An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes Governance Models - Beroud B

An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes governance models - Beroud B. - Anaya E. 1 PRIVATE INTERVENTIONS IN A PUBLIC SERVICE: AN ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC BICYCLE SCHEMES

Benoît Beroud Mobility consultant Esther Anaya Cycling consultant

Acknowledgements To John Parkin who edited this chapter in “Cycling and sustainability”, a book co-written by worldwide cycling experts: To Alberto Castro and Russell Meddin who contributed to this chapter review of this chapter. To Didier Van De Velde for its typology of transportation governance models.

About the authors

Benoît Beroud is the founder of Mobiped, a Esther Anaya is a senior bicycle mobility French consultancy in sustainable mobility. consultant and independent researcher. She is As a public bicycle schemes expert, he has a graduate in environnemental sciences and participated to European projects, writtent cultural studies, and has a masters degree in French-English publications and given lectures mobility management. She has undertaken in international conferences. Its others ranges a number of studies about public bicycles of activities are actives modes, people with reduced mobility public policies and modal to the implementation of public bicycles including co-authoring one of the first guides choice information. He has been studying pub- schemes. She has been studying public bicy- lic bicycles since 2005. cles in Spain since 2007.

Benoît Beroud Esther Anaya

Mobility consultant Cycling consultant

0 (033) 9 51 94 72 80 Skype: esther.anaya

[email protected] [email protected]

www.mobiped.com bicicletapublica.wordpress.com

An extract from Cycling and sustainability

This publication is an extract from:

Benoît Beroud, Esther Anaya, (2012),”Chapter 11 Private Interventions in a Public Service: An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes”, John Parkin, in (ed.) Cycling and Sustainability (Transport and Sustainability, Volume 1), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 269 - 301.

Link to the book series homepage : www.emeraldinsight.com http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/books/series. • htm?id=2044-9941 •

Contents

Abstract 4

Introduction 5

1. Public bicycles scheme elementary principles 6 The concept ...... 6 History of public bicycle schemes ...... 8 Types of public bicycles scheme ...... 9 Stakeholders ...... 11

2. Public bicycles scheme markets 12 Worldwide state of the art and statistics ...... 12 The French market ...... 14 The Spanish market ...... 17

3. Models of governance worldwide 20 Schemes Created by Market Initiative ...... 21 Schemes Promoted by Public Bodies ...... 22

4. Building a public bicycle scheme policy 24 Creating a Cycling Friendly Environment ...... 24 Not Buying a Product but Defining a Service ...... 25 Assessing Public Bicycle Schemes Impacts ...... 27

Conclusion 31

References 32

Pictures and charts credits 34

Abstract Purpose public bicycle schemes have to be integrated The chapter reviews public bicycle scheme within cycling and urban mobility policies. implementation processes and impacts and Second, local governments have to ensure that will assist decision makers and stakeholders contracts with private sector operators make considering such schemes. maximum use of the operator’s skill, and by so doing will meet multimodal travel behaviour Approach objectives. The chapter customises the Van de Velde typology for describing public and private Practical implications interventions in public bicycle scheme imple- - rience which is able to be assimilated and mentation processes. The chapter considers Public decision makers beneﬁt from expe schemes worldwide, but has a particular focus transmitted through international projects un- on France and Spain where these schemes are considered as a public service. Socialdertaken byimplications international experts in the ﬁeld. Findings Public bicycle schemes enable relatively easy The authors draw several conclusions on how and cheap access to sustainable modes of to optimise public and private involvement transport, and they contribute to an over- in order to achieve the desired impacts. First, all transport system with cycling as a prime public bicycle schemes have to be integrated means of movement, and towards cities which within cycling and urban mobility policies. are more pleasant to live in. Second, local governments have to ensure that Originality contracts with private sector operators make By integrating the main relevant data and maximum use of the operator’s skill, and by so publications into this worldwide overview, the doing will meet multimodal travel behaviour chapter forms an essential starting point for objectives. future work relating to public bicycle schemes. Research limitations / implications Key words Public bicycles; bike sharing; models of gov- The authors draw several conclusions on how ernance; cycling policy; indicators; stakehold- to optimise public and private involvement ers. in order to achieve the desired impacts. First,

Introduction

Public bicycle schemes (systèmes de velos First, the concept of public bicycle schemes publics), also known as bicycle sharing or within the larger class of bicycle hire schemes cycle hire schemes, began in the 1960s in and their history will be summarised. Second, the market for public bicycle schemes will be

Northern Europe and during the first decade widely in Europe and to America, Asia and Spain, two countries with a large number of the twenty-first century have spread more analysed with a specific focus on France and Oceania. City planners support this innova- of implemented systems. Then, we custom- tive transport service because it provides a ise the typology developed by Van de Velde further transport option for short urban-based (1999) to classify existing implementation journeys and promotes cycling more gener- processes across the world. Finally, the au- ally. This chapter discusses how public bicycle thors provide their view on what they con- schemes should be improved such that they sider as the best ways for optimising the become more faithful to their objectives and implementation of public bicycle schemes. achieve the desired outcomes.

1. Public bicycle scheme elementary principles

The concept

Public bicycle schemes are a mobility service administrative body for transport is re- mainly implemented in an urban environment sponsible for the scheme, even though they for local trips. They are schemes for hiring bi- may subcontract aspects of its operation cycles for short periods and, through the lack (Beroud, 2007a). of personal bicycle ownership and through the sharing of bicycles by a large number of peo- In addition to the above, and although there ple, they evoke the concept of a public service. are many features of public bicycle schemes, the authors consider two conditions as dis- Shared methods of mobility are increasingly tinctly characterising a public bicycle scheme. being adopted in transport provision not First, users should be able to drop off a only through vehicle sharing but also through public bicycle in a different place from the sharing of space. Examples include lorry where it was picked up. Hence, the user sharing for freight transport, private and has the opportunity to hire a public bicycle institutional car sharing and pooling and taxi only for a one-way trip or for an occasional, sharing. There are examples of private parking longer duration, round-trip tour. This feature spaces being shared to prevent the waste of is linked to the pricing structure, which is valuable space. Since the concepts of sharing designed for very short-term use, and in that and hiring are also embraced by a range of sense they are distinct from other types of bicycle hire services, it is important to distin- bicycle hire or rental services. One-way use also means that the responsibility of the user of public bicycle schemes which are as follows: is restricted to the duration of the trip, rather guish the speciﬁc and distinct characteristics than a longer time period during which the bi- Their availability to almost anyone, the cycle may be idle. A further advantage of such only limitations being an ability to pay by one-way use is that users may choose another • means of transport for the return trip, enhanc- usually requires a bank or credit card. It some efficient and effective means which should be noted that some schemes limit condition is that hire points are located in ing ﬂexibility very considerably. The second availability to people who have an address the public domain so that there is the pos- in the city or country where the system is sibility of interaction with and accessibility installed. for any public space user. This implies the Their consideration as a public service in full agreement and cooperation of whoever law, particularly so in France and Spain, owns the public space, and this would usually • and hence requiring operators to abide by be a public body. Table 1 summarises three relevant legislation in this respect. broad approaches to bicycle hire. The local authority or relevant local public

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Long-Term Hire Medium-Term Hire Very short term hire Usually for periods longer Usually for partdays, hole Very short term: from some Period of hire than a week days or periods up to a week minutes to some hours

Types of service Hire programmes usually for Hire programmes usually for Public bicycle scheme students or commuters, from leisure users from bicycle bicycle retailers, or ‘Ve´lo- retailers or Vélostations’ stations’ (bicycle hubs in central urban areas or at railway stations) or other bespoke providers

Access to the During opening hours During opening hours of the Possibility of 24 hours per bicycles of the shop or service shop or service day, 7 days per week Location for Hiring and returning Hiring and returning location Hiring and returning location hiring and location the same the same may be different returning Interface with Personal, requires hire Personal, requires Self-service with automatic the service agreements and checking that agreements and checking that systems for user provider the bicycle is in good working the bicycle is in good identification and payment, or order working order staff serviced Benefits to the Having use of a personal Having a bicycle which is in No responsibility for user bicycle without having to buy good working order, of the maintenance, night and long- one right type and with the right term parking, or theft risk accessories after use. Great flexibility in choice to use for a particular journey Table 1. Summary of Three Broad Approaches to Bicycle Hire.

