ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY: MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA CONTENTS

Diamond mining has been SECTION D1 2 SECTION D5 43 taking place in South Africa What are ? 3 Why diamond mining matters 44 for almost 150 years. But the What makes diamonds special? 4 Factors that favour and hinder diamond 45 mining in South Africa sector is far from reaching the Uses of diamonds 9 Safety and health 46 end of its life. SECTION D2 12 Environment 48 Where diamonds are found and mined 13 Diamond mining technology 52 South African diamond mining today 16 Synthetic diamonds 54 Quotes about diamonds 55 SECTION D3 18 Fun facts about diamonds 56 The diamond mining life cycle 19 SECTION D6 57 SECTION D4 26 Glossary of terms 58 People of diamonds 27 The big finds 31 Jobs in diamond mining 39 Brief history of diamond mining 40 in South Africa

PAGE 1 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

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People have always been attracted to beautiful objects. Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since ancient times.

Petra Diamonds

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WHAT ARE DIAMONDS?

The word diamond comes Diamond is the crystallised form of pure carbon The funnel-shaped areas carved out by the (99.95% to 99.98%), the strongest mineral on magma eruptions are called pipes, from the ancient Greek word earth, and one of the oldest substances known to named after the first formation discovered in adámas meaning invincible or man. The chemical formula of diamond is C which Kimberley, South Africa. is the chemical symbol for the element carbon. indestructible. Diamond ore, in its roughest form, doesn’t look The earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years like the shiny nuggets on engagement rings. old. Most of the diamonds we find today started Diamonds must be sorted, cut and polished to THE to form between 1 billion and 3.3 billion years bring out their lustre. On average, 250 tonnes of EARTH’S CORE ago under intense heat (around 1,204°C) and ore must be mined in order to produce a single immense pressure, more than 150km below the carat gem quality polished diamond. earth’s surface in the mantle, an area consisting Rough diamonds come in all shapes and sizes, INNER CORE of volcanic magma. 1,600km colours and purities. They may be transparent, OUTER CORE Then, hundreds of millions of years ago, powerful translucent or opaque. The larger, whiter and 2,750km volcanic eruptions pushed the diamonds closer cleaner the diamond, the rarer it is. However,

MANTLE to the earth’s surface. As the magma travelled premium prices can be commanded by coloured 2,800km up to the surface it ripped off pieces of the diamonds, which can be blue, pink, green, mantle taking the diamonds, embedded inside yellow, brown, orange, violet, black or grey. CRUST the crystallised host rocks, with it. 50-70km

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WHAT MAKES DIAMONDS SPECIAL?

The diamond is known for its superlative physical qualities, A diamond most of which originate from www.forevermark.com/en/now-forever/ the strong molecular bonds is forever a-diamond-is-forever/frances-gerety/ between its atoms. In particular, Marketing has significantly affected the it has the highest hardness and image of diamonds as a valuable commodity. thermal conductivity of any Prior to the 1930s, diamond rings were bulk material. rarely given as engagement rings. Opals, rubies, sapphires and turquoise were much Diamonds were traded in India as early as the more popular to give as tokens of love. 4th century BC and were thought to possess Then changed the world diamond magical properties – just to gaze at a diamond market with a brilliant advertising campaign was considered strengthening. In the 1st century begun in the 1940s, causing demand for AD, the Roman naturalist Pliny said, “Diamond is diamonds to increase. The campaign was the most valuable, not only of precious stones, responsible for creating new markets in but of all things in this world.” Their usage in countries where no diamond tradition had engraving tools also dates to early human history. existed before. The popularity of diamonds has risen since The Diamond is forever ad campaign was the 19th century because of increased supply, created by the US advertising agency, NW Ayer, improved cutting and polishing techniques, in 1947. In 2000, Advertising Age magazine growth in the world economy, and innovative named this the slogan of the 20th century. advertising campaigns. PAGE 4 SECTION D1

WHAT MAKES DIAMONDS SPECIAL? CONTINUED

The most familiar uses of diamonds today are THE as gemstones used for adornment, and as The commercial value of a diamond is industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. determined by four characteristics known as The dispersion of white light into colours of FOUR Cs the ‘4 Cs’ – carat, colour, cut and clarity. the spectrum is the primary characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading C1: Carat diamonds. Four characteristics, known The value of a diamond is partly determined by The following chart indicates the average informally as the ‘4 Cs’, are now commonly used its weight and the price per carat of diamond mm size per carat: as the basic descriptors of diamonds. rises proportionately with size. Approximate A carat is the international unit of measurement Carats diameter used to measure the weight of diamonds. One carat is the equivalent of 0.2 grams. 0.25 4.0mm

In the diamond trade, fractions of a carat are referred to as points. One carat is divided into 0.5 5.2mm 100 points – so each point is 1/100th of a carat. A 10-point diamond weighs 1/10th of a carat, 1.00 6.5mm and a 50-point stone weighs one-half carat.

More weight equals more money so many 1.5 7.4mm diamond cutters sacrifice brilliance to maximise carat weight and profit. But, weight does not always equal size or beauty. Poorly cut diamonds, 2 8.1mm even if they are big, can be dull and lifeless.

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WHAT MAKES DIAMONDS SPECIAL? CONTINUED

C2: Colour

Diamonds typically range from pale yellow to GIA colour grading scale colourless, but can also be brown, blue, green, SCALE D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z orange, red, pink and black. Colour has a significant impact on the diamond’s appearance GIA GRADE as the presence of noticeable colour may reduce its ability to reflect light. Usually, the most Near Faint Very light Light Colourless valuable diamonds have little to no detectable colourless yellow yellow yellow colour. But, stones with colour called ‘fancy colours’ are very rare and are highly prized.

The most common diamond colour is yellow and the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) Grading Scale for diamond colour is based on the amount of yellow that is visible. Each colour grade is based on a very small range.

Petra Diamonds

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WHAT MAKES DIAMONDS SPECIAL? CONTINUED

C3: Cut Regardless of the size of the diamond, cut is Very shallow Shallow Ideal Deep Very deep often considered the most important ‘C’, and is governed by man’s skill rather than by nature. The cut of a diamond is crucial to its ability to reflect light and has the greatest influence on its beauty.

Cut refers to the evenness, symmetry and angle of a diamond’s facets. A master cutter cuts and Poor Good Excellent Poor Very poor angles to precise specifications so the diamond Appears dark Appears small optimally reflects the maximum amount of light through the top of the stone giving it sparkle and brilliance. If a diamond is cut too deep, light escapes out of the side and the centre will should not be appear dark, absorbing rather than reflecting light. A very shallow cut results in light escaping confused with diamond shape. through the bottom, causing the diamond to All diamond shapes are different and the unique characteristics of each diamond determines look like a dull piece of glass. the shape. Below are some of the most common diamond shapes viewed from above: In 1919, Marcel Tolkowsky, a mathematician and gemologist, developed the formula for cutting diamonds to achieve the most brilliance in a diamond. The round brilliant diamond cut has become an industry standard and is known as the Round Princess Emerald Asscher Marquise Oval Radiant Pear Heart Cushion ‘American Ideal Cut’ or the ‘Tolkowsky Brilliant’.

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WHAT MAKES DIAMONDS SPECIAL? CONTINUED

C4: Clarity Because they are formed deep within the earth, under extreme heat and pressure; virtually all diamonds contain ‘birthmarks’; small imperfections inside the diamond (called inclusions), or on its surface (called blemishes). Flawless Internally Very very slightly included Clarity refers to the degree to which these flawless (VVS1 and VVS2) imperfections are present. Therefore, the fewer No inclusions or blemishes when No flaws on the surface or Minute inclusions that are difficult imperfections or inclusions within a stone, the viewed under 10X magnification by internally, only blemishes when for a skilled grader to see under rarer and the higher its value. a skilled grader viewed under 10X magnification 10X magnification and absolutely invisible to the naked eye The clarity scale was developed by the GIA to quantify these imperfections.

