanTD, Terrapin7, Freddiem, Prolog, Lordmetroid, North Shoreman, Arch dude, PhilKnight, Fitnr, Jllm06, Paulm27, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, KConWiki, Glen, Mschel, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Bongomatic, Desert Eagle 2, WarthogDemon, Horst, Acalamari, XAvengedSevenfoldX, Entropy, STBotD, R36, Funandtrvl, Djflem, The Interloafer, Hugo999, Station1, WOSlinker, Misterweiss, Sanfranman59, Everything counts, AgentCDE, Ron- more, Finnrind, SieBot, Avnjay, Lightmouse, Prospect1, Nerdygeek101, Randy Kryn, ClueBot, Kennvido, The Thing That Should Not Be, Arakunem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Hafspajen, Puchiko, Mrmonkeyyboi, Muro Bot, DerBorg, Apparition11, XLinkBot, SixFourThree, Mm40, Addbot, Transpoman, DrJos, LaaknorBot, Favonian, Waltloc, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, La- dyLiberty&LibertyBell, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Brandon5485, FrescoBot, I dream of horses, RedBot, Trappist the monk, DixonD- Bot, WPPilot, Beyond My Ken, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot, THATSBETTER, Lechonero, DASHBotAV, Blahla123, Neon9797, Coltons, ClueBot NG, Anmccaff, Castncoot, Suck56, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hurricanefan25, Citation- CleanerBot, Simackh, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, Teereee, FoCuSandLeArN, Bcsanders001, Jinx69, Epicgenius, Cristo Vla- hos, Matthew393, Ingfbruno, RobDuch, Evilsager, Ethan817, Prinsgezinde, Objectivity4me, MintChocoChip, Mar11, InternetArchiveBot, JJMC89 bot, GreenC bot, NateLee3, Logan Show, Bender the Bot, Imminent77, Topcipher and Anonymous: 161 • Ellis Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Island?oldid=776246194 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Kowloonese, Shsilver, Rmhermen, William Avery, Hephaestos, Infrogmation, Modster, Ixfd64, Jebba, Kingturtle, Ijon, BOARshevik, Jiang, Samw, Lukobe, Iseeaboar, Jengod, Timwi, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Paul-L~enwiki, HarryHenryGebel, Dpbsmith, Finlay McWal- ter, Denelson83, Sander123, TMillerCA, Moncrief, Postdlf, Dmadeo, Polonius, Academic Challenger, Sekicho, Bkell, JesseW, Jacko- fOz, Xanzzibar, Davidcannon, Dbenbenn, JamesMLane, Meursault2004, IRelayer, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, JerseyDevil, Michael Devore, Leonard G., FrYGuY, Slyguy, Mboverload, Pne, Chowbok, Utcursch, Antandrus, OverlordQ, MacGyverMagic, OwenBlacker, Balcer, Neutrality, Dcandeto, Picapica, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Chris Howard, D6, Perey, ChrisRuvolo, DanielCD, Discospin- ster, Rich Farmbrough, Warpflyght, User2004, Mikkel, Byrial, Paul August, Bender235, Mattdm, Brian0918, Omnibus, Mwanner, Aude, Shanes, LordRM, Nrbelex, Tgeller, Grick, Bobo192, BrokenSegue, Andrewfields, Elipongo, Mytildebang, ParticleMan, Scotthatton, He- lix84, Pharos, Mithent, Alansohn, Gary, Arthena, Lord Pistachio, Mac Davis, Stephen Turner, Wtmitchell, Velella, RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Mikeo, GabrielF, Versageek, Gene Nygaard, Redvers, Deror avi, Japanese Searobin, Brookie, Weyes, Richard Arthur Nor- ton (1958- ), Woohookitty, JarlaxleArtemis, LOL, Spettro9, Josephf, Mazca, JFG, Qaddosh, MONGO, Jleon, Wikiklrsc, Bluemoose, SDC, DocRuby, Jon Harald Søby, Graham87, Revas, BD2412, FreplySpang, Dwaipayanc, Ketiltrout, Crzrussian, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Eoghanacht, Nightscream, Erebus555, Jake Wartenberg, Commander, Joana, SMC, Vegaswikian, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, WillC, Ni- hiltres, NekoDaemon, RexNL, Leslie Mateus, Goudzovski, Tysto, Chobot, Sherool, DVdm, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Yurik- Bot, Wavelength, Rmo13, Hairy Dude, Boréal, Dahveed76, Epolk, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, GeeJo, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Bruxism, Grafen, Mike Halterman, Jaxl, ExRat, Rjensen, A.bit, Dureo, Retired username, Nucleusboy, MaxVeers, DGJM, Elkman, 21655, Zzuuzz, Open2universe, Covington, Dale662, E Wing, Bd8494, BorgQueen, JuJube, Whobot, Bluezy, Katieh5584, 4.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 47