While Table 1 attempts to categorise bicycle hire schemes, the concept of public bicycle schemes is still evolving, as it has done since the 1960s. The next section discusses this development through different generations of schemes.

History of public bicycle schemes De Maio (2003) summarises the history of generations are summarised in Table 2 (Ber- public bicycles with reference to three genera- oud, Clavel, & Le Vine, 2010c). tions of schemes. Differences between these

First Generation Second Generation Third Generation Financial and time None Financial with a coin Identification of the user, incentives to similar to financial and time return the supermarket trolleys incentives with a bicycle (approximately h2) pricing policy which encourages rapid turnover Examples White Bikes in Amsterdam Fonden i bycyklen in Vélo à la carte in Rennes (1965) Copenhagen (1995) (1998), Vélo’v in Lyon (2005), Bicing in Barcelona (2007) (Fig. 1) and Vé lib’ (vélos en libre-service) in Paris (2007) Principles Bicycles are left in Bicycles are parked at Registration and the public realm docking stations identification Limitations Bicycles are stolen, Anonymous users keep Vandalism, empty painted, broken the bicycles as cost is stations and full and not repaired low and there are no stations time limits on use Table 2. The Three Generations of Public Bicycle Schemes.

De Maio (2009) suggests improvements from with mobile phones allow greater payment third- to fourth-generation schemes will con- capabilities and compatibility across multiple cern methods of check-out and return, ease of bicycle-sharing systems’.

tracking of the bicycles and mileage, bicycle Shaheen, Guzman, and Zhang (2010a) talk use, the ﬂexibility of return station location, and station design, powering of the stations, about ‘Demand responsive, multimodal sys- incorporation into other modes of transport, distribution, business models and theft deter- docking stations, 2) bicycle redistribution in- tems [y] characterized by: 1) ﬂexible, clean rence. novations, 3) smartcard integration with other transportation modes, such as public trans- Meddin (2010) considers that ‘transit integra- portation and car-sharing, and 4) technologi- tions will be a hallmark of fourth-generation cal advances including GPS (global positioning bicycle sharing schemes, along with the system) tracking, touch screen kiosks, and possibility of advance booking. RFID (ra- electric bikes’.

dio frequency identiﬁcation) integrations This chapter is © Emerald Group Publishing and permission has been granted for this version to appear on the authors website: www.mobiped.com and bicicletapublica.wordpress.com. Emerald does not grant permission for this chapter to be further copied/ distributed or hosted elsewhere without the express permission from Emerald Group Publishing Limited. An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes governance models - Beroud B. - Anaya E. 9

Beroud et al. (2010c) consider that the including public transport and vehicle park- common link between the generations is ing, they clearly contribute to sustainable not related to their technological capability. multimodal mobility. Some examples include System evolution has been related to capabili- the Navigo card in Paris and Oura card in Lyon ties which decrease information asymmetry which allows use of the public bicycle scheme. between the user and operator, and methods ‘Citizen cards’ with several transport and oth- to keep bicycles in a working state to enable er additional municipal services are available subsequent users to ride them. Fourth-genera- in Gijon, Ponferrada and A Coruna in Spain. tion systems might also include incentives that Besides increased security through control of focus on non-users to discourage vandalism. the users through registration (and non-users Solutions might include video surveillance at through video surveillance), technological docking stations (e.g. Brescia, Italy) or secure advancement is also enabling the collection boxes for storage of the parked bicycles (e.g. and dissemination of real-time information Grenoble, France, and Bilbao and Vitoria, which may then be disseminated through the Spain). Internet, mobile telephones and at docking stations. These data are useful for operators in ensuring an even supply of bicycles and for users to check availability of a bicycle for hire, and a slot for the return of the bicycle. Devel- opments are also taking place in the energy

expense of construction and operating costs. efficiency of automated systems to reduce the

Camera and light on a docking station types of public bicycle schemes: As identified in Table 1, there are two main (Bicimia in Brescia, Italy) Automatic schemes with technological Technological evolution is still driving trends - • in new scheme implementation, particularly ment, methods for user identification and pay so far as payment mechanisms are concerned. Manual schemes which are serviced by hu- Where such payment mechanisms are com- man operators. These are now described in • mon to other modes, for example, the same more detail. RFID card for several transport services

Type of public bicycle scheme Public bicycle scheme docking stations are turn maximises the number of possible trips. generally self-service stations as this is more However, some docking stations have operator economical and allows for investment in a servicing. larger number of docking stations, which in

This chapter is © Emerald Group Publishing and permission has been granted for this version to appear on the authors website: www.mobiped.com and bicicletapublica.wordpress.com. Emerald does not grant permission for this chapter to be further copied/ distributed or hosted elsewhere without the express permission from Emerald Group Publishing Limited. An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes governance models - Beroud B. - Anaya E. 10 Self-service public bicycle Staff-service public bicycle schemes schemes With third-generation self-service systems, the These services are able to use equipment of a user retrieves a bicycle after interacting with a kiosk or electronic interface using a stored service. Usually, the user receives and drops lower specification than those which are self- data card, debit or credit card, a mobile phone off keys directly from a member of staff. There are two main types of staff-serviced system other code. Evidence suggests that systems depending on the location of the bicycles rela- or a personal identification number (PIN) or which use stored data cards have higher trip tive to the staff. rates per bicycle. For example, a card-based system in Oslo, Norway, has two and a half Bicycles may be parked in a public space, per- times more trips per bicycle than a phone haps adjacent to existing bicycle parking facili- call–based system in Berlin, Germany. A main ties. They are secured with an ordinary U-lock, chain or cable lock. The staff issuing the keys a card in Oslo although users have to pay for for the locks may be a public employee and be reason is that identification costs are free with each telephone call in Berlin (Beroud, 2007b). based in a nearby civic centre, sports centre To identify users and bicycles, these systems for the operator are then shared between the or tourist offices. The direct and estates costs machine-to-machine equipment which com- system and other functions the operator may require well-specified human-to-machine and municates with a central database. have within the local authority. Such staff are not in a position to oversee or check the With no other staff interaction, there is no checked in or checked out. The waiting time fitness for use of the bicycles when they are for use. Such assessments are performed as for the user may be variable depending on assessment of the bicycle’s mechanical fitness part of programmed visits to the station. In other tasks the employee needs to undertake. addition, some third-generation systems al- Alternatively, bicycles may be stored at dedi- low the user to notify the system that there is cated premises in the public realm, perhaps a fault on a bicycle on its return to a docking for example in specially adapted contain- station as in London. Other systems are able to ers or other suitable secure buildings. The detect automatically a fault when something premises will also be used as a maintenance is wrong with the bicycle. These alerts allow workshop and a warehouse. Members of staff the system operator to provide a maintenance are in charge of the issue and collection of the visit. bicycles as well as their repair. In this case, it

use of the bicycles on return. While in Spain, is possible to check immediately the ﬁtness for there are few manual systems, and some systems have been converted from being staff serviced to being self-service (e.g. after inau- Identification Keys are distributed by the guration in 2006, Santander was converted to on the parking plot shopkeeper to access to being automatic in 2008), there are examples (Vélib’ in Paris, these traditional bicycles of manual systems in Switzerland and Italy France) (Victoria-Gasteiz, Spain) (the Milleeunabici system in Firenze, 2011).