All diamonds are systematically graded and plotted under 10X magnification. If a trained grader cannot see a clarity characteristic at 10X, it does not affect the clarity grade. Very slightly included Slightly included Included (VS1 and VS2) (SI1 and SI2) (I1, I2, and I3) Minor inclusions that range from Inclusions are easy (SI1) or very Inclusions may or may not be easily difficult (VS1) to somewhat easy (SI2) to see under 10X seen by the naked eye but are easy (VS2) to see under 10X magnification, but difficult with the obvious under 10X magnification magnification and almost naked eye impossible to see with the naked eye

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USES OF DIAMONDS

People have always been bridal sector and are the traditional stone in engagement and wedding rings, representing attracted to beautiful, rare eternal love and commitment. objects. Diamonds have been Industrial diamonds treasured as gemstones since The superior strength and unique properties of ancient times, admired for their diamonds make them suitable for a wide range beauty, and people still think of industrial uses. Most diamonds mined lack the quality necessary to become gemstones of diamonds as the ultimate and 80% of all rough diamonds go towards luxury in jewellery. However, industrial uses. diamonds are valued for far Traditionally, because diamonds are so hard more than their captivating (scoring a 10 on the Mohs Hardness Scale)* and beauty. Their unique physical durable, their use has centred on cutting, drilling and polishing, and they are especially popular properties make them prized in the mining industry and in the military. Very above all other gems. small diamond particles are embedded into saw blades, drill bits and grinding wheels to increase Jewellery their ability to cut tough materials. Diamond We are all familiar with De Beers’ famous slogan: powder, made into a diamond paste, is used for “A diamond is forever”, first used in 1947, and polishing or for very fine grinding. the beauty of a diamond set in an engagement ring, earrings and other fine jewellery. Diamonds Diamonds are also used to cut and polish other have an entrenched association with the diamonds for jewellery.

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USES OF DIAMONDS CONTINUED

Automotive industry Researchers are also looking into using diamonds to help the visually impaired, and Diamonds are an integral part of the automotive testing diamonds as a potential material for industry and are used in the production of bionic eyes and eye implants. vehicles. Diamond saws and drill bits cut and finish car body and engine components and Many dental tools include diamond tips to help diamond-coated grinding wheels bevel and dentists drill with maximum efficiency and polish the glass in windows. without worrying about breaking instruments. Windows Engraving Diamond membranes are very durable, resistant Diamonds are used to engrave hard stone like to heat and abrasion and are transparent. granite and quartz because diamonds will not Diamond windows are made from very thin break or even scratch. diamond membranes and used to cover openings in lasers, vacuum chambers and x-ray machines. Audio equipment Industrial-grade diamonds are believed to Medicine enhance the performance of high-quality Diamonds have potential health benefits. speakers, improving sound quality. Diamond is a Medical research indicates that nanodiamonds very stiff material, and thin diamond domes can – tiny diamond particles – may be an indicator vibrate rapidly without deforming and lessening of the effectiveness of cancer medication once the sound quality. Diamonds are also used in administered to patients allowing doctors to record player needles and DJ equipment. monitor the progression of the cells.

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USES OF DIAMONDS CONTINUED

Beauty products Some beauty companies offer expensive diamond-based beauty products including diamond-flecked spray, exfoliators and blurring agents which, allegedly, reduce the appearance of wrinkles. Heat sinks Diamonds are resistant to heat and can heat up and cool down without having a major impact on performance and conduct heat extremely well. Diamonds are, therefore, used as a material for heat sinks. A heat sink is an electronic device that incorporates either a fan or a peltier device to keep a hot component such as a processor cool. Future uses Through continuous research, scientists are finding other, more sophisticated uses for nanodiamonds in high-tech applications, including super lasers, surgical tools, medical devices and next generation computing (spintronics).

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Ever since the first diamond was discovered in 1867, South Africa has been a world leader in diamond mining.

De Beers

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WHERE DIAMONDS ARE FOUND AND MINED IN SOUTH AFRICA

Natural diamonds were formed some 3.3 billion years ago in conditions of intense heat and pressure 150km below the earth’s surface.

Alluvial diamonds were the first diamonds to be discovered in South Africa. Alluvial means these were diamonds that had been removed from their primary position by erosion over millions of years, and deposited in a river bed, ocean floor or shoreline.

By 1869, diamonds were found far from any stream or river, first in yellow earth and then below ground in hard rock called blue ground near and in what was to become Kimberley in the Northern Cape, the world’s diamond capital. The blue ground was subsequently named kimberlite, after the mining town. These in ancient, vertically-dipping volcanic pipes are the primary sources of South Africa’s diamonds most of which were initially suitable for open-cast mining. PAGE 13 SECTION D2

WHERE DIAMONDS ARE FOUND

AND MINED IN SOUTH AFRICA CONTINUED

The first diamonds were found at the future site of the on the farm Vooruitzicht belonging to the De Beers brothers, in 1871. The ensuing scramble for claims led to the place being called New Rush, later renamed Kimberley. From 1871 to 1914 up to 50,000 miners dug the hole with picks and shovels, yielding 2,720kg or 13,600,000ct of diamonds. The Big Hole has a surface of 17ha and is 463m wide. It was excavated to a depth of 240m, but then partially infilled with debris reducing its depth to about 215m. Since then it has accumulated about 40m of water, leaving 175m of the hole visible. Once above-ground operations became too dangerous and unproductive, the kimberlite pipe was also mined underground by the De Beers company to a depth of 1,097m. THE BIG HOLE There is currently an effort in progress to register the Big Hole as a World The Big Hole is an open-pit and underground mine in Kimberley in the Northern Cape. Heritage Site. It is claimed to be the largest hole excavated by hand.

PAGE 14 Venetia

Limpopo

Cullinan SECTION D2 Gauteng Mpumalanga North West WHERE DIAMONDS ARE FOUND

AND MINED IN SOUTH AFRICA CONTINUED Finsch Free State Kimberley Lower Ko efontein Orange mines Ekapa Mining JV KwaZulu-Natal

Northern Cape West Coast Resources SOUTH AFRICA Venetia

LEGEND Limpopo Eastern Cape De Beers

Petra Diamonds Trans Hex

Western Cape Lower Diamonds

Petra Diamonds and Ekapa Mining Cullinan Gauteng Mpumalanga North West

Finsch Free State Lower Kimberley Ko efontein KwaZulu-Natal Orange mines Ekapa Mining JV Diamonds were later discovered in significant

Northern Cape quantities in kimberlites in what was then known as the Transvaal – the Cullinan mine near West Coast Resources Pretoria was opened in 1902 and then Venetia in 1992. The Finsch mine in the Northern Cape

LEGEND opened in 1967. Eastern Cape De Beers Alluvial diamonds and small diamondiferous Petra Diamonds Trans Hex fissures have been known and worked for many Western Cape Lower Orange River Diamonds years along the southern banks of the Orange Petra Diamonds and Ekapa Mining River as well as along and off South Africa’s west coast.