Junglecat, Bdve, Crunch, Ramanpotential, Premkudva, SmackBot, Franny Wentzel, Aarati93, Davepape, Tarret, Flibirigit, AndyZ, Red- Spruce, Bradtcordeiro, Gaff, Yamaguchi, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, MPD01605, Daysleeper47, Durova, SMP, Jprg1966, Thumper- ward, D hanbun~enwiki, Droll, Tetraglot, Victorgrigas, Oreos, Sadads, Nbarth, Quackslikeaduck, Namangwari, Colonies Chris, Krallja, Antonrojo, Darth Panda, O.perrin, GoodDay, Hgrosser, Mjl0509, Royboycrashfan, Ron g, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, RyanEberhart, Smallbones, Jwillbur, OrphanBot, EvelinaB, Rrburke, HenryS, Backspace, Edivorce, DR04, Jmlk17, Kevlar67, Hammer1980, Aglyad, Parrot of Doom, Dogears, TenPoundHammer, Wv235, Thejerm, AThing, Nareek, Kuru, General Ization, Rigadoun, J 1982, Jaffer, Breno, Accurizer, Aleenf1, Jbonneau, BigMacSC99, Agathoclea, Slakr, Mr Stephen, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Omfgjeremy0, Doczilla, Fleanu1, BenyG, TimTL, Darry2385, Politepunk, Levineps, Iridescent, Janus303, JoeBot, Shoreranger, Maelor, Ziusudra, Tawkerbot2, JForget, Americasroof, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Deon, ClockFace, Charvex, Dgw, IntrigueBlue, DanielRigal, .mdk., Ken Gallager, Senorel- roboto, Jac16888, Phenss, Reywas92, Cricketgirl, Gogo Dodo, Crowish, Corpx, Bornsommer, Dimma2006, H-stt, Master son, Mich3lle56, Chrislk02, Barry Moreno, PamD, Aldis90, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, A Sniper, Bloger, Hmcook87, TonyTheTiger, Marek69, Miss- vain, JustAGal, E. Ripley, Nick Number, MichaelMaggs, Natalie Erin, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Seaphoto, Opelio, Quintote, Jj137, Robnorth, Random user 8384993, Fritz Jörn, Myanw, MikeLynch, Dogru144, Husond, MER-C, GaMeRuInEr, Andonic, East718, JoeBrennan, Kerotan, Charlene.fic, Magioladitis, Fitnr, RenJadahr, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Fusionmix, Appraiser, Jllm06, IronCrow, Paulm27, MikeMullins, Froid, DXRAW, Crisonastick, KConWiki, Lutzv, Thernlund, RickyD, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, Sty- rofoam1994, Somearemoreequal, Seankieran, Chris G, DerHexer, JaGa, Éponyme, Pennoze, Patstuart, Leaderofearth, Nuttyaboutnaruto, MartinBot, CliffC, Djwkd, Izmaster3000, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, LouisianaFan, Mschel, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, KTo288, Nono64, Pre- stonH, Cyrus Andiron, Thirdright, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, AstroHurricane001, Bogey97, Rmkf1982, Uncle Dick, MikeTheActuary, PNWYetiHunter, Acalamari, Cierbadeer, Shawn in Montreal, Vanished user fijwf9j23o12e09j2ri, McSly, Gjenvick, 97198, HiLo48, WHeimbigner, Joshafina, Jzwei, Mufka, Oulittlebit2002, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, That can't be right?, Kai- hoku, Robertknyc, KudzuVine, WinterSpw, Andy Marchbanks, Pudney legend, Funandtrvl, Djflem, Deor, VolkovBot, MemeGeneScene, The Duke of Waltham, Jeff G., Indubitably, Emeraldcrown, Vauxhall Bridgefoot, Station1, Aesopos, Barneca, Cacolantern, Philip True- man, Fran Rogers, Oshwah, Hartmut Haberland, Three white leopards, RRKennison, A4bot, Miranda, Aymatth2, Olly150, Martin451, Broadbot, Sfbayrod, Jackfork, Ctf20, Razvan NEAGOE, Everything counts, Blahbabe, Witchzilla, Rhvanwinkle, OverMyHead, Dirkbb, Y, Lamro, Donbo, Turgan, Root Beers, Olpf, Monty845, Praefectorian, PGWG, Monkey66, Legoktm, Smedera, IndulgentReader, Flyin- gLeopard2014, Austriacus, Jean-Christophe BENOIST, SieBot, Spartan, Laoris, BotMultichill, Hertz1888, Krawi, Josh the Nerd, Aabi- cus, Legion fi, One more night, Angel379379, Matthew Yeager, JabbaTheBot, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Scbalik, Misterputter, Enos733, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Foxtrotman, Android Mouse Bot 3, Jdaloner, Lightmouse, Taggard, Mátyás, Harry the Dirty Dog, Fox- fan24, IdreamofJeanie, Chlseablues, Maralia, Venom124, Cynsha, Shinerunner, Canglesea, A21sauce, ImageRemovalBot, Mx. 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4.12.2 Images