Stakeholders There are principally four main types of stakeholders in public bicycle schemes. As with many industries such as public transportation, railways, telecommunications, 1. The promoter electricity, gas, waste and post, public bicycle originator of the initiative and the body schemes are a network-based industry (Ber- may be deﬁned as the who is in overall management control of oud, 2007a). As a consequence, provision and the scheme. Generally, the promoter will be operation answers to different economic rules, a public body, such as a local government, and that is why it is necessary to distinguish which is responsible for public highways, them from operations that are not network public space and local transportation based. policy. If the promoter is a private organi- 3. Equipment providers will be the con- sation, for example, a privately or publicly tractors with the skills and expertise to - provide the necessary bicycle and docking sation, it will need to work closely with the station equipment, and communications owned company or a not-for-proﬁt organi relevant local government bodies and seek hardware and software. The providers appropriate permissions for use of public may be contracted directly to the scheme space and to carry out the activity of the promoter or the scheme operator. scheme. While promoters are ultimately responsible for the scheme, some aspects 4. The scheme operator is contracted to run of the operation or running of the scheme the public bicycle scheme for the scheme may always, in law, reside with a public promoter. The operator has the skills to administration. Clearly, schemes are highly maintain the bicycle in a mechanically suit- unlikely to be successful without the full able condition and balance bicycle supply backing of the local transport administra- with demand. The operator is also respon- tion. Governance regimes developed for sible for relations with the customer, infor- public bicycle schemes vary depending mation provision and communication. The on whether the initiative is of public or running of the service could be contracted private origin and this will be discussed in to a succession of different scheme opera- section ‘Models of Governance Worldwide’. tors.

2. Public space users include both users and The number of public bicycle schemes has non-users of the public bicycle scheme. The scheme will have a positive impact for - grown rapidly in the ﬁrst decade of the those using the scheme as it will provide eration schemes. The next section provides twenty-ﬁrst century, particularly third-gen further journey possibilities and options. a worldwide overview of third-generation Non-users will be impacted by the scheme schemes and presents a more in-depth review as it will assist in introducing more cycling of the evolution and current context of the into an urban area and bring new urba markets in France and Spain. furniture into the urban landscape.

2. Public bicycle scheme markets

Worldwide state of the art and statistics generation schemes are concerned, De Maio public bicycle schemes was the one imple- (2010) suggests there were 238 by the end Arguably, the ﬁrst of the third generation of mented in Portsmouth (United Kingdom) in of 2010. Beroud et al. (2010c) reckon there 1996; however, it terminated in 1998 (De are 460 cities with a public bicycle scheme, Maio, 2009). At the beginning of the twenty- with 203,000 bicycles and 13,600 docking

operating was in Rennes (France), installed in after having contacted most of public bicycle first century, the only public bicycle scheme stations. These figures were mostly compiled 1998. After the deregulation of the European providers and operators. However, schemes outdoor advertising market, the American provided and operated by OV Fiets in The company Clear Channel introduced an innova- Netherlands and the Centro in Bici schemes do tion by proposing a public bicycle scheme for Rennes Metropole as part of the outdoor ad- of public bicycle schemes. Leaving these out not exactly comply with the above definition vertising contract in order to differentiate its of the count and integrating more accurate proposal from its main competitor, JC Decaux information about the Spanish market, leads (Huré, 2010). Since then and up to to the 319 schemes as shown in Fig. 2, with 2010, that system has been joined by 318 approximately 200,000 public bicycles and other schemes and their worldwide distribu- 13,500 docking stations in September 2010. tion in 29 countries is shown in Fig. 2. The United Nations (2011) suggests there were 375 bicycle-sharing schemes operating in 33 countries with 236,000 bicycles. The 88 % 4 % 7 % largest system in the world is in Hangzhou in China, which has 50,000 bicycles and 2,177 docking stations (Tang, 2010) and will reach 60,600 bikes at 2,711 service points at the end 1 % of 2011 (Meddin, 2011b).

Fig 2. Worldwide distribution of the 319 Third The phenomenon of public bicycles has spread Generation Public bicycle Schemes as at 2010

rapidly across Europe in the first decade of There are contrasting views about the exact the rate of increase is slowing down because the twenty-first century. However, it looks like number of schemes that have been imple- of the lack of resources. In 2009 and 2010, mented, partly based on different public however, there has been the beginning of an expansion to other continents including the (2010a) suggest there are 135 bicycle-sharing Americas, Asia and Australia. Public bicycles bicycle scheme definitions. Shaheen et al. programmes operating in 160 cities with over have been implemented mainly in cities with 235,000 bicycles for hire. So far as third- low cycling use, but which have a willingness

to increase it. Promotion by public sector bod- include their integration with other forms of ies dominates. With worldwide progressive transport (through, e.g. use of the same RFID expansion of public bicycle schemes, a market card for public bicycles and public transport services), the promotion of journeys which systems, innovations and patents. Important use more than one mode, the exploration of has developed for diversiﬁed technology, emerging features of schemes which allow new funding formulas and the growing impor- tance of mobility operators as stakeholders. the overall transport offering of an urban area them to be considered more ﬁrmly as part of

The World map of public bicycles schemes (http://bike-sharingblogspot.com)

France, Spain and also Italy are the countries

of public bicycle schemes. The next section which have implemented a signiﬁcant number focuses particularly on the French and Span- ish markets in order to provide a context for a discussion on the dynamics and increasingly

diversiﬁed market for public bicycle schemes.

The French market The Cycling Context tre for studies on networks, transportation, As in many occidental countries, a cycling urban planning and public works). Regions culture has been overtaken by the develop- are in charge of inter-urban rail transportation. Departements work on roads and school - transportation. Multiple cities authorities are ment of a car culture. The first decade of the newed interest in civilising cities with a view associations of adjacent city authorities and twenty-first century has, however, seen a re to promoting sustainable forms of transport, promote public transport and urban travel including cycling. plans. Individual cities manage their street networks (Assemblees des Communautes de The French cycling modal share for all trips France, 2010). Cities and multiple city authori- has decreased from 4.5% in 1982 to 2.9% in - tion projects: ‘Le Versement Transport’. They 1994 and to 2.7% in 2008 (CGDD, 2010). The ties have a financial tool for some transporta leading friendly cycling cities are Strasbourg tax all organisations within their jurisdiction (9% of modal share), Bordeaux, La Rochelle and which employ more than nine people and Chambery. A number of other cities have (Ministere du developpement durable, 2007). implemented and marketed public bicycle To use ‘Le Versement Transport’, a public schemes and so are becoming more bicycle bicycle scheme has to be operated by a public friendly. body, or be integrated in a public service del- egation contract (Club des Villes et Territoires Although there is no national cycling policy Cyclables, 2007). On cycling issues, cities yet, a designated ‘Monsieur Velo (Mr Bicycle) develop urban cycle tracks, although departe- at the French Ministry of Transportation has ments build inter-urban cycle tracks such as been in post since 2006. His mission is to longer distance ‘Veloroutes’ and ‘Voies Vertes’. coordinate action across all ministries which plans. Recently, regions have become more may have an impact on the cycling use. France Multiple city authorities define cycling master concerned to improve the attractiveness of departements, multiple city authorities and the railway network and have been promoting has five administrative levels: State, regions, cities. In overall terms, the State proposes inter-modality with the bicycle as an access and egress mode. Several laws provide the leg- institutional agencies such as Centre d’etudes islative and regulatory framework for cycling law, and finances research programmes and sur les reseaux, les transports, l’urbanisme et in France and these are summarised in les constructions publiques (CERTU, Cen- Table 3.