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SOUTH AFRICAN DIAMOND MINING TODAY

Diamond mining has been In 2018, South Africa produced 10.5Mct of diamonds. Total sales amounted to R16.3 billion, taking place in South Africa for with 55% of diamonds being exported. almost a century and a half, but Further north in Limpopo province, the Venetia The underground mining and recovery of mine owned by De Beers is South Africa’s largest the country’s diamond sector diamonds continues to this day in the vicinity of diamond producer, recovering some 8Mct a year. is far from reaching the end of Kimberley, the site of the early main discoveries Mining is currently by open-cast methods but the in the 19th century. depth limits of the open pit are being reached its life. Developments at the and an underground mine is being developed Petra Diamonds acquired the Bultfontein, to continue production below the open pit. country’s three largest mines Dutoitspan and Wesselton Mines from De Beers Underground mining will be by conventional in 2010 and started with development work – Venetia, Finsch and Cullinan – block-caving or sub-level caving methods. to open up new areas of these mines. In 2016, are designed to expand their Ekapa Minerals, a partnership between Petra outputs and to extend their lives Diamonds and Ekapa Mining, bought the treatment plant and old tailings dumps from De to anywhere between a quarter Beers. By operating all these resources as a unit The Finsch mine, part of the Petra Diamonds in a joint venture, this can significantly extend and a half a century. group, is South Africa’s second largest producer the life of these operations. and operates as an underground mine using LOWER ORANGE RIVER DIAMONDS conventional sub-level caving methods. Finsch produces an annual 2.1Mct. The mine is starting To the west of Kimberley, and on the southern to work in new areas which are expected to banks of the Orange River some 60km upstream maintain this level of production. from Port Nolloth, Lower Orange River Diamonds mines largely alluvial diamonds at its Baken and Near Pretoria and also part of the Petra Bloeddrif operations. Diamonds group, the Cullinan mine (originally

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SOUTH AFRICAN DIAMOND MINING TODAY CONTINUED

called Premier) is being restructured and Major diamond producing countries (2009-2018) expanded to mine at ever-increasing depths with a life expectancy in excess of 50 years. 24 Expansion is intended to lift annual production from its current 0.8Mct to 2.2Mct by 2019. 20 The South African Diamond Producers’ ) Organisation (SADPO) represents the country’s emerging diamond miners and the organisation 16 is supported by the Emerging Miners’ Desk of ed (millions the Minerals Council South Africa. SADPO is 12 a member of the Minerals Council’s Emerging oduc Miners’ Leadership Forum. SADPO is a voluntary association which aims to streamline ats pr 8 the diamond producers’ industry and act in Car concert with other structures in the industry. 4 Its members include diamond producers and diamond dealers. 0 The Minerals Council South Africa also has 2009 2018 in place a Diamond Leadership Forum which addresses areas of concern to the sector. Russia Botswana Canada Angola South Africa DR Congo Namibia

This chart shows the estimated annual production of gem-quality diamonds, in millions of carats, for the world’s leading diamond-producing nations. Graph by Geology.com. Data from USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries.

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Improved mining and recovery methods have enabled mining companies to meet world demand for diamonds.

Petra Diamonds

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THE DIAMOND MINING LIFE CYCLE

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6 STEP 7 STEP 8 STEP 9

Exploration Mining Ore Cleaning, Industrial Sales of rough Cutting and Sales of Closure and processing sorting and diamond diamonds polishing gemstones rehabilitation packaging sorting

Petra Diamonds

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Petra Diamonds

STEP 1 45,000 tonnes of ore. Once the ore is broken, excavators load the ore into haul trucks and Exploration transport it to a primary ore crusher where Geologists use many methods to explore the diamond extracting process begins. for kimberlites – the primary sources of Venetia mine is an example of open-pit mining. diamonds – including satellite remote sensing, geophysics and reconnaissance sampling. Any In underground mining, miners tunnel into kimberlites discovered can then be drilled to the earth’s crust through the kimberlite pipe. establish whether or not they contain economic Tunnels are constructed on two levels about quantities of diamonds. 25m vertically apart. The upper level is used for undercutting the ore zone to initiate caving. Extracting core for analysis will give indications The lower production level is used to extract the of grade, cost per tonne and average value per bulk of the ore through funnel like excavations carat. From here, a decision whether to mine or from the upper level. In the lower level, load not can be made. haul dumpers collect the broken ore and take it STEP 2 to a crusher before being taken to surface for processing. Mining This type of mining, known as block caving, PIPE MINING - PRIMARY DEPOSITS is a well-established and safe mechanised Cave There are two types of pipe mining, namely mining method that was first introduced at Undercut open-pit mining and underground mining. Kimberley in 1951. It is now used extensively as level Open-pit mining involves removing the layers of an underground mining method as it allows for sand and rock found just above the kimberlite. the bulk mining of large orebodies and enables Once exposed, the ore in the pit is broken up by a higher ore extraction percentage compared to blasting. A single blast can break approximately other underground mining methods. Production level PAGE 20 SECTION D3

THE DIAMOND MINING LIFE CYCLE CONTINUED

Petra Diamonds

ALLUVIAL MINING – SECONDARY DEPOSITS diamonds found are comparatively small, but of Over thousands of years, kimberlite pipe that high quality and value. reaches the earth’s surface is eroded and MARINE MINING weathered by wind, rain and water courses. The eroded kimberlite bore rough diamonds, Marine mining involves extracting diamonds which were carried downstream in ancient river from the seabed, hundreds of metres under channels to the coast. Some of these diamonds water. The earliest form of marine mining settled in these old river channels, while some entailed shore diving, where a swimmer would of those that were washed into the ocean collect diamond-bearing gravel from the were deposited back on ancient beaches. The shallow seabed. Today specialised ships mine gravels in which these diamonds are found for diamonds deep out to sea. These ships use were covered under layers of other material, a powerful crawler that sucks up gravel on the such as sand, mud, clay and underwater plant- seabed through flexible pipes. Sometimes a life. The first diamonds discovered in South large-scale drill mounted to a ship is used to Africa were from alluvial deposits. excavate for diamonds.

Today, industrial alluvial mining is conducted in STEP 3 a number of different ways, all aimed to remove Ore processing the material that has, over time, covered the diamond-bearing gravel. Once the gravel Diamonds are recovered from ore in five stages: layer is reached, it is collected and hauled to a production plant for processing. Due to being Crushing washed downstream by water and impacting Once diamond-bearing ore and gravel is rocks along the way which tends to break collected, it is transported to a primary crusher. any diamond with a flaw, most of the alluvial The primary crusher reduces the size of the ore

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into smaller, more manageable pieces measuring and crystallographic laser fluorescence that STEP 5 no larger than 150mm. A secondary crusher, are calculated based on the specific properties Industrial diamond sorting known as a roll-crusher, may be used to reduce of diamonds. These processes are designed the size of the ore even further. to separate the rough diamond from any Industrial diamonds are regarded as a by- other heavy density materials collected by Scrubbing product of the gemstone market – 80% of the cyclonic separation plant. An example is mined diamonds are unsuitable for use as In this stage, the ore is scrubbed to remove diamond’s fluorescence when exposed to X-rays. gemstones and are used industrially. Within the loose excess material and is screened. Material Sensors detect flashes of light emitted by the smaller than 1.5mm is discarded because it is diamond and send a signal to a microprocessor Petra Diamonds too costly to extract diamonds from such a that fires a blast of air at the diamond, which small piece of ore. spits it into a collection box. Dense media separation During this stage the diamond-bearing ore is mixed STEP 4 with a solution of ferrosilicon powder and water, Cleaning, sorting and packaging which is measured to a specific relative density. Diamonds collected in the recovery process are This solution is fed into a cyclone, which tumbles delivered to a sorting facility where they are the material and forces a separation. Materials with cleaned in an acid solution and washed before a high density sink to the bottom, which results in a being sorted. The rough diamonds are sorted layer of diamond rich concentrate. by size (carat weight) and then each size is Recovery sorted into quality ranges, depending on each At this stage, the diamond rich concentrate stone’s colour and clarity. It is at this point is put through a series of processes involving that gem quality diamonds are separated from magnetic susceptibility, X-ray luminescence industrial diamonds.