• File:(King1893NYC)_pg087_ELLIS-ISLAND_IMMIGRANT_STATION.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b0/%28King1893NYC%29_pg087_ELLIS-ISLAND_IMMIGRANT_STATION.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image extracted from page 087 of King’s Handbook of New York City …, by KING, Moses. Original held and digitised by the British Library. Copied from Flickr. Original artist: ? • File:2014-09-15_16-14-55_lion-belfort.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/2014-09-15_16-14-55_ lion-belfort.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thomas Bresson 48 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

• File:2016-11_Statue_of_Liberty_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/2016-11_Statue_of_Liberty_ 02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: 0x010C • File:BlackTom.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/BlackTom.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Furado. Original artist: The original uploader was Lafayquinn at English Wikipedia • File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Climbing_into_the_Promised_Land_Ellis_Island_-_Lewis_Wickes_Hine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Climbing_into_the_Promised_Land_Ellis_Island_-_ Lewis_Wickes_Hine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Online Collection of Brooklyn Museum; Photo: Brooklyn Museum, 84.237.1_SL1.jpg Original artist: Lewis Hine • File:Chrysler_building-_top.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Chrysler_building-_top.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Photograph by User:Leena Hietanen (In real life: fi:Leena Hietanen) March 2005. (Uploaded with per- mission.) Original artist: The original uploader was Petri Krohn at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Cacophony at en.wikipedia. • File:Collossal_hand_and_torch._Bartholdi’{}s_statue_of_\char"0022\relax{}Liberty.”,_from_Robert_N._Dennis_collection_ of_stereoscopic_views.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Collossal_hand_and_torch._Bartholdi% 27s_statue_of_%22Liberty.%22%2C_from_Robert_N._Dennis_collection_of_stereoscopic_views.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original source: Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views. / United States. / States / Pennsylvania. / Stereoscopic views of the Centennial Exhibition, 1876, Philadelphia. (Approx. 72,000 stereoscopic views : 10 x 18 cm. or smaller.) digital record

Original artist: Unknown • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Detroit_Photographic_Company_(0707).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Detroit_ Photographic_Company_%280707%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale Uni- versity ([1]). Original artist: Unknown • File:EdwardMoran-UnveilingTheStatueofLiberty1886Large.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/ EdwardMoran-UnveilingTheStatueofLiberty1886Large.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museum of the City of New York Orig- inal artist: Edward Moran • File:Ellis-Island-map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Ellis-Island-map.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: openstreetmap.org Original artist: OpenStreetMap contributors • File:Ellis_Island_-_Great_Hall.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Ellis_Island_-_Great_Hall.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean-Christophe BENOIST • File:Ellis_Island_Ferry_Building,_New_York_Harbor,_Detail_of_tower.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/cb/Ellis_Island_Ferry_Building%2C_New_York_Harbor%2C_Detail_of_tower.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ny1603.color.572339c/resource/ Original artist: Jack E. Boucher • File:Ellis_Island_First_Bldg_Burnt_15-June-1897.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Ellis_Island_ First_Bldg_Burnt_15-June-1897.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Personal image of old stereo photograph Original artist: uniden- tified photographer • File:Ellis_Island_Immigrant_Hospital_building.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Ellis_ Island_Immigrant_Hospital_building.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/nypl/3109322639/in/ set-72157610968916254/ Original artist: Levick, Edwin, photographer http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/explore/?col_id=165 / • File:Ellis_Island_arrivals.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Ellis_Island_arrivals.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division - http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17784 Original artist: Underwood & Underwood • File:Ellis_Island_dormitory_room.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Ellis_Island_dormitory_ room.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Own picture) Original artist: O • File:Ellis_Island_immigration_footage.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Ellis_Island_ immigration_footage.ogv License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ellis_Island_in_1905.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Ellis_Island_in_1905.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress via the American Heritage website; description,[1] high resolution image.[2] Original artist: A. Coeffler • File:Ellis_Island_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ellis_Island_photo_ D_Ramey_Logan.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Don Ramey Logan • File:Ellis_island_1902.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Ellis_island_1902.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3a14957. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Unknown