Name of the law Year Comment The road law (Le code de la route) 1921– Cyclists have to follow the same rules as car drivers 1958 – 2000 Law of inland transportation (Loi 1982 Provides the framework for transport authorities legal d’Orientation sur les Transports competences Intérieurs) Law on air and rational use of energy (Loi 1996 Cycling has to be encouraged in multimodal urban travel sur l’Air et sur l’Utilisation Rationnelle de plans l’énergie) Law on solidarity and urban renewal (Loi 2000 Cycling facilities should be implemented whenever Solidarité et Renouvellement Urbain) highway renewal works take place

The street law (Le code de la Rue) 2008 Enables multi-modal shared areas and cycling two abreast in areas subject to a 30 km/h speed limit. It does not replace the road law Law of financing of social welfare 2008 Enables companies to co-finance 50% of their (Loi de financement de la Sécurité employees’ subscription to public bicycle schemes, in sociale) the same way they can co-finance public transport pass costs for daily trips The national commitment to the 2009 Encourages work travel plans and the development of environment (Engagement - car pooling, car sharing, walking and cycling. It National pour l’Environnement) 2010 empowers local authorities to implement public bicycle schemes. Before, there was no legal framework to implement public bicycle schemes Table 3. Legislative and Regulatory Framework Relevant to Cycling in France.

Public bicycles in France As of September 2010, 32 public bicycle La Rochelle was the pioneer city and im- schemes were in operation in 92 cities, including main cities and city suburbs. Of the 1970s. It encountered the same problems of 41,483 bicycles in public service in France at plemented a ﬁrst-generation scheme in the the end of 2010, more than half were in the

theft and vandalism of the first-generation generation schemes appeared in 1998 in than 1,000 public bicycles: Lyon, Marseille, scheme in Amsterdam. The first of the third- Paris system. There are five cities with more Rennes, with the next two schemes appearing Toulouse, Nice and Bordeaux. Twenty-two in 2005 in Lyon and La Rochelle. The success cities have between 100 and 500 bicycles and of the Ve´lo’v scheme in Lyon, as well as the only one city, Montelimard, has fewer than 20 2008 elections, encouraged many other cities bikes (Beroud et al., 2010c). Lille, one of the to consider developing their own schemes. its own service in September 2011 during the Ten schemes were inaugurated in 2007, in- five largest French cities, has just inaugurated cluding Vélib’ in Paris. From 2008 to 2010, 19 European Mobility Week with 2,000 public other schemes followed. bicycles.

The number of implementations in 2011 and There are seven equipment providers in the beyond would reduce for three reasons: the market – Clear Channel, JC Decaux, EFFIA, impact of the economic crisis of public fund- Flexbike (Homeport solution), Smoove, Deut- ing, cities preferring cheaper options than sch Bahn Rent and Veolia – and six service public bicycle schemes to develop cycling, and operators – Clear Channel, JC Decaux, EFFIA/ the market saturation of cities of a suitable Keolis, Transdev, Veolia and the City of La size (with more than 100,000 inhabitants) for Rochelle. Veolia and Transdev have recently public bicycle schemes. merged. There is clearly overlap between the equipment providers and the system opera- All French schemes have been promoted and tors, which include two international outdoor supported by public bodies. Eighteen of the advertising companies and three leading 32 schemes operate under agreements with European public transport operators. Only one multiple city authorities. There are four main multiple city authority, Rennes Metropole in types of contract as follows: 2009, has changed its provider and operator. Politicians have found public bicycle schemes The integration of the public bicycle to be very good for creating a dynamic, young, scheme as part of an outdoor advertising environmentally friendly image for the city • contract. and the presence of the scheme is a continu- The integration of the public bicycle ous and visible reminder to their electors of scheme as part of a public transport con- their investments and actions. In Lyon and • tract. Paris, both majority administrations have been reelected. Some politicians, however, bicycle scheme. seem to consider a public bicycle scheme as • A service contract speciﬁcally for a public A service operated in-house by a local being the only investment required to help authority. develop more cycling. Public bicycles should • be considered as part of a cycling master plan and not a master plan itself (see section ‘Cre- ating a Cycling Friendly Environment’).

There are two examples of case law which give to public bicycle schemes the status of a public service. In the case of Ve´lo’v in Lyon (2006), a bicycle rental company called Holiday Bike considered public funding only to Ve´lo’v as unfair competition. The court ruled that the duration of the Holiday Bike rental (one day) Contract speciﬁcally for a public bicycle scheme. and the Ve´lo’v hire (very short term for a one- with the name of the local government way trip) indicates that what is being offered (Le Vélostar in Rennes, France) are two different services. Moreover, they found that Ve´lo’v contributes to decreasing

This chapter is © Emerald Group Publishing and permission has beenpollution granted for andthis version trafﬁc to congestion. appear on the authors Overall, website: the www.mobiped.com and bicicletapublica.wordpress.com. Emerald does not grant permission for this chapter to be further copied/ distributed or hosted elsewhere without the express permission from Emerald Group Publishing Limited. An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes governance models - Beroud B. - Anaya E. 17

P8c4c3.fm Page 1 Vendredi, 23. juillet 2010 11:39 11

...... Les vélos publics – Les vélos en libre-service - p. 1 court found that the service has a public inter- Les cahiers techniques

est that is not answered by private companies, Les vélos publics – Les vélos en libre-service l’urbanisme and hence its existence and public funding is un mode de déplacement apprécié des français. Un Définir, planifier et optimiser numéro hors série de Atout France est consacré à un service de vélos publics l’économie du vélo. Voici les principaux chiffres sur le s Le contexte vélo en France : La notion de multimodalité – Dans la –þ30 à 36 % des Français, soit plus de 17 millions, décla- perspective du développement durable, rent utiliser le vélo comme moyen de déplacement ; diminuer l’usage et les impacts de l’automo- –þ5 % le pratiquent quotidiennement ; bile est un enjeu majeur pour les villes du –þla part modale du vélo représente 2,85 % des justiﬁed. XXe siècle. La démarche consiste alors à déplacements. Vélib’ in Paris (2008) was extended to a sub- contraindre l’utilisation de l’automobile et à Les services vélos – D’après une enquête du GART développer une offre intermodale et (Groupement des autorités responsables des trans- multimodale. ports), le nombre de services vélos mis en place par les La multimodalité regroupe un ensemble de collectivités territoriales françaises explose. De trois urb of Paris, although the initial contract was modes de mobilité : la marche, le vélo, les services en 1997 à une vingtaine en 2006, il y en avait transports en commun, les voitures parta- plus d’une soixantaine en 2008. Et de plus en plus, les gées… Chaque mode se décline en villes souhaitent diversifier leurs services vélos : sta- plusieurs composantes. Une des compo- tionnement, prêt gratuit et locations de vélos. Il existe concerned only with Paris itself. Clear Channel santes de l’offre vélo est la mise à trois principaux types de service de location de vélos disposition de vélos. Depuis quelques [cf. Tab. 1]. années, un service de location de vélos est Les services de vélos publics – En France, leur devenu le symbole du renouveau du vélo nombre a explosé lors des cinq dernières années. 0 en registered a complaint because there was no dans les agglomérations françaises : les 1997, 1 en 1998, 3 en 2006, il y a désormais plus de vélos publics ou communément appelés les 25systèmes début 2010. Il existe plus de vélos en libre-service. 200 services de vélos publics à travers le monde. Le new tender for the new expanded market. The Le vélo en France – Bien que la part marché français a popularisé ce service à l’échelle modale du vélo soit faible par rapport aux mondiale. C’est un des marchés les plus dynamiques et autres modes de déplacement, le vélo est variés, au même titre que le marché espagnol. French State Council decided that the public Tab. 1 – Caractéristiques générales de trois catégories de services de location de vélos

Contact humain Type de service Accès au service bicycle scheme could be extended to a distance Durée Lieu de prise pour prendre Intérêts de location de pour la prise de la location et de dépose et déposer un pour l’usager vélos et la dépose vélo