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category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub- system to a sightholder. Sightholders are society organisations resulted in the creation category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly companies that have a three-year supply of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme opaque stones, which are known as boart. contract with the DTC. Sightholders, in turn, send (KPCS). The KPCS document sets out the Industrial diamonds are used for cutting and the diamonds to cutting facilities to be cut and requirements for controlling rough diamond grinding tools, including diamond-tipped drill polished in preparation for sale as gemstones. production and trade. The KPCS came into bits and saws. Diamond powder is also used as force in 2003. Rough diamonds are packaged in sealed an abrasive. containers for transport. In accordance with the The KPCS requires its members to certify rough STEP 6 Kimberley Process*, these containers are sealed diamonds as ‘conflict-free’ to prevent any with a tamper resistant seal, numbered on site, ‘conflict diamonds’ from entering the legitimate Sales of rough diamonds and a certificate of origin is issued. diamond supply chain. It has virtually eliminated Rough diamonds are typically sold by a tender the trade in conflict diamonds. It is estimated The Kimberley Process* process, during which participants view the that 4% of the world’s supply were conflict The Kimberley Process (KP) originated when assortments and place a confidential electronic diamonds before the KPCS was introduced, Southern African diamond-producing states bid on the parcel of their choice. At the end of today that figure is estimated to be just 0.2%. met in Kimberley in 2000 to discuss ways to the tender, the highest bidder wins the parcel. stop the trade in ‘conflict’ or ‘blood’ diamonds The KP is open to all countries that are willing The rough diamonds are sold to traders with a and ensure that diamond purchases were not and able to implement its requirements. The KP diamond trading licence. Traders usually send the financing violence by rebel movements seeking has 54 participants, representing 81 countries, diamonds for cutting and polishing and then to to undermine legitimate governments. with the European Union and its Member States retailers for sale to the public around the world counting as a single participant. KP members The United Nations General Assembly or to be sold on diamond bourses or exchanges. account for approximately 99.8% of the global adopted a landmark resolution supporting production of rough diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC), a the creation of an international certification subsidiary of De Beers which markets rough scheme for rough diamonds. By the end of The KP is chaired, on a rotating basis, by diamonds from De Beers operated mines, sells 2002, negotiations between governments, participating countries and members gather a parcel of rough diamonds via its sightholder the international diamond industry and civil twice a year to discuss matters of concern.

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Petra Diamonds

Sawing STEP 7 The marked rough diamond is then placed on a Cutting and polishing sawing spindle, with a blade made from copper Diamond cutting is both an art and an exact layered with a mixture of oil and diamond science. The skills needed to be a proficient powder. The rough diamond is then lowered to diamond cutter and polisher take years of the blade and cut where the marker has marked training to acquire. the stone.

Marking It is the diamond powder that physically cuts Marking is the first stage of the diamond cutting the diamond, not the copper blade – diamonds and polishing process. It entails examining are the hardest known mineral to man, and only and measuring a rough diamond, where a diamond will cut another diamond. inclusions are noted and the yield of the rough Bruting and girdling is determined – a diamond marker may decide Here the rough diamond is set onto a dopstick to mark two or three diamonds from one piece (a metallic rod that holds the stone while it of rough depending on the characteristics and is being processed) using a special type of inclusions present in the diamond. It may make cement to secure it. During this stage, two more sense to polish two diamonds from a large rough diamonds rub together and the friction rough around an inclusion to yield two smaller wears the corners of the diamond down until it stones with a higher clarity, as opposed to one is round in shape. larger stone with a low clarity grade. Using the latest 3D laser scanning technology, the rough diamond is marked to guide the diamond cutter.

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Blocking are stabilised and entrances are sealed off. STEP 8 The diamond is set into a tang (traditional Rehabilitation means the process of returning Sales of gemstones polishing tool) and lowered onto a scaife. mined land to its pre-existing condition or to A scaife is a wheel impregnated with oil Diamonds prepared as gemstones are sold on another agreed use. and diamond powder, which revolves at an diamond bourses or exchanges. There are some incredible 3,000 revolutions per minute. Here 30 registered diamond exchanges in the world, Petra Diamonds the diamond cutter polishes the four main including South Africa. Diamond exchanges are crown and four main pavilion facets. places where dealers, brokers, and manufacturers meet to buy and sell diamonds. Wholesalers These facets are then divided into another and retailers can buy small lots of diamonds at four facets on the top and bottom which are exchanges, after which they are prepared for polished to achieve an eight square. final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold Bruting and girdling – the second time already set in jewellery, or sold loose. The diamond is bruted a second time to ensure Diamond retailers, from small, independent that the stone is perfectly round. jewellers to mass market superstores, sell Brillianteering diamonds. There has also recently been huge growth in online diamond sales. Here the remaining facets are polished and shaped to refract and reflect the optimal amount STEP 9 of white light. It is this stage that determines Closure and rehabilitation how much fire, brilliance and scintillation the diamond will have and it requires great skill and Once the diamond reserve at a mine has experience. The ultimate goal is to obtain ideal been exhausted, the owner must close and proportions and perfect symmetry. rehabilitate the site. Underground tunnels

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South Africa has proved to be a veritable treasure chest of superb stones with many notable diamond discoveries.

De Beers

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PEOPLE OF DIAMONDS

Petra Diamonds

EMPLOYEE PROFILE number had increased to 16,666 people. It is estimated that for every person employed in the Ever since the Kimberley diamond industry, another nine dependants are diamond strike of 1869, South supported.

Africa has been a world leader The employee profile of the mining industry is in diamond production. Today, changing to reflect the people of South Africa. the country ranks among the The 2004 Mining Charter provided a framework for the entry, at all levels, of historically top 10 diamond producers disadvantaged South Africans into the industry, globally, producing 10% of including women. The Department of Mineral the world’s diamonds. In 2018 Resources (DMR) and mining companies encourage women to be active at all levels in about 10.5Mct of diamonds the industry. The Mining Charter set a target of were produced locally. 10% for women in core mining jobs and by 2018 overall representation had reached 14%. Total employee earnings have increased significantly in recent years from R1.9 billion in Where possible, the diamond mining industry 2010 to some R5 billion in 2018. This is due both prioritises recruitment from areas close to its to increased prices and a steady increase in operations, to foster a stable and cohesive employment. In 2010, there were 11,602 people workforce and to contribute to the development employed in the diamond industry. In 2018 the of local communities.

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PEOPLE OF DIAMONDS CONTINUED

JOHANNES BARNEY KEY FIGURES AND DIEDERIK DE BEER BARNATO AND IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN In 1871, the De Beer brothers CECIL JOHN DIAMOND MINING INDUSTRY bought a farm named RHODES Vooruitzicht near Zandfontein In 1873, 20-year in the then Orange Free State. old Barnato They soon discovered diamonds on their land. arrived penniless in South Africa from England. ERASMUS JACOBS This lead to a diamond rush, which made it In 1876 he bought four claims in Kimberley In March 1867, the 15-year-old impossible for them to keep the farm, as they mine and later formed Barnato Diamond Jacobs found a transparent were not able to protect their land from the Mining Company which he merged with rock on his father’s farm, on growing tide of intruders. After selling the farm, Kimberley Central Mining Company in 1883. In the south bank of the Orange Vooruitzicht would become the site of the Big 1888, Barnato sold out to Rhodes, after much River. This transparent rock was Hole – or Kimberley mine – and the De Beers competition between them. The amalgamation subsequently confirmed as a diamond and was mine, two successful diamond mines. Their lead to the formation of De Beers Consolidated bought by Sir Philip Wodehouse, Governor of name, given to the one mine, subsequently Mines, the name synonymous with diamonds, the Cape, for £500. The diamond later became became associated with the company. and the company which dominated the world’s known as the Eureka diamond and weighed in Kimberley is famous for the Big Hole, which is diamond market for many years. Rhodes had at 21.19ct. Over the next few years, South Africa often referred to as the world’s deepest man- arrived in South Africa in 1870 and invested yielded more diamonds than India had in over made hole. The Big Hole is a huge pit, almost £3,000 his aunt had lent him in the Kimberley 2,000 years. circular and 215m deep, right in the middle of diamond diggings, from where he purchased the town. diamond claims and became prosperous.