src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /> • File:Ellis_island_immigration_museum_entrance.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Ellis_island_ immigration_museum_entrance.JPG License: GFDL Contributors: chensiyuan Original artist: chensiyuan • File:Emigrants_(i.e._immigrants)_landing_at_Ellis_Island_-.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ b3/Emigrants_%28i.e._immigrants%29_landing_at_Ellis_Island_-.webm License: Public domain Contributors: Emigrants [i.e. immi- grants landing at Ellis Island / - LibraryOfCongress] Original artist: Contributor Names Abadie, Alfred C. (Alfred Camille), 1878-1950, camera. Thomas A. Edison, Inc. Paper Print Collection (Library of Congress) Created / Published United States : Thomas A. Edison, Inc., 1903. • File:Flag_of_New_Jersey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_New_Jersey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_New_York.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg License: Public domain Contributors: xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: State of New York • File:Flag_of_New_York_City.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Flag_of_New_York_City.svg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Freedom_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Freedom_1.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: The Architect of the Capitol, Capitol Campus Art: Statue of Freedom Original artist: Statue by Thomas Crawford (22 March 1814 – 10 October 1857)

• File:Freiheitsstatue_NYC_full.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Freiheitsstatue_NYC_full.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Head_of_the_Statue_of_Liberty_1885.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/ Head_of_the_Statue_of_Liberty_1885.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://sobadsogood.com/2013/05/30/ 30-unique-and-compelling-photos-from-our-past/ Original artist: Unknown • File:Head_of_the_Statue_of_Liberty_on_display_in_a_park_in_Paris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/5/57/Head_of_the_Statue_of_Liberty_on_display_in_a_park_in_Paris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NYDL / Flickr: [Head of the Statue of Liberty on display in a park in Paris... Original artist: Albert Fernique • File:Height_comparison_of_notable_statues_(vector).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Height_ comparison_of_notable_statues_%28vector%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Height comparison of notable statues.png: Original artist: Height_comparison_of_notable_statues.png: Anna Frodesiak • File:HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/ HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Jonathunder's photograph of an official National Register of Historic Places plaque. Original artist: Jonathunder • File:Icône_Ile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: • Isla.svg Original artist: Isla.svg:*Palm_tree_symbol.svg: DarkEvil • File:Immigrant_Runway.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Immigrant_Runway.jpg License: CC BY- SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rich Lemonie • File:Indian_princess_and_Columbia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Indian_princess_and_ Columbia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/brumidi/Brumidi_5.pdf Original artist: Constantino Brumidi • File:Jeffrey’{}s_Hook_Lighthouse_10.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Jeffrey%27s_Hook_ Lighthouse_10.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gigi alt • File:Las_Vegas_NY_NY_Hotel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Las_Vegas_NY_NY_Hotel.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Flicka • File:Leslie_Liberty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Leslie_Liberty.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Reproduced here. Original artist: unknown artists on Leslie’s staff (these are woodcuts 50 CHAPTER 4. ELLIS ISLAND