Longue durée : Vélocampus Accueil aux Le même lieu Oui Avoir un vélo urbain personnel of up to 1.5 km around Paris on the basis that > 1 semaine Vélostations heures sans supporter les frais d’achat d’ouvertures et avoir accès du local à un atelier de réparation

Courte et Vélostations Accueil aux Le même lieu Oui Avoir un vélo adapté it could improve the service offered for Paris- moyenne durées : Vélocistes heures à ses besoins spécifiques : entre une demi- d’ouvertures type de vélos et accessoires journée et du local une semaine ians or people who may commute into Paris. Très courte Vélos publics 24 h/24, 7 j/7 Possibilité de Non 3 principaux freins à la pratique durée : de Vélos en libre- laisser le vélo du vélo sont levés : le vol, le quelques minutes service dans une autre stationnement à domicile et la Overall, they considered that the service was à quelques heures station maintenance du vélo French© Éditions Weka handbook on public bicyclesJuin 2010 - 4 of the 30 suburbs of the city (Beroud, 2010b). (Beroud, 2010b) not aimed speciﬁcally at trips internal to each

The Spanish market The Cycling Context a position where they were beginning to be Despite cycling being popular in the 1920s used for everyday mobility and the presence in Spain, the Civil War and the post-war eco- of the bicycle continues to increase, but its nomic crisis limited the manufacture and pur- presence is still only modest in relation to the chasing of bicycles until the late 1950s (Sanz, other modes of transport. 1999). Cycling use increased during the 1940s and early 1950s, but soon in the 1960s, the Transport surveys still do not offer reliable car industry began to develop and the status data about bicycles. According to National of the bicycle declined, specially in large cities. Institute of Statistics (INE, 2009), 1.3% of the It was not until the 1980s and 1990s, some adult (over 16) Spanish population uses the bicycle as their main mode of transport. Some but most work was directed towards a use of the larger cities with higher modal shares began to construct facilities for cycle traffic, of the bicycle for leisure purposes. In 1988, for bicycles are Zarautz (15%), San Sebas- there were 70 km of cycling infrastructure in tian, Sevilla, Barcelona, Vitoria-Gasteiz and Spanish cities and by 1997 this had increased Zaragoza (between 2% and 6%). to 565.9 km (Bergua & Benaito, 1997). At the There is no national cycling master plan in Spain. The infrastructure master plan (Minis- beginning of the first decade of the twenty- Thisfirst chapter century, is © Emerald bicycles Group had Publishing timidly and recovered permission has been granted for this version to appear on the authors website: www.mobiped.com and bicicletapublica.wordpress.com. Emerald does not grant permission for this chapter to be further copied/ distributed or hosted elsewhere without the express permission from Emerald Group Publishing Limited. An Analysis of Public Bicycle Schemes governance models - Beroud B. - Anaya E. 18

terio de Fomento, 2005) proposes the creation bicycle schemes. First, the market saw the in- of a non-motorised transport plan, but this has troduction of two new technologies: ‘Bicicard’ not been drafted yet. At the local level, many (bicycle card), a smartcard payment system municipalities have developed cycling master developed by the Technological Institute of Castilla-Leon region; and ‘On-roll’, a mobile local transport master plans have started to telephone-based enrolment technology. Sec- plans, the ﬁrst being written in the 1990s, and take cycling into account. In some regions like ond, the National Energy Agency (IDAE) had Catalonia, transport regulations oblige to take started to provide subsidy for public bicycle cycling into account in local mobility plans. schemes.

Cycling as a means of transport is regulated by ‘Bicing’ in Barcelona was inaugurated in 2007. national, regional or local law. Central govern- It has been the most important and well- ment regulations historically have covered known public bicycle scheme in Spain to date inter-urban trips for sport and leisure, but and has resulted in ‘Bicing’ being incorrectly thought of as synonymous with public bicycle pending of approval, that includes regulations - there is a modification of the law, although it’s for urban cycling, which are currently covered enues, which have helped its credibility as an schemes. It was financed with car parking rev by local bylaws. This historic legal separation environmentally well-balanced policy meas- of urban and non-urban cycling has generated ure. On the back of increasing levels of cycling, a great deal of variability at the local level. Le- the scheme has had far more use than forecast and has helped promote and disseminate the is a contradiction between national and local idea of public bicycle schemes. gal interpretation can also be difficult if there law, with local law remaining valid if there is no formal complaint or case law to support it. As an example, Sevilla’s bylaw allows bicycles in pedestrian zones, which is contrary to national law. Case law upheld the bylaw.

Public bicycles in Spain

scheme was created in 2002 in Castellbisbal, The ﬁrst documented Spanish public bicycle and this was quickly followed in 2003 and 2004 by small third- generation schemes installed by JC Decaux as part of outdoor advertising contracts in Cordoba and Gijon, respectively. A large human operated public The red painting contributes to identify the bicycle scheme also started in Vitoria in 2004. docking station (Bicing in Barcelona, Spain)

The year 2006 was important for public While technology has continued to improve up

until the end of the decade, implementation has slowed down because of the economic crisis and the recognition of the technical and

expertise and research is required to plan and ﬁnancial complexity of the schemes. More develop schemes because they are seen as important transport systems rather than simply as bicycle hire schemes. More and different funding sources are needed because outdoor advertising companies have become more re- (Victoria-Gasteiz, Spain) luctant to offer comprehensive public bicycle schemes. This is evidenced in the reduction in the number of companies tendering for public bicycle schemes (resulting in the tender for In Spain, the discourse around energy an enlarged Barcelona scheme being declared void and the Madrid scheme being post- success of public bicycle schemes. Grants efﬁciency has been very important to the poned). for implementation came from the National

As at 15th August 2011, there were 147 public 2004–2012 (IDEA, 2008), and these grants are Strategy for Energy Efﬁciency for the period bicycle systems in 197 municipalities with awarded for 70% of the initial implementa- 26,289 bicycles and 2,050 docking stations tion and enlargement costs for schemes which (Anaya & Castro 2012). offer a minimum of 50 bicycles based on a sound business case. The total grant for public bicycle schemes given in the period 2005 to 2010 is estimated as h25 million.

There are no judicial cases relating to the

deﬁnition of public bicycle schemes, and it as public services, which are covered by exist- seems that there is a consensus to deﬁne them ing regulations. In the case where schemes have been promoted as private initiatives, the local authority would need to take on some responsibility for maintenance for them to be regarded as ‘public’.

After describing the French and Spanish markets, we now widen the scope and provide an analysis of the phenomenon of public bicycle Public bicycles in Spain scheme implementation across the world. (Anaya & Castro 2012)

3. Models of governance worldwide

Public bicycle schemes across the world have a tional forms. Fig. 3 is inspired by Van de Velde’s wide range of reasons for implementation and typology to categorise several examples from consequently demonstrate a range of organisa- four continents (Van de Velde, 1999). 2008 and operator (Hangzhou - China) Public provider Hangzhou Public Bikes 2004 Vitoria ( Vitoria - Spain) Public provider Private operator * Distincition between public and private bodies is confusing Public bodies Authority initiative 2009 2009 Yélo Bixi * (Montréal - Canada) (La Rochelle - France) Public operator Private provider 2005 2007 2005 2007 2009 2010 2010 Vélib’ Sevici Vélo’v Bicing Citi Bike 2012 -> 2013 Minghang (Paris - France) (Lyon - France) (Sevilla - Spain) (New-York - USA) (Berlin - Germany) Call a bike x and operator (Barcelona - Spain) (Shanghaï - China) (London - England) Private provider Barclays Cycle Hire 1998 2005 2003 2005 2010 2011 Yello FreMo Oybike Decobike (Miami - USA) (Wien- Autria) (Thane - India) (Rennes - France) Vélo à la carte City Bike Wien (Praha - Czech Republic) Regulated system (Fulham & Hammer... - UK) Private bodies Market initiative 2010 2002 2005 2005 SoBi Next Bike Next Bike Open entry (New-York - USA) (Berlin - Germany) (Leipzig - Germany) and Kodukula (2010), Tang (2010), Anaya and Castro (2012), Meddin (2011a). and Castro (2010), Anaya (2010), Tang and Kodukula Call a Bike Flex (Aukland - New Zezland) Fig. 3. Organisational Forms of Public Bicycle Schemes Worldwide. Source: Beroud (2007a), Dhingra (2007a), Dhingra Beroud Source: Worldwide. Schemes of Public Bicycle Forms Fig. 3. Organisational Example The promoter Initiative origin Public intervention Organisational forms