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PEOPLE OF DIAMONDS CONTINUED

THOMAS CULLINAN THE OPPENHEIMERS GWEDE MANTASHE Cullinan, prospector and In February 2018, Mantashe entrepreneur, was convinced that was appointed South African there were diamonds to be found Minister of Mineral Resources. on the Cornelis Minnaar Farm, Trade unionist Mantashe served

Elandsfontein, and purchased for 10 years as general the farm in 1902. Cullinan’s optimism was not secretary of the National Union of unfounded. The full extent of the kimberlite Mineworkers (NUM) from 1997 before Sir Ernest Oppenheimer was a German-born diamond pipe was soon established – 32ha in area becoming secretary general of the ANC in diamond and gold mining entrepreneur, and the largest in the world – and the Premier 2007, a position which he held until December financier and philanthropist, who controlled Diamond Mining Company was established. 2017. He made history by becoming the De Beers from 1927 and founded the Anglo first trade unionist to be appointed to the American Corporation of South Africa. He was board of directors of a JSE listed company, succeeded in the business by his son Harry. Samancor, in 1995. Harry headed Anglo American from 1957 to 1982 and De Beers from 1957 to 1984. Harry’s son, Nicky, became De Beers’ chairman in 1998. He retired in 2012 when the family stake in the company was sold to Anglo American. The Oppenheimers’ diamond fortunes provided the capital for development of the gold mining industry. Diamonds could be described as the spark which led South Africa – and mining – into the industrial era.

PAGE 29 PEOPLE OF DIAMONDS CONTINUED

GODFREY OLIPHANT CYRIL RAMAPHOSA Oliphant is the current South Ramaphosa was appointed the African Deputy Minister of fifth and current President of Mineral Resources. He is a South Africa in February 2018. former vice president of Before that, he was the country’s COSATU (Congress of South Deputy President from 2014. African Trade Unions) and member of the He was the founding general secretary of the National Executive Committee (NEC) of NUM. NUM in 1982. He became part of the ANC’s He has been a Member of Parliament since congress movement when he was instrumental in 1994. Oliphant has a direct connection with the founding of COSATU in 1985. He was elected the diamond mining industry as he is also a secretary general of the ANC in 2002, and led former branch chairperson of NUM at Finsch the constitutional negotiations for the ANC. He diamond mine. entered the business world in 1997 after failing to be elected to succeed Nelson Mandela as ANC president, returning to politics in 2012.

PAGE 30 SECTION D4

THE BIG FINDS

LARGEST CUT DIAMONDS IN THE WORLD Golden Jubilee Incomparable Cullinan I Cullinan II There have been many famous (and very expensive) diamonds found over the years. Cullinan III Tiffany Koh-I-Noor Regent Cullinan IV

Hope Dresden Green Briolette of India Wittelsbach

Standard 1-carat diamond

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THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

FAMOUS SOUTH Eureka Excelsior

AFRICAN DIAMONDS Weight*: 21.25ct rough, 10.73ct polished Weight: 995.2ct rough

South Africa has proved to Origin: Orange River Origin: mine be a veritable treasure chest Date of Date of of superb stones with many discovery: 1867 discovery: 1893 notable diamond discoveries. Eureka has historical significance as it was first The Excelsior, is a giant blue-white diamond that discovered in South Africa by a 15-year old boy had an irregular shape and internal black spots. who thought it was just a pretty stone. This It was cut into 21 stones, with the largest discovery led to the Kimberley Diamond Rush. weighing 69.8ct. 63% of the stone was wasted A replica of the Eureka diamond was displayed at during the cutting process (primarily due to the the 1867 Paris Exhibition. Over the next century, black spots). the diamond was sold and re-sold a number of times. In 1967, 100 years after the diamond’s discovery, De Beers bought the diamond and donated it to the South African people. The diamond was placed in the Kimberley Mine Museum, where it is currently on display.

* Weights are approximate

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THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

GraphicaArtis/Getty people.com/royals/queen-elizabeths-imperial-state-crown/ The Jubilee* Cullinan

Weight: 650.80ct rough, 245.35ct polished Weight: 3,106ct rough

Origin: Origin: Premier mine

Date of Date of discovery: 1895 discovery: 1905

This diamond was originally named after Francis The largest rough diamond ever discovered William Reitz, the then president of the Orange was named after Thomas Cullinan, founder and Free State where the stone was discovered. chairman of South Africa’s Premier mine. It was It was later renamed the Jubilee in honour of found 9m from the surface, protruding from a Queen Victoria’s 60th year on the throne. sidewall of the pit.

* Initially named the Reitz The diamond was sold to the Transvaal government who presented it to King Edward VII on his 66th birthday. The stone was cut into nine major stones and approximately 96 smaller diamonds. The three largest of these are part of the crown jewels of the United Kingdom.

Cullinan I, also called the Great Star of Africa, Cullinan II or the Lesser Star of Africa is the is the biggest of the collection at 530.2ct and second-largest diamond of the collection, at is mounted in the British Sovereign’s Sceptre 317.4ct, and is set in the front of the Imperial with Cross. State Crown.

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THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

Jonker 1 Christie’s to auction famed Weight: 142.90ct rough, 125.35ct polished Jonker diamond

Origin: Elandsfontein mine* Mar 13, 2017 5:16 AM By Rapaport News

Date of Christie’s unveiled the top lots that will go under discovery: 1934 the hammer at its Magnificent Jewels auction in Hong Kong this May, including Harry Winston’s Johannes Makani, working for a poor diamond famous Jonker V diamond. digger, Johannes Jacobus Jonker, discovered the rough stone of 726ct. It was bought by a famous The rectangular-cut, 25.27-carat, D-color, New York jeweller, Harry Winston who cut the VVS2-clarity diamond is expected to sell for rough stone into 13 gemstones. The largest $2.2 million to $3.6 million, or up to $142,461 per diamond, Jonker 1, weighed 142.90ct. carat, the company said in a recent statement. Jonker 1 was later re-cut to eliminate flaws and The stone is one of a collection of 13 polished improve its brilliance. diamonds cut from the famous 726-carat Jonker * Approximately 5km south of the Premier mine rough, which digger Jacob Jonker discovered at (now Cullinan diamond mine) South Africa’s Elandsfontein mine in 1934. The rough diamond, which at the time ranked as the world’s fourth-largest gem-quality diamond, was sold the following year to Harry Winston and was subsequently displayed during the Silver Jubilee Celebrations of the Coronation of King George V The Jonker No. 5 Diamond by Harry Winston goes up for auction. Photo courtesy of Christie’s and Queen Mary, the auction house explained.

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THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

The Taylor Burton Premier Rose

Weight: 240.80ct rough, 68.0ct polished Weight: 353.9ct rough, 137.02ct polished

Origin: Premier mine Origin: Premier mine

Date of Date of discovery: 1966 discovery: 1978

The stone was bought by Harry Winston who The stone was purchased by the Mouw Diamond studied it for six months before working on it. In Cutting works, a Johannesburg company and 1969, it was purchased by actors Richard Burton named after Mrs Rose Mouw. It produced three and Elizabeth Taylor. It was subsequently worn gems, the largest the pear-shaped Premier Rose. by Elizabeth Taylor at Princess Grace of Monaco’s 40th birthday and at the 42nd Academy Awards. In 1980, Robert Mouawad of Mouawad jewellers, and the diamond’s subsequent owner, had it recut to 68.0ct.

The Premier Rose compared to a two-carat diamond engagement ring

www.treasurediamonds.co.za/2017/06/21/ www.williamgoldberg.com/house-of-goldberg/2015/08/ taylor-burton-diamond/ famous-diamonds-part-1-the-premier-rose/

PAGE 35 SECTION D4

THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

Golden Jubilee Centenary

Weight: 755.50ct rough, 545.67ct polished Weight: 599ct rough, 273.85ct polished

Origin: Premier mine Origin: Premier mine

Date of Date of discovery: 1985 discovery: 1986

The Golden Jubilee was presented to the King of The Centenary was named to commemorate Thailand in 1997 for his Golden Jubilee – the 50th De Beers’ 100th birthday. anniversary of his coronation – by a syndicate of Thai business men. It is the largest cut and faceted diamond, of any colour, in the world.

www.aigsthailand.com/Gemology-Course/66/EN

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THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

OTHER NOTABLE DIAMONDS

The Great Mogul Koh-i-Noor

Weight: ~787ct rough Weight: ~186ct rough, 108.93ct cut

Origin: India Origin: India

Date of th Date of th discovery: 17 century discovery: 13 century

It was named after Shah Jehan who built the A Persian conqueror acquired the diamond Taj Mahal. Its current location is unknown. and named it Koh-I-Noor meaning ‘Mountain of Light’. The diamond was given to Queen Victoria in 1850 and is now part of the British Crown Jewels.

