TRIGGER POINTS Current State of Research on History, Impacts, and Healing Related to the United States’ Indian Industrial/Boarding School Policy © 2019 Native American Rights Fund, 1506 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80302. First Printing November 2019. This review is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: Native American Rights Fund, “Trigger Points: Current State of Research on History, Impacts, and Healing Related to the United States’ Indian Industrial/Boarding School Policy”, Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. 2019. To order copies of this review, please visit www. narf.org. Native American Rights Fund 1506 Broadway Boulder, CO 80302 www.narf.org Sincerest thanks are due to The Tzó-Nah Fund for its generous support. Trigger Points Current State of Research on History, Impacts, and Healing Related to the United States’ Indian Industrial/Boarding School Policy Presented by the Native American Rights Fund Contributors: Native American Rights Fund • Brett Lee Shelton, J.D., M.A, (Oglala Sioux Tribe) • Michael Johnson (Arikara, Hidatsa, Ojibwe) Research Team • Danielle R. Gartner, PhD Candidate, University of North Carolina, (Sault Ste. Marie Chippewa) • Meredith L. McCoy, PhD Candidate, University of North Carolina, (Turtle Mountain Chippewa descent) • Rachel E. Wilbur, PhD Student, University of North Carolina, (Tolowa descent and Chetco descent) Table of Contents Table of Figures iii Acknowledgements v Overview 1 • The Research Team and Additional Authors 2 • Notes on Some Key Terms 2 • Literature Review Format 3 Foundational Information on the Boarding Schools 5 • A Brief Comparison of Canadian and American Residential Schools 22 Historical Literature on Boarding Schools 24 Recommended Histories of the Early Boarding Schools 26 General Histories of Indian Education 29 Nature of the Available Research Literature 30 Health-Related Literature 31 Language-Related Literature 31 Economics-Related Literature 32 Education-Related Literature 32 Family-Related Literature 32 History-Related Literature 32 Consequences for Communities and Native Nations 33 1. Boarding Schools Set a Precedent for What Constitutes School Success in American 33 Schools. 2. Boarding Schools may have Contributed to the Development of Native American 34 English. 3. Some Boarding School Alumni Used Their Boarding School-Developed Skills to 34 Advocate for and Work within Their Communities. 4. Some Boarding School Alumni Advocated for Native People through Newly-Formed 36 Indian Organizations like SAI, NIYC, and AIM. 5. Some Boarding School Alumni Became Advocates for Indian Education, Including 37 Survival Schools, Tribal Colleges, and Tribally Controlled Schools. Consequences for Families 39 1. Separation of Family Members Kept Children from Acquiring Traditionally Grounded 39 Parenting Techniques and Familial Roles. i 2. Some Native Grandparents Today are More Likely to Choose to Raise their 41 Grandchildren in an Effort to Stop the Cycle of Loss Initiated by Boarding Schools. 3. The Descendants of Students who Attended Boarding Schools May be Less Likely to 41 Speak an Indigenous Language. 4. Boarding School Experiences, Particularly Abuse and Neglect, are Associated with a 43 Constellation of Psychological Distress and Related Symptoms. Psychological Distress Makes One more Susceptible to Alcohol or Illicit Substance Use/Abuse, Suicidal Thoughts, and Suicide Attempts. These Experiences can Transfer to Later Generations. 5. Research Regarding other Family Impacts in a U.S. Setting have not been Well 48 Described. Canadian-based Research can Provide Additional Insights. Consequences for Individuals 52 1. Maintaining Strong Community Connections, Including Connections to Indigenous 52 Worldviews and Cultural Practices, can Support Resiliency. 2. Some Students Internalized Boarding School Messages that Told them to Feel 53 Ashamed of their Identities and Communities. 3. Additional Research is Needed to Understand the Educational Impacts of Boarding 53 Schools on Native Students Today. 4. Boarding Schools did not Prepare Native Students to Acquire Meaningful Employment 54 after Leaving School. Additional Research is Needed to Understand the Economic Impacts of Boarding Schools on Native People Today. 5. The Direct Emotional and Physical Abuse that Many Native Students Experienced 55 in the Boarding Schools can Lead to Psychological Distress and Alcohol or Illicit Substance Use and Abuse. Substance Abuse is Therefore Both a Result of Historical Trauma and a Means through which it is Perpetuated. 6. Subsequent Poor Conditions and Chronic Stress is Associated with Increased Risk of 57 Disease and Poor Self-Rated Physical Health. 