Schemes created by market initiative Market-based initiatives result when a private Contrary to open entry schemes, regulated sector organisation decides itself to offer schemes require local government authori- public bicycles as a service in order to make a sation because of the way that public space is used. In most cases, the local authority privately led market-based initiatives may be will approve a scheme if it can be shown to profit. Schemes which have been developed as satisfy a public policy aim of cycling promo- or regulated systems. Open entry occurs when tion. In 1998, The Greater Rennes government classified in two ways: as open entry systems (France) authorised the civil engineering work space, and when public bicycle parking for the required for a public bicycle hire scheme of- there are no modifications required to public scheme is not different from private bicycle parking in the public space. Private stakehold- an outdoor advertising contract proposed fered in a tender as an additional benefit for ers can act without any public sector interven- by Clear Channel. Such additions to tenders tion. There is usually no requirement for any have been subsequently offered in a similar form of agreement with the local authority way in Cordoba (2003) and Gijon (2004) in Spain, and in Vienna (2003) in Austria by JC is limited to existing transport and planning Decaux. ‘Oybike’, in a similar way as ‘Next and any public sector influence on the scheme law. Bike’, has adopted a business model which uses advertising on the bicycle. However, the This open entry model has been developed ‘Oybike’ system requires docking stations mainly in Germany, with bookings being made using existing cycle racks, and a pilot serv- by mobile telephone and with bicycles being ice began in 2005 in the London Borough of left in the public space. Such schemes are a Hammersmith and Fulham (United Kingdom). little less visible than schemes with desig- A local cyclist organisation objected to the nated parking spaces and so the bicycles are racks being unavailable for non-scheme cycle less easily located by prospective daily users. users. The scheme ceased operation in 2009. This is one of the reasons why both the ‘Call a Homeport, a Czech Republic delivery company, Bike Flex’ scheme, operated by Deutsche Bahn Rent, and ‘Next Bike’ have recently developed providing docking stations to Oybike in Prague adapted its expertise to the bicycle field by docking station–based systems. Deutsche in a scheme called ‘Yello’ which began in 2005. Bahn public bicycles activity does not seem

They fixed the docking stations to their own more a way to develop loyalty of multi-modal in order to receive permission, they have to to be financed just from rental income and is specific bicycle racks in the public realm, and customers. ‘Next Bike’ sells advertising on pay the City of Prague the symbolic price of bicycles, which are well placed to be very vis- one Czech crown per day per station. ible within the public realm, such as shopping areas and transport hubs, where there are a

is low. lot of people. Although it is self-ﬁnanced, use

Schemes promoted by public bodies Acting as a transport authority, a local govern- and construction of, the scheme may be pro- ment may decide to introduce a public bicycle vided by a private contractor, with the opera- scheme as part of its sustainable transport tion being undertaken either by that contrac- policy for citizens and visitors. It may do so tor or by the local authority. Alternatively, the local authority may procure and construct the include providing an additional alternative scheme components itself, and again either for a variety of specific reasons which could mode of transport after analysing cycling short sub-contract the operation or maintain the holidays (Lyon, France); limiting the environ- operation in-house. mental footprint of transport (Paris, France); improving air quality (San Francisco, USA); The most common approach is to let the implementation and operation as a single USA); developing and offering high-technology contract, as has been done in Oslo (Norway), limiting road traffic congestion (Washington, transport systems (Spain, with a transition Lyon, Paris (France), Gothenburg (Sweden), from operator serviced to self-service); pro- Stuttgart (Germany), New York (USA) and moting cycling as an everyday transport op- in many other cities. The contract may be tion; improving the quality of life and attrac- integrated with a street furniture and outdoor tiveness of an area; increasing the number of advertising contract (Sevilla – Spain and Paris trips by public transport in conjunction with – France). The emphasis in such contracts was a bicycle to reduce the number of single oc- considered to be the value of the advertising cupancy cars; improving the image of the city; revenue to the contractor, and so the effects of providing a means of covering the ‘last mile’ in the local, national and international economy a city area without needing a bus, rail or metro service (Translink, 2008). The authors consid- Lyon, JC Decaux has clearly publicised the pub- have great influence. Reality is far different. In er that many items are not well integrated in lic bicycles systems, independently of advertis- planning steps. Cities often said that renego- ing revenues (Beroud, 2007a). This historical model would become scarce particularly if learn by ‘doing’. As independent consultants political requirements mean a greater level tiations of contracts are very difficult, and they specializing in public bicycles, our mission is of transparency for the use of public funds to assist local governments to explore all items (Beroud, 2011). Alternatively, the contract of public bicycle scheme procurement before may be integrated with a public transport con- launching tenders. tract (Bordeaux and Lille, France). Companies providing these services are transport service Once it has been decided to implement a public bicycle scheme for whatever reason or mix services including tubes, tramways, buses or providers that have a diversified range of of reasons, a provider is required to imple- car sharing. Finally, contracts may be offered ment the system and an operator to run the which are focused solely on the provision of a service. The right-hand side of Fig. 3 presents public bicycle scheme not linked to advertising four ways of achieving this. The equipment for, or other transport services (Barcelona, Spain;

Orleans and Rennes, France). Organisations implements and operates the scheme, perhaps bidding to provide a public bicycle scheme with some support from a non-governmental may be single entities (as has been the case organisation (NGO) such as a cycle promotion with advertising-related contracts) or joint ventures with the provider being a separate d’Initiative et de Gestion Locale is an NGO in charity or not-for-proﬁt company. The Centre entity to the operator (London – UK, New York Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, which helps – USA, Avignon – France). London, and now create employment, and has been appointed New York, rely on sponsoring, different to ad- to create and operate a system in partnership with the local authority. This scheme will meet the social objectives of providing local vertising, to partly ﬁnance their programmes. The local authority may wish to retain control employment as well as transport objectives. over the operation of the scheme in order to The largest public bicycle scheme in the world, ensure it is being run in a way entirely consist- in Hangzhou, China, has been created and is ent with its policy, to link with other transport operated by the city government (Tang, 2010). services and so that it can respond to changes in the market without having to renegoti- The range of contractual relationships be- ate a contract with a service operator. Such tween the scheme promoters, providers and a scheme operates in La Rochelle (France). operators demonstrates a range of different Flexbike, a retailer of Homeport technologies, goals and different cultures. It is interesting provided equipment. This is an example where to note that public initiatives to create public the public body operates the service but con- bicycle schemes started only after private ini- tracted its infrastructure provision. tiatives had already created a level of interest.

Contrary to La Rochelle, the city council in There remains a lack of research on the im- Vitoria (Spain) developed its own software pacts of different types of scheme and compar- for operating a public bicycle scheme and ative performance analysis between different has developed the remainder of the scheme models of implementation and operation. It is by purchases and donations of bicycles with not possible to suggest whether one model is parking being provided in suitably vandal likely to be a better model than another. How- proof night storage facilities. Once the city had ever, it is possible to make some judgements established a ready to be operated system, on the measures which might optimise the it contracted a private company to continue performance of public bicycle schemes. its operation and so this is an example where the public body implemented the scheme but

of scheme is where the local authority both then contracted its operations. The ﬁnal type

4. Building a public bicycle scheme policy

2007a). Finally, this model is the only one that promoted by public bodies. This is not be- allows public bicycle schemes to be regarded In this ﬁnal section, we only consider schemes cause schemes initiated by the private sector as a public service. should be discounted or because public sector promoted schemes appear now to be the most We will discuss the integration of public common. Public sector–based initiatives can bicycle schemes with other cycling, transport best integrate with and support wider trans- and urban policies to create a cycling friendly port policy and, to be successful, public bicycle environment – the mission of decision mak- schemes need to be of a certain size which ers – and the impacts of different attributes of requires a level of public intervention (Beroud, public bicycle schemes.