Some Indians consider India to be the rightful owner of the Koh-i-Noor diamond and would like the diamond to be returned to their country.

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THE BIG FINDS CONTINUED

The Incomparable The Moussaieff Red The Hope Diamond

Weight: 890ct rough, 407.48ct cut Weight: 13.9ct rough, 5.11ct polished Weight: 132ct rough, 45.52ct cut

Origin: Mbuji Mayi* Origin: Alto Paranaiba, Brazil Origin: India

Date of Date of Date of discovery: 1980s discovery: 1990s discovery: 1642

The Incomparable was found by a young girl Red colored diamonds are very rare and the The Hope Diamond was set in the royal crown playing in a pile of rubble that was deemed too Moussaieff diamond, originally named the Red of Louis XIV but was stolen during the French bulky to be worth scanning for diamonds. The Shield, is the largest known red diamond. It is Revolution. In 1830, Henri Thomas Hope, a biggest piece of rough yielded this magnificent, currently owned by Moussaieff Jewellers Ltd. diamond dealer, bought a blue diamond which is rare yellow diamond. believed to be part of the Hope Diamond. It was gifted to the Smithsonian Institute in Washington * Near MIBA diamond mine, Democratic Republic of Congo DC in 1958.

The Hope Diamond is supposedly cursed, bringing bad luck to anyone who owns it.

PAGE 38 SECTION D4

JOBS IN DIAMOND MINING

The mining industry contributes Employment fields within the industry include engineering; geology; finance, auditing and to South Africa’s economic accountancy; company secretarial; human wealth, while creating hundreds resources; medical; environmental science; and of thousands of mining jobs safety, among others. and career paths. The diamond There are several routes available to people wishing to take up a career in diamond mining. mining industry currently The Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA) employs some 16,666 people. is a Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) responsible for the administration of skills development programmes for the mining and minerals sector in South Africa. Mining-related qualifications are offered at the universities of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Pretoria and the Free State. In addition, diamond mining companies also offer learnerships, bursaries and scholarships.

Petra Diamonds

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BRIEF HISTORY OF DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA INCLUDING MAJOR EVENTS

1867 Diamonds are discovered in the 1876 Barney Barnato buys four claims 1902 Thomas Cullinan purchases – now the Northern in Kimberley mine before forming Cornelis Minnaar farm and the Cape – when 15-year-old Erasmus Barnato Diamond Mining Company kimberlite diamond pipe is soon Jacobs finds a transparent rock established, along with the Premier Diamond Mining Company on his father’s farm. The rock is 1867- Annual world diamond production later known as the 21.19ct Eureka 1877 increases more than tenfold 1905 The Cullinan diamond is discovered diamond at the Premier mine. At 3,106.75ct, 1883 Barnato merges his company with it is the largest rough diamond 1868 Major diamond strike at Kimberley Kimberley Central Mining Company ever found. The Premier mine is in Northern Cape later renamed the Cullinan mine. 1888 Barnato sells out to Cecil 1870 arrives in South The Cullinan diamond is cut into Rhodes who forms De Beers Africa and invests three thousand nine gems. The two biggest are Consolidated Mines pounds in the Kimberley presented to King Edward VII in diamond diggings 1908 and now form part of the 1889 Chamber of Mines founded British Crown Jewels 1871 Johannes and Diederik de Beer 1910 Union of South Africa formed buy Vooruitzicht farm in the then 1899- Anglo-Boer War caused Orange Free State and discover 1902 disruptions in the mining industry 1914 Premier is shut down at the diamonds on the land. A diamond outbreak of World War I rush begins and Vooruitzicht 1899 Within days of the outbreak of the 1916 Premier begins operating again would become the site of the , Kimberley town Big Hole – or Kimberley mine – is besieged. It remains under siege, 1920 Annual diamond production and De Beers mine its mines closed, for 124 days reaches 20 million carats

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BRIEF HISTORY OF DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA CONTINUED INCLUDING MAJOR EVENTS

1927- Sir Ernest Oppenheimer heads 1947 Diamond is forever ad campaign 1983 NUM wins collective bargaining 1957 De Beers created by the US advertising rights from the Chamber of Mines agency, NW Ayer and De Beers 1920s De Beers influences most of world’s changes the world diamond market 1990s World annual diamond production rough suppliers to sell production causing demand for diamonds reaches 100 million carats through the company, giving the to increase company the power to influence 1990 Nelson Mandela freed from prison diamond supply and diamond prices 1957- Harry Oppenheimer heads 1984 De Beers 1992 Venetia diamond mine opens in the 1928 First African diamond cutting now Limpopo province factory opens in Kimberley 1970s World annual diamond production reaches 50 million carats 1994 South Africa holds first 1930 A central buying organisation to democratic elections all producers (Diamond Trading 1978 Finsch diamond mine opens in Company) and an organisation Northern Cape 1996 The Mine Health and Safety dedicated to selling, the CSO 1979 Premier is opened up below Act introduced to address (Central Selling Organisation), the Gabbro sill, a 70m geologic worker safety are founded intrusion of barren rock which 2000 De Beer’s market share falls to less 1932 The Great Depression deepens and cuts through the pipe some 400m than 60% from 90% in the 1980s demand for diamonds dries up. below surface and the company no longer has De Beers closes all mines. 1982 NUM formed – the first black union control of the market. Company 1939- Diamond mines close for duration in mining in 40 years shifts to focus on independent 1945 of World War II marketing and branding

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BRIEF HISTORY OF DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA CONTINUED INCLUDING MAJOR EVENTS

2002 The Mineral and Petroleum 2010 De Beers sells Kimberley Resources Development Act underground mine to Petra provides for equitable access to Diamonds and sustainable development 2011 De Beers sells Finsch mine to Petra of South Africa’s mineral and Diamonds petroleum resources 2011 Oppenheimer family announces an 2003 Kimberley Process Certification exit from De Beers, ending almost Scheme is established to stem the a century-long monopoly flow of conflict diamonds 2016 De Beers completes sale of 2003 First women employed in Kimberley Mines surface operations mining positions to Ekapa Minerals 2004 Mining Charter comes into effect 2017 De Beers Group announces a three- 2005 Market forces drive diamond prices year partnership with UN Women resulting in unprecedented price to accelerate the advancement of volatility. World production peaks women across its organisation at 177Mct

Petra Diamonds 2007 De Beers sells Koffiefontein mine to Petra Diamonds

PAGE 42 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

SECTION D5

The diamond industry makes a significant contribution to South Africa’s foreign exchange earnings, economic activities and job creation.

Petra Diamonds

PAGE 43 SECTION D5

WHY DIAMOND MINING MATTERS

The diamond mining industry • The diamond mining industry currently • Diamonds are used in other South African employs 16,666 people industries including jewellery making, and has played a significant role cutting and grinding tools such as diamond- • In 2018 the industry paid its employees some in the historical and industrial tipped drill bits and saws R5 billion in salaries and wages development of South Africa • The industry creates employment in other • Employment is provided for workers from industries, such as cutting and polishing and continues to play an rural communities which in turn results in the important role today, not only transfer of funds back to these areas • Diamond mining has a role to play in the development of human resources (training) on a macro-economic level • In 2018, royalties paid amounted to and infrastructure such as schools, clinics, R353 million but on local and community roads and housing • Diamonds produced in 2018 reached 10.5Mct levels too. • The industry purchases goods and services, • Total sales in 2018 stood at R16.3 billion electricity for example, which stimulates industrial production and the provision • Some 55% of diamonds were exported. of services Diamond export earnings have a positive impact on the balance of payments, foreign • Diamond mining attracts foreign capital into reserves, monetary policy and on the level of the country via direct investment business activity in the country

• Dividends are paid to shareholders in South Africa

PAGE 44 SECTION D5

FACTORS THAT FAVOUR AND HINDER DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA

FAVOURING HINDERING FACTORS FACTORS

6 Costs in general are rising steadily, in and development in the industry focuses 4 South Africa’s diamond mining areas particular the cost of salaries and wages; and on developing the scarce skills needed at are well known and well explored – electricity. The industry has to continually mines and on improving the employability knowledge of the areas is extensive develop, implement and improve energy of local residents 4 Diamond mining in South Africa is a well- efficiency measures 6 Synthetic diamonds are considered a low, established industry with technical skills 6 Water supply: South Africa is a water scarce long-term risk to the diamond mining 4 Developments at the country’s three country and the industry has to continually industry. Synthetic diamond production largest mines – Venetia, Finsch and develop, implement and improve water techniques continue to advance. However, Cullinan – are designed to expand their efficiency measures to reduce consumption natural diamonds are expected to remain the outputs and to extend their lives to premium product Lack of investment in diamond mining and anywhere between a quarter and a half 6 a century emerging markets

4 South Africa has a well-developed 6 Skills shortages: The diamond mining infrastructure (roads and railway lines) sector experiences a skills shortage. Skilled which assists mines to do business employees are essential to the sustainability of the diamond mining industry. Training

PAGE 45 SECTION D5

SAFETY AND HEALTH

SAFETY Safety strategies include continual hazard identification, the assessment of risks and The South African diamond making safety awareness part of the workplace mining industry wants culture. Safety training is most important and employees to be safe and ongoing. In addition, employees are encouraged to participate in safety and health matters. healthy. In addition to Safety and health standards and targets are set minimising safety and health with the aim of achieving the goal of zero harm. risks in the workplace, the Most mine injuries are related to mobile industry helps employees to machinery and human interaction, with the lead healthy lifestyles. root causes linked to unsafe acts by individuals and the breaching of safety controls. Leading from the front and setting the example (by intervening, coaching, guiding and correcting conditions and behaviour) in the workplace is of critical importance to achieve zero harm.

Petra Diamonds

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SAFETY AND HEALTH CONTINUED

HEALTH issued with personal protective equipment TB is a major public health issue caused by poor (PPE) to ensure that exposure to noise levels socio-economic conditions such as areas of poor The key occupational health above 85dBA over an extended period is ventilation and overcrowding which causes it issues that can affect employees limited. to be passed on through coughing, sneezing or talking. It is particularly serious in South in the diamond mining industry The industry works hard to limit the incidence Africa, including in the mining industry. Diamond are noise-induced hearing loss of respiratory illnesses associated with dust inhalation, such as asthma and silicosis. Dust mining companies in South Africa provide (NIHL), respiratory illnesses levels are monitored and suppressed using comprehensive detection and treatment services and injuries resulting from various methods and PPE is provided. for employees. Increasingly, in joint efforts with government and unions, they have been working Repetitive stress injuries are temporary repetitive activities. together to address TB in mining towns. or permanent injuries to muscles, nerves, The diamond mining industry manages ligaments, and tendons caused by doing the Diamond mining companies began providing occupational health risks in order to prevent same motion over and over again. The industry preventative services for HIV/Aids in the mid- harm to the workforce. implements relevant leading practices aimed at 1980s when the disease first came to public Prolonged exposure to hazardous noise causes eliminating repetitive stress injuries. attention. In South Africa, as TB is the main loss of hearing acuity, which occurs gradually Outside the workplace, the main community opportunistic disease experienced by people who and is known as NIHL. Excessive noise exposure health issues are HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis are HIV positive, the mines’ health facilities’ TB is one of the most pervasive health hazards (TB) as well as lifestyle diseases such as work has been central to countering the effects of in mining. Companies ensure that they are hypertension and diabetes. The industry HIV. Mining companies were, from 2002, the first legally compliant by guaranteeing that the implements employee health and wellbeing in South Africa – some years before government – noise associated with underground equipment programmes to help prevent and detect to offer comprehensive, mass-based anti-retroviral is contained to below 110dBA. Employees are these conditions. therapy to HIV-positive employees.

PAGE 47 SECTION D5

ENVIRONMENT

By its very nature, mining has WASTE MANAGEMENT greenhouse gas emissions which contribute to climate change. Diversifying the energy mix is Effective waste management is a priority. The an impact on the environment also part of the industry’s energy efficiency and diamond mining industry endeavours to avoid, climate change policy and strategy. and the industry faces many reduce, reuse, recycle, treat and dispose of environmental challenges. waste in an effort to move towards zero waste and curtail our total mining environmental A partnership between government, labour footprint. Guidelines on mineral, non-mineral representatives and mining companies with the and hazardous waste materials are included support of the Minerals Council South Africa, is in environmental management systems committed to constantly seeking new ways to implemented at operations. avoid, minimise or mitigate the negative impacts of mining on the environment. ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE WATER USE The diamond mining industry has for many years South Africa is a water scarce country and a been committed to becoming more energy large volume of water is used for the mining and efficient. The industry mostly consumes indirect processing of diamonds. Therefore, for many energy in the form of electricity purchased years the diamond mining industry has been from the national power utility, Eskom, which using this scarce resource responsibly, lessening is generated by coal-fired power stations. The consumption by reusing and recycling water industry invests time and expertise in formulating and aiming for zero discharge with the help of energy saving projects, not just for cost water treatment plants. reasons but also because of its desire to reduce

Petra Diamonds

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ENVIRONMENT CONTINUED

MINE REHABILITATION LAND MANAGEMENT South African diamond mining companies AND BIODIVERSITY acknowledge that some aspects of their When vegetation is removed during the operations alter the physical landscape establishment of mining operations, it permanently. Once mining has come to an can destroy natural habitats and damage end, land must be rehabilitated to assist its ecosystems, which can lead to the extinction of appropriate and productive use post-mining. plants and animals in the area. Rehabilitation and closure are incorporated into To mitigate this risk, biodiversity management overall planning from initial concept stage and plans are implemented at mining sites, through during the life of mine. This includes ensuring mine closure plans, environmental management that the necessary funding mechanisms plans or through specific biodiversity action for rehabilitation are in place. It is often the plans. Plans can include anything from case that only a small proportion of the land establishing nurseries to cultivate species covered by a company’s mining rights has been to revegetate affected or remediated land, disturbed by mining. to working in partnership with conservation and wildlife organisations to set aside and protect areas of land which are rich in biodiversity or are home to species of flora or fauna of importance.

Petra Diamonds

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ENVIRONMENT CONTINUED

Petra Diamonds and biodiversity A number of Red Data List species have been identified in Petra Diamond’s operational areas. Where appropriate, protected plants are relocated, or ‘no-go’ areas are established around species that cannot be relocated, such as the ‘Cullinan Ant’ colony situated on 1ha of undisturbed land in the middle of Cullinan’s coarse tailings facility.

Programmes are run with non-governmental organisations to assist with research into fauna, such as the secretary bird programme at Koffiefontein in the Free State in conjunction with BirdLife Africa, which has been running for the last five years. More recently, work is being carried out to register the Benfontein-Rooifontein-Dronfield complex in Kimberley as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area and formal provincial Protected Environment.

PAGE 50 SECTION D5

ENVIRONMENT CONTINUED

Venetia diamond mine and the Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve De Beers’s Venetia diamond mine is located in an environmentally sensitive area and the company spent some R17 million on initial environmental engineering projects. The 35km long water supply pipeline and other service supply pipelines are buried, the mine has a state-of-the-art dust control system, and noise and lighting impacts are minimised.

The company also established the 36,000ha Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve adjacent to the mine and moved a large number of animals from a new mining area to the reserve. The reserve is home to three of the big five - lion, elephant and leopard.