• File:Liberty_1927.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Liberty_1927.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ShowFullRecordDigital?initpagemodel=on&mn=resultsDetailPageModel&goto= 31&sort=&%24searchId=11&%24partitionIndex=0&%24digiSummaryPageModel.targetModel=true&%24DateFilter.detailId= $-$1&%24resultsDetailPageModel.search=true&%24locationFilter.name=locationFilter&%24showArchivalDescriptionsTabs. selectedPaneId=digital&%24resultsSummaryPageModel.targetModel=true&%24resultsPartitionPageModel.search=true& %24highlight=false&%24levelOfDescriptionFilter.name=levelOfDescriptionFilter&%24levelOfDescriptionFilter.detailId=$-$1& %24showFullDescriptionTabs.selectedPaneId=&%24digiDetailPageModel.currentPage=0&%24resultsPartitionPageModel. targetModel=true&%24resultsSummaryPageModel.pageSize=10&%24DateFilter.name=DateFilter&%24submitId=7& %24digiDetailPageModel.resultPageModel=true&%24resultsDetailPageModel.currentPage=30&%24documentTypeFilter.detailId= 0&%24resultsDetailPageModel.pageSize=1&%24sort=RELEVANCE_ASC&%24documentTypeFilter.name=documentTypeFilter& %24locationFilter.detailId=$-$1&tab=init/showFullDescriptionTabs/digital&detail=digiViewModel/1 Original artist: Unknown photographer for Department of Agriculture • File:Liberty_Island.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Liberty_Island.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Liberty_Island_Aliens.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Liberty_Island_Aliens.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Misterweiss • File:Liberty_Island_NPS_August_2012.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Liberty_Island_NPS_ August_2012.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: King of Hearts • File:Liberty_Island_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Liberty_Island_ photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Don Ramey Logan • File:Liberty_and_Ellis_Island.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Liberty_and_Ellis_Island.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Combination of File:Liberty Island.jpg and File:Ellis Island-27527.jpg which are both in the public domain Original artist: originally uploaded by OptimumPx on en-wp (file log) • File:Liberty_issue_17c_1971.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Liberty_issue_17c_1971.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Post Office; Smithsonian National Postal Museum Image enlarged, rendered for tone and clarity by Gwillhickers Original artist: U.S. Post Office; Bureau of Engraving and Printing • File:Libertyferry.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Libertyferry.png License: Public domain Contrib- utors: http://arcweb.archives.gov Original artist: Arthur Tress, photographer for the Environmental Protection Agency • File:Libertypano.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Libertypano.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib- utors: English Wikipedia Original artist: BigMacSC99 • File:LineartPresRev.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/LineartPresRev.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Aido2002 at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by ACupOfCoffee, Timrem at en.wikipedia. • File:Location_map_of_Hudson_County,_New_Jersey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Location_ map_of_Hudson_County%2C_New_Jersey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: My own work, using custom-written MapScript ap- plications with United States Census Bureau data Original artist: Omnedon • File:Lower_Manhattan_1999_New_York_City.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Lower_ Manhattan_1999_New_York_City.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Map_of_New_Jersey_highlighting_Hudson_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Map_ of_New_Jersey_highlighting_Hudson_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specif- ically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Map_of_USA_NY.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Map_of_USA_NY.svg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Modified version of United States (Outline Map) 1998 from Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection: United States Maps Original artist: Huebi • File:Nancy_Reagan_reopens_Statue_of_Liberty_1986.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Nancy_ Reagan_reopens_Statue_of_Liberty_1986.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/ large/c35943-10.jpg Original artist: White House Photographic Office • File:National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/f/fd/National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC_fire.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://web.archive.org/web/20021019052836/http://www.nps.gov/remembrance/statue/index.html Original artist: National Park Service • File:Nixon_at_Liberty_Island.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Nixon_at_Liberty_Island.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum Original artist: Jack Kightlinger, White House pho- tographer • File:Pedestal_for_Bartholdi’{}s_Statue_of_Liberty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Pedestal_ for_Bartholdi%27s_Statue_of_Liberty.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Radicals_awaiting_deportation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Radicals_awaiting_ deportation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Corbis Images for Education database Original artist: Unknown 4.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 51

• File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Andux • File:Statue_of_Liberty_1917_poster.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Statue_of_Liberty_1917_ poster.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Pho- tographs division under the digital ID cph.3b49251. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Sackett & Wilhelms Corp. N.Y. • File:Statue_of_Liberty_7.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Statue_of_Liberty_7.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Elcobbola • File:Statue_of_Liberty_frontal_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Statue_of_Liberty_frontal_2. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daniel Schwen • File:Things_Are_Prettier_Up_Here.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Things_Are_Prettier_Up_ Here.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rich Lemonie • File:U.S._Patent_D11023.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/U.S._Patent_D11023.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Most certainly not “Originally” from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi • File:US-NationalParkService-ShadedLogo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/ US-NationalParkService-ShadedLogo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Extracted from PDF file available here (direct PDF URL here). Original artist: U.S. government, National Park Service • File:USA-NYC-Ellis_Island_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/USA-NYC-Ellis_Island_crop. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ingfbruno; cropped by Beyond My Ken (talk) 04:23, 19 October 2013 (UTC) • File:USA-NYC-Statue_of_Liberty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/USA-NYC-Statue_of_ Liberty.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ingfbruno • File:USA_New_Jersey_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/USA_New_Jersey_ location_map.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alexrk • File:USA_New_York_City_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/USA_New_York_ City_location_map.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Openstreetmap data for coastlines Original artist: Alexrk2 • File:USA_New_York_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/USA_New_York_location_ map.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: own work, using • United States National Imagery and Mapping Agency data • World Data Base II data • U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) data Original artist: NordNordWest • File:US_Coast_Guard_-_Liberty_Island.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/US_Coast_Guard_-_ Liberty_Island.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cristo Vlahos • File:Usa_edcp_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Uwe Dedering • File:WPVA-khamsa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/WPVA-khamsa.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Con- tributors: Vectorized version of Image:WPVA-khamsa.png by User:Sparkit Original artist: • first version Fluff • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw

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