Creating a cycling friendly environment A local government has the powers to create an environment which is suitable for cycling. has to be developed which, in accordance Finally, policy speciﬁcally relating to cycling And public bicycle schemes will be most effec- with the recommendations of BYPAD (2003), tive when implemented alongside a range of includes planning, implementing actions and other complimentary policy measures. monitoring of the effects of those actions. Cycling policy has to focus on the six compo- An essential prerequisite is an overall land nents of the cycling system (Beroud, 2010a) as use policy to reduce travelling distances and shown in Fig. 4. to prioritise walking and cycling. The instru- ments of such a Infrastructures Equipments policy will include limits on the sprawl of Hard urban areas and the creation of mixed land measures uses. Second, transport policies and plans Regulation need to consider the needs of every mode of

transport, preferably prioritising the needs of Training walkers, cycle users and those with reduced Soft mobility. The needs of public transport and, measures

Information Services car parking are an important way of reducing ﬁnally, motorised modes follow. Constraints on car use, with the development of multimodal Fig. 4. The Six Components alternatives satisfying the demand for travel. of a Cycling System (BIMOMO typology - Mobiped)

At best, all issues relating to cycling, including nents of the cycling system (Mobiped, 2010). public bicycle schemes, should be encapsu- A public bicycle scheme is very much em- lated in a single policy document, coupled bedded within its urban environment and with a coherent action plan, programme for implementation and budget. Such a policy implementing a wide range of hard and soft maximum beneﬁt may be derived from it by document would derive from an overall cy- measures which may also be implemented cling strategy in proper relation to the rest of active modes policy, transport policy and land particular, however, relative to general cycling for the beneﬁt of cycling more generally. In use planning. promotion, public bicycle schemes may require an enhanced level of advertising, cycle Public bicycle scheme are also successful training and general civic campaigns about because they impact each of these six compo- respect, share and use of public space.

Not buying a product but defining a service Local authorities are best placed to offer the necessary equipment or the operation of public services such as public bicycle schemes. the scheme, or both. This will involve prepar- They need to take responsibility for the planning and management of schemes and this equipment type and property, as well as the ing a suitably defined specification in terms of section describes methods to ensure maxi- quality of the service to be provided. Particu- larly important is the way that the scheme will be maintained, the bicycles will be redistrib- mum benefit is derived. uted between docking stations, how the cus- determine whether a public bicycle scheme tomer interface, including revenue collection, A feasibility study needs to be specified to will support land use and transport planning is undertaken and how general communica- objectives and to suggest the most appropriate tion and marketing is performed. The local way of scheme implementation. A variety of authority needs to be particularly concerned concepts for public bicycle schemes have been about the skills and attributes of the potential described above and the most suitable concept providers and operators and with the way the for a particular location will depend on local contract is set up in respect of data to under- stand revealed mobility behaviour. Each local other resources available to the local authori- authority has to decide how they will share political will and inclinations, financial and ty, relevant local regulations and the policy ob- investment and commercial risk with the op- jectives which the scheme will need to satisfy. decisions on a range of operational matters erator, and this will be influenced by whether a service rather than think they are buying an are taken by the local authority or by the pri- It is important that local governments define existing product. The next stage involves the vate sector operator, as summarised in Fig. 5. procurement of a contract for delivering either In France, the commercial risk is partly shared

Pricing policy Commercial risk Communication plan Term of uses - opening hours Equipment investment risk and property Numbers and location of stations and bicycles Regulator ? Private Local government

Type of contract Price cap ? Rate of return

Performance framework Penalties ? Incentives

Public service level Political willingness ? Funding capacity

Fig. 5. Summary of Risk Sharing

by the operator and the regulator. When the by local authorities who decide on the way operator responds to a tender, it includes that members of the public may join and use maintenance and equipment renewal costs the scheme and the pricing. In return, they re- and liabilities depending on component ceive the revenue from the scheme. The model life- cycle costs. If the maintenance costs are higher than foreseen, the operator bears the use to be free is paradoxical, because revenues of pricing which allows the first half-hour of additional costs. The length of contracts is of- will generally come from longer duration use ten more than 10 years and the redeployment of the scheme by tourists, who are not the equipment in other cities helps operators to primary targets for increase in sustainable decrease the commercial risk. But high van- mobility. dalism could lead to high additional costs. In Paris, JC Decaux has convinced the city of Paris to sign an endorsement in order to share the characteristic of the service and the opera- Historically, the public regulator defines the cost of vandalism (Ville de Paris, 2009). consequence of this characterisation. Operator tor has to fulfil the obligations created as a Currently, the commercial risk is mainly borne performance is mainly based on its capacity to

At best, these will be enshrined within the They have no incentive to increase the use of contract and may, for example, specify the fre- provide the service effectively and efﬁciently. the service, but they may receive penalties quency of meetings and reports and their con- if docking stations are full or empty, or if the satisfaction rate amongst users is low. circumstances such as emergencies. tent, as well as actions to be taken in speciﬁc

Greater Rennes, again, has innovated by It is important that a scheme is monitored requesting in the tender an objective of a mini- in use so that feedback can be used to adjust mum of 2,500 rentals a day (Beroud, 2010b). the performance of a scheme. This may be In the future, we could imagine that the achieved against a battery of indicators (mem- promoter will give to experienced operators a bership renewal percentage, rent per bike per higher level of responsibility for maximising demand. Operators will be able to bring high operation and with free access to operating day and so one) as speciﬁed in the contract for levels of private sector expertise to demand data. Additional information, which will also and hence revenues and overall cycling modal be very helpful at the feasibility stage includes shares. data available from within the local authority, for example, relating to travel behaviour, Once the provision and operation contracts reports, handbooks (Beroud, 2010b; IDAE, are signed, a critical issue for any form of 2007; OBIS, 2011) and publications on the public service contract, such as a public performance of other similar schemes, and bicycle scheme operational contract, is that learning partnerships between cities, which may include conferences, exchange visits and between the scheme promoter and the con- web-based communication. good channels of communication are speciﬁed tractor charged with operating the scheme.

Assessing public bicycle scheme impacts Public bicycle schemes have impacts which di- which promotes climate change. Public bicycle rectly relate to the three pillars of sustainability: the environment, society and the economy. of their carbon dioxide emission reducing schemes are frequently justiﬁed on the basis This section aims to make decision makers potential as well as their air pollution reduc- aware of possible impacts other than the ones ing potential. Dekoster and Schollaert (1999) they expect and the needs of data to assess highlighted that 50% of trips in urban areas public bicycle scheme impacts that are often are less than 5 km in length, and that these not evaluated or are under-evaluated. trips are quicker by bicycle. A public bicycle scheme with a suitable density of docking Environmental effects stations can offer a level of service that would In comparison with a similar journey made support trips of such a length and facilitate by motorised transport, cycling produces short trips with sustainable modes is part of much less carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas the solution to the pressure for urban sprawl