PAGE 51 SECTION D5

DIAMOND MINING TECHNOLOGY

Companies are consistently to greater depths. Technology helps make the SQUID task of discovering diamond deposits easier and exploring new technologies To prolong the life-of-mine it has become more accurate. increasingly important for mining companies to to simplify their workflow Seismic reflection technology or imaging is based locate ore-bearing deposits found deeper in the processes and help transform on the principle that acoustic energy (sound earth’s crust. diamond mining into a safer and waves) will bounce (reflect) off the interfaces SQUID (superconducting quantum interference more productive industry. between layers within the earth’s subsurface, device) is a highly sensitive measurement tool, similar to a human voice echoing off a wall. a magnetometer, used in exploration. SQUID 3D imaging technology Seismic reflection technology has become an is able to detect and measure even the tiniest 3D imaging technology has improved magnetic field shifts that indicate the presence important tool to help locate diamond deposits exploration studies, and is especially useful in of a kimberlite pipe deeply buried below the at depth. surveying potentially dangerous or inaccessible surface of the earth. sites. Laser scanning captures spatial data using Robotics X-Ray transmission (XRT) laser light and enables geologists to build 3D Extracting diamonds from the earth’s surface technology geological maps which help in mine scheduling, requires a lot of effort. The application of XRT technology, based on the property of the planning and targeting of drillholes. robotic technology has the potential to reduce materials to absorb X-ray radiation, enables the hard work and eliminate often hazardous High-frequency seismic materials to be sorted and separated based jobs, and is able to be applied in areas where reflection technology on their specific atomic density. Diamonds, humans cannot go. Mine exploration is a challenging phase of the consisting of light element carbon, absorb less mining process, as the location of diamonds is Remote-controlled load haul dump vehicles X-ray radiation then most of the minerals they not always obvious even for skilled geologists. powered by artificial intelligence have been are found with. XRT technology-based sorters, It is also becoming increasingly difficult to find introduced to make the process of diamond with specially-developed recognition software, shallower deposits and exploration has moved mining easier and safer. measure the absorption of each stone and those

PAGE 52 SECTION D5

DIAMOND MINING TECHNOLOGY CONTINUED

that absorb more radiation are separated from Radio-frequency identification those that absorb less. Inventory management is a crucial aspect of the XRT technology replaces the need for dense- business. Stones need to be carefully stored and media separation (DMS) which spins the recorded, a task often done manually. Human minerals in a bath of water so that the heavier error and time wastage makes this an inefficient minerals, including diamonds, sink to the and unproductive system. bottom to be collected. XRT technology sorters Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses work more efficiently, with minimal excessive electromagnetic radio waves to automatically sorting, less breakage of stones, and have high identify and track tags that contain recovery rates resulting in lower running costs electronically stored information, and does not and higher returns. require direct contact or line of sight. Diamond planning machines RFID is used to manage the movement of Manufacturers use cutting edge diamond diamonds more accurately and reliably, planning machines to guide employees through improving efficiency and performance. the manufacturing process to increase yields Drone technology and profits. Advanced machinery has also increased yields from rough stone. Drones have been used in the fight against conflict diamond mining. They are used to Computerised rough diamond planning systems carry out reconnaissance in remote locations to provide detailed, 3D images charting internal identify illegal diamond mining camps. inclusions. This information is used to optimally cut the stone based on carat weight, cut and clarity without human intervention and error.

PAGE 53 SECTION D5

SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS

FAKE, BUT FLAWLESS

Today, the conditions that They are as durable, have the same lustre as actual diamonds, retain their brilliance forever formed diamonds millions of and cost less. Laboratory-grown diamonds are years ago can be reproduced not simulants like cubic zirconia or moissanite.

in a laboratory. Man-made Nearly all synthetic diamonds produced per diamonds are manufactured year are for industrial use. by subjecting pure carbon Natural diamonds, however, remain the premium to intense heat and pressure product. Identification and appropriate classification is key to ensure that customer Did you know? in a simulation of the confidence in natural diamonds is not eroded, organic process. and equipment has been developed that is able The synthesised material known as cubic to detect synthetics with 100% accuracy. zirconia is a crystalline form of zirconium

dioxide (ZrO2). It is at times in competition To the naked eye, these synthetic diamonds are Synthetic diamonds are also required to be with diamonds because as well as being indistinguishable from natural ones and display separately certified, a key industry control, hard, optically flawless and colourless, it is the same chemical structure and physical which helps cement consumer confidence in also durable and cheap. properties as mined diamonds. the industry.

PAGE 54 SECTION D5

QUOTES ABOUT DIAMONDS

Diamond is the most valuable, not only of Let the efforts of us all, prove that he [Martin precious stones, but of all things in this world. Luther King] was not a mere dreamer when he Pliny, 1AD spoke of the beauty of genuine brotherhood and peace being more precious than diamonds No pressure, no diamonds. or silver or gold. Thomas Carlyle Nelson Mandela

Rough diamonds may sometimes be mistaken Each of us is like a diamond, and each of us for worthless pebbles. has the potential to be brilliant. Thomas Browne Simon T Bailey

Diamonds are intrinsically worthless, except Better to have a single perfect diamond than a for the deep psychological need they fill. sack of flawed stones. Nicky Oppenheimer Erin Morgenstern

A diamond is a chunk of coal that did well Your children....are like diamonds...they may under pressure. need polish… and education of the right kind Henry Kissinger will impart this lustre. George Q Cannon A thief is a thief, whether he steals a diamond or a cucumber. A diamond is forever. Diamonds are a Indian proverb Frances Gerety girl’s best friend. Marilyn Monroe There are three things extremely hard: steel, a I never hated a man enough to give him his diamond, and to know one’s self. diamonds back. Benjamin Franklin Zsa Zsa Gabor Javi Az / Shutterstock.com

PAGE 55 SECTION D5

FUN FACTS ABOUT DIAMONDS

Diamonds are the hardest natural substance. The only thing The diamond is the birthstone for people born in April. that can scratch a diamond is another diamond.

The largest diamond ever found is not on Earth but about 50 light-years away from our planet. The white dwarf star is Roman literature first made mention of diamonds in the a mass of crystallised carbon that would equal a diamond of first century AD. The ancient Romans and Greeks believed 10 billion trillion trillion carats. Astronomers nicknamed the that diamonds were tears cried by the gods or even splinters space diamond Lucy after the Beatles’ song Lucy in the sky from falling stars and that Cupid’s arrows were tipped with diamonds. with diamonds.

Ancient Hindus used diamonds for the eyes of devotional Diamonds were originally found and mined in India. statues and believed that a diamond could protect its wearer from danger.

Diamonds symbolise everlasting love and eternal

commitment. The earliest record of a diamond engagement To produce a single 1ct diamond, an average of 250 tonnes ring was in 1477 when Archduke Maximillian of Austria of earth will be mined. proposed to Mary of Burgundy with a diamond ring.

During the Middle Ages, diamonds were thought to have The first diamond was discovered in South Africa in 1867. healing properties that could cure ailments ranging from The diamond, named Eureka, weighed 21.25ct. fatigue to mental illness.

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Diamond mining has helped shape South Africa and continues to support the economy and people living in mining communities.

Petra Diamonds

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Alluvial Alluvial diamonds are diamonds that have been Kimberlite Igneous rock, which sometimes contains diamonds, removed from their primary position by erosion over named after the city of Kimberley in South Africa millions of years, and have been deposited in a river bed, ocean floor or shoreline Mohs’ Hardness Mohs’ scale of mineral hardness is named after Scale Friedrich Mohs, a mineralogist who invented a scale A diamond mined in an unstable area and sold to Blood or conflict of hardness based on the ability of one mineral to finance war diamond scratch another

Boart Small pieces of diamonds Nanodiamonds Extremely tiny diamond particles, a thousand times Carat A carat is the international unit of measurement smaller than a single human hair used to measure the weight of diamonds. One carat is the equivalent of 0.2 grams Non-governmental Non-profit organisation that operates independently organisation of any government, typically one whose purpose is Facet A flat face of a diamond or other gem to address a social or political issue

Heat sink A heat exchanger that absorbs or transmits excess Rough diamond A diamond in its natural state – uncut and/or heat allowing regulation of a device’s temperature unpolished Igneous Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and Tailings dumps Tailings are the materials left over after the process solidification of magma or lava of separating the valuable fraction from the Inclusion Small imperfection inside a diamond uneconomic fraction of an ore

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