7. Many Individuals Regularly Think About Historical Trauma, Including Losses Associated 58 with Boarding School Attendance. 8. Individuals may not Need Direct Personal Exposure to Boarding Schools to be 58 Impacted by the Policy. 9. Boarding School Experiences may Have a Negative Impact on the Ability of Alumni to 59 Maintain Healthy Interpersonal Relationships. 10. Some Individuals See Their Relatives’ and Communities’ Survival of the Boarding 59 School Era as a Source of Personal Strength. Promising Strategies for Healing 62 • The Canadian Government’s Response to Healing 63 • Healing through Language and Education 63 • Centering Native Languages in Schools 64 • Supporting Native Languages through Public Programming and Technology 65 • The Development of the Tribally Controlled School Movement 66 • The Importance of Culturally Relevant Curriculum 68 • Healing through Increased Economic Opportunities 70 • Healing through Research and Scholarship 71 • Case Study: Philanthropy Supporting Community-Driven Programs 73 • Healing through a Focus on Family Programs 74 • Healing through a Focus on Health and Well-Being 75 • Case Study: Qungasvik (Toolbox): A Yup’ik Intervention to Address Youth Suicide 77 and Alcohol Abuse • Case Study: Wikoskalaka Yuwita Pi (A Gathering of Young Women) 79 ii Summary of Knowledge Gaps & Suggestions for Future Research 80 • Approaches to Overcome Methodological Challenges 80 • Topical Areas for Future Research 82 Glossary 84 Appendix: School-Specific Resources 88 References 91 Table of Figures Figure 1: Summary of Key Themes & Findings 4 Figure 2: Living Conditions Contributing to Disease Development and Transmission at 11 Boarding Schools, Meriam Report, 1928 Figure 3: Percent of Eligible American Indian Students Enrolled in Government- 14 Sponsored Schools Figure 4: Tribal and Bureau of Indian Education Operated Elementary, Secondary, and 18 Residential Schools, 2018 Figure 5: American Indian Boarding Schools by State 19 Figure 6: "My Parents Had No Parenting" 40 Figure 7: Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma and Substance Abuse from 47 Survivor to Next Generation Figure 8: Simplified Illustration of Epigenetic Mechanisms 84 iii Letter from John E. Echohawk For nearly 50 years, the Native American Rights Fund has been providing legal advice and representation to Indian tribes, organizations, and individuals on the most important Indian law issues facing them. As the research compiled here has now shown, but as our tribal leaders and healers have known for a long time, the unique federal Indian Industrial (or Boarding) School policy, though instituted long ago, continues to have significant impacts today among our tribal communities and citizens. We repeatedly see some of those impacts in our legal work across many different fields of Indian law. Only in recent years, however, has the direct connection between the policy of decades ago and issues experienced today become so clear. Taking it one step further, the way tribal communities have developed legal and other systems to redress the more harmful impacts, has made it increasingly clear the preservation of tribal existence, one of the Five Priorities established for NARF by its founding Board of Directors, is as important as it has ever been. We hope that by pulling together the research showing the links between the federal policy and modern impacts, as well as promising approaches to mitigate those impacts that are negative, we have provided a resource for use in many contexts, legal and perhaps beyond. We hope this work speaks authoritatively, because of the qualifications and talents employed by so many who helped put it together. Most of all, we hope that it can be used nationwide to meet all of NARF’s Five Priorities: • Preserve Tribal Existence • Protect Tribal Natural Resources • Promote Native American Human Rights • Hold Governments Accountable to Native Americans • Develop Indian Law and Educate the Public about Indian Rights, Laws, and Issues In closing, I want to thank all of our funders for their partnership in defending Indian Country, and specifically the TzÓ-Nah Fund for supporting this project and NARF over the years. It only through our strong partnerships and shared values that this long-needed document has been possible. We only hope that, with continued public support, we will be able to provide even more of the legal tools needed for all those helping Native Americans. Sincerely John E. Echohawk Executive Director, Native American Rights Fund iv Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the following: the Native An Important Message to the Reader American Rights Fund for its continued commitment to raise awareness and understanding of this critical issue, and NOTE ON SELF CARE: Many of the topics discussed