with its concomitant resulting additional only be claimed for those trips which would greenhouse gas emissions. have otherwise used motorised transport. It is a more complex task to estimate the carbon While public bicycle schemes can support dioxide emissions savings from the switch the needs of short-distance trip makers, the people might make from public transport to a schemes themselves are not fully carbon neu- public bicycle scheme. tral. The redistribution of bicycles between docking stations and the operation and main- Other considerations include the manufacture tenance of the scheme does have associated and recycling of bicycles and equipment used carbon dioxide emissions. As all cities, London in the schemes, with Van den Noort (2007) is unbalanced because of use for commuting suggesting that 90% of their bicycles and ma- trips. Barcelona and Paris have an additional terials can be recycled, and the energy source unbalanced usage at stations due to topog- for docking stations, which frequently is from raphy as people are reluctant to cycle uphill. solar panels. Consideration has been given to users con- tributing to rebalancing, and they would need Social effects to be appropriately motivated, for example, Public bicycle schemes which are well de- through free or reduced cost use at appropri- signed and adapted to the local context could ate times in unpopular directions. A user who have interesting social impacts because of returns a bicycle to a high-level station in Paris the enhanced and distinct form of mobility receives free additional time, designated as which they offer. This could result from easy Velib þ , which, for scheme members, may be access to cycling, low costs for travel, and near universal access. Easy access to cycling is es- and analysis, such as has been undertaken by pecially relevant in places where the access to stored for future use. Significant monitoring Raviv, Tzur, & Forma (2010), is now being un- cycling is limited by economic or cultural bar- dertaken by schemes across the world to de- riers. People can cycle without having to com- mit to buying and maintaining a bicycle and the availability of a scheme will allow them velop algorithms for maximising the efficiency of the scheme to users and the environment. to work out whether they intrinsically like of operation in order to maximise the benefits Public bicycle users who previously used mo- cycling for the sorts of journeys they make. A torised vehicles for the same trip comprised public bicycle scheme in this way may open less than 10% in cities like Barcelona (Ajunta- up an unknown volume of ‘hidden’ demand ment de Barcelona, 2007). In Lyon, 5% of and consequently put a lot of new cyclists on Velo’v users would have used their car if this public bicycle scheme would have not existed. years would not have taken a bicycle for the the streets. In Lyon, 96% of users in the first Car trips shifted toward Velo’v represented in trip made with Velo’v (Beroud, 2007a). Such 2008 less than 0.01% of all car trips for inner Lyon and Villeurbanne. For Lyon and all it sub- other users, as it did with walkers in Barcelo- a release of demand may cause conflicts with urbs, the percentage diverting to the scheme na. This highlights the need, discussed above, was less than 0.001% (Beroud, 2010a). for training to ensure appropriate behaviour. Clearly, the savings in carbon dioxide may There are many types of pricing structure, but

a feature of most schemes is their relatively demand may be relatively low, hence enabling low cost compared with public transport. the possibility for some members of society Typically, for a member of a scheme, a user to be more mobile than they would otherwise pays an annual fee that permits unlimited use, be. In Paris, the new pricing policy integrates with a time limit for individual journeys. The - more use a person makes of the scheme, the ple for which one-way trips last more than half specific rates for students, as well as for peo cheaper it becomes per trip, particularly in an hour. By paying h39 a year rather than h29, relation to the costs they might have had to incur in purchase, maintenance and storage of 45 minutes free of charge for each new rental. they benefit from their own bicycle. Contrariwise, depending on the popularity of the scheme and the way that The presence of public bicycles in the streets bicycles are redistributed to docking stations, contributes to the visibility of cycling and cy- there is the risk of incurring ‘waiting time’ or clists and this helps to enhance the perceived ‘legitimacy’ of cycling which may also lead station for the return of the bicycle near to the the risk of not finding a convenient docking destination. speeds creating an even more appropriate then, for example, to reduced motor traffic environment for more general, non-public Public bicycle schemes are conceived of as bicycle scheme–related cycling. providing universal access for anybody who is physically able to cycle. It does require Economic effects the prospective user, however, to have some The costs of implementing a bicycle hire form of payment card and possibly a mobile telephone. Scheme operators, may, in addition, - scheme are fairly readily identified. The place restrictions on use by certain types of benefits are a little harder to define and some user, particularly casual users, and this is in times quite difficult to evaluate in monetary order to limit the extent to which the distribu- to comply with the standards for transport terms. Any cost–benefit analysis would need tion of bicycles across docking stations may investment appraisal adopted by the country become unbalanced. For example, in Barce- implementing a scheme. This section discuss- lona it was decided not to make the system available to tourists and visitors (to obtain a es scheme benefits that should be taken into card for use of the system, a Spanish address of inquiry, however. account. Further work is required in this field is required and it takes around 10 days for the card to be delivered), because they could overuse stations located in tourist places available for a number of schemes including Cost–benefit analysis has been made publicly and unbalance the service. Conversely, some Washington (linked with bus transit, Metro- schemes have adopted progressive pricing politan Washington Council of Governments, policies to promote social inclusion and equity. 2009) and a French government study which For example, in Sevilla, registered students do showed that costs were broadly balanced by not have to pay an initial deposit. The nature of the system is such that it is possible to that the data was incomplete, Commissariat benefits (but in fact the authors recognised provide the service even in areas where the General au Developpement Durable, 2010);

Bicing in Barcelona, Spain (Bea & Anaya, Reductions in emissions thanks to the 2009), and health impacts study of Bicing in modal switch from motorised vehicles or • Barcelona (Nazelle, Rojas-Rueda, & Nieu- public transport. wenhuijsen, 2011) which concludes that the Reductions in overcrowding on public transport. • outweigh the increased risks from accidents health benefits of increased physical activity and exposure to air pollution. - • Reduction in motor traffic congestion. teeism from work. • Health benefits including reduced absen Costs may be summarised as follows: Capital costs (bicycles and docking stations journeys being made by motorised trans- • Accident cost benefits as a result of fewer and other public realm infrastructure such port. • as hard-standing around the stations) Increased accessibility. Trips that would Operational costs (including maintenance, not have been made if the public bicycle • bicycle redistribution and sales costs) scheme did not exist serve to increase the • Negative externalities associated with bicy- accessibility. cle redistribution and maintenance trips • which generate atmospheric pollution and These calculations will depend on initial as- carbon dioxide emissions. sumptions. These assumptions are based on The opportunity cost of urban space (the public space occupied by public bicycles • estimated or real figures that will vary by city. has a value that is being invested in the system, and hence is not available for any other service which may have a greater - sumed an alternative use to be car parking. public benefit). Bea and Anaya (2009) as

for use as a public bicycle scheme than for In Lyon, public space use is more efﬁcient use as car parking (Beroud, 2007a) Health costs including those resulting from

• pollution road trafﬁc accidents and exposure to air Travel time costs (resulting from waiting times to access a bicycle or additional time • required to return a bicycle)

Beneﬁts may be summarised as including

Conclusion

Public bicycle schemes offer a novel form of public service. Despite being at an early stage start providing and operating public bicycle Private stakeholders, who were the ﬁrst to in evolution, there are a wide variety of ways that schemes have been implemented and which are necessary to making public bicycle schemes, have speciﬁc skills and experiences operated, and which have different degrees schemes a commercial success. Any scheme of private and public sector involvement. On promoted by a public body should ensure that the basis that they are fundamentally a public a private or public sector operator has incen- service, local governments and transportation tives to decrease costs and improve revenues authorities need to ensure that they carefully and attract the maximum number of users specify schemes in order to meet local policy away from car use. objectives. Decision making about scheme implementation will revolve around developing a suitable management arrangement for the scheme such that it will satisfy transport

scheme to the locality. objectives and maximise the beneﬁts of the

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Pictures and charts credits Benoit Beroud Pictures page 1 (France, UK, Canada, Italy, Spain, Germany), 8 (Italy), 9 (France), 15 • Charts: page 11, 19, 23, 25

• Esther Anaya : Pictures page 9, 17 and 18 (Spain)

Angle Zhang: page 1 - Picture of Hangzhou (China)

Alta Bike Share: page 1 - Picture of Citi Bike (United states)