Power Sources, Equipment for Life on a Few Acres by Wesley Gunkel and David Ross

Power Sources, Equipment for Life on a Few Acres By Wesley Gunkel and David Ross

Modern farming and our style of living require the use of energy in much greater quantities than in the past. While re- turning to nature on a few acres may reduce dependence on energy and modern equipment for some, it is hard to escape their use. Power is needed to perform the many tasks found in maintaining and using a few acres. The few acre site may open new energy sources to the owner. Natural energy from wind, water, the sun, wood or coal may be locally utilized. Electricity, natural gas, fuel oil and coal may be supplied by commercial companies. Equipment such as tractors and tractor-operated implements, household appliances, and power tools use many sources. Family living requires surprisingly large quantities of energy. More than 20 percent of all the energy in the United States is consumed in the home. Over half of this energy is used for heating. Both your life style and the nature of any operations on your few acres will determine energy requirements. The location of your place will determine the most likely energy sources. Most few acre operations will be near electricity or a petroleum fuel source. However, the electrical service may be inadequate for large electrical motors, particularly 3-phase motors. Accessibility for fuel deliveries may be poor during some months, and larger storage facilities may be needed. Electricity obtained from a central station is fairly depend- able and reasonably priced as a rule. Electrical generators on your few acres are ideal for standby operation. If generators are your only source of electricity, some form of energy storage is needed; direct current [d.c] and storage batteries are used.

Wesley Qunkei is Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Cornel! University, Ithaca, N.Y. David Ross is Extension Agricultural Engineer, University of Maryland, College Park.

153 Average wattage and amount of energy used per year for selected home appliances

Appliance Wattage Annual Energy Equivalent Consumption Gallons of (kw.hrs.) Gasoline Air-Conditioner (room) 1,500 2.000 54.6 Can Opener 150 5 .14 Clock 2 17 .47 Clothes Dryer 4.500 1,000 27.0 Clothes Washer (automatic) 500 100 2.7 Coffeemaker 900 106 3.0 Dishwasher 1,200 340 9.4 Electric Blanket 200 180 5.0 Fan (attic) 350 270 7.4 Food Freezer (15 cu ft) 350 1.200 32.8 Food Mixer 125 10 .3 Food Waste Disposal 500 30 .8 Frying Pan 1,200 240 6.6 Hair Dryer 500 15 .4 Hot Plate (2 burner) 1,250 100 2.7 Iron (hand) 1,000 150 4.1 Lights 1,000 800 22.0 Radio (solid state) 5 20 .6 Range 13,250 1,550 42.3 Refrigerator (frost-free 12 cu ft) 600 1,200 33.0 Sewing Machine 75 10 .3 Television (black & white) 160 400 11.0 Television (color) 350 540 14.8 Toaster 1,200 40 1.1 Vacuum Cleaner 630 45 1.2 Water Heater 4,500 4,500 123.9 Water Pump (shallow) 500 231 6.4

These systems are satisfactory for electric lights but have limited capacity for large power demands. Other sources of commercial energy that may be available at your site are natural or LP gas, gasoline, fuel oil or coal. All of these fuels can be used for both power and heat. Gasoline and diesel fuel are used regularly for tractors. LP gas is nor- mally used for heating, but can be used in cars, trucks and tractors fitted with special LP gas carburetors. In select locations, water and wind energy may be useful for performing some operations. Work on utilization of wind energy has come from many sectors and may result in equipment directly coupled to a windmill, or in wind-generated electricity.

154 In 1850, one percent of the total energy consumed in the United States was supplied by wind. Since then more than 6 million small windmills of less than 1 horsepower each have been built. These windmills pumped water, generated electricity, and performed other similar tasks. Over 150,000 are still in use. The amount of power available is directly proportional to the cube of the wind velocity, which illustrates the importance of wind velocity. Doubling the wind velocity means 2 x 2 x 2 or eight times the power. As a rule of thumb, continuous winds over 8 miles an hour average are needed to operate a wind- powered electrical generator. Suitable site characteristics include high annual wind speed, no tall obstructions upwind for some distance depending upon the height of the windmill, top of a smooth well-rounded hill, open plain or shoreline, or mountain gap that produces a wind funneling. Consult the windmill manufacturers for spe- cific information. Waterpower is another potential source of natural energy available at a few farm sites. In the past, waterpower provided the energy for grinding flour, sawing wood, and generating electricity. Today waterpower is used primarily for generating electricity in large central hydroelectric plants. Very few of the original small scale systems remain. Interest has developed in harnessing water in rivers and streams for limited supplemental energy. Wood, Solar Energy Wood is a source of energy available at many sites. While* only a small fraction of America's fuel needs are now supplied by wood, it can be used advantageously if a sufficient, low cost supply is available. Fireplaces have been installed in many homes for decorative purposes. Few are used for primary oit supplemelitary heating, as the efficiency is a low 10 percent. Improvements have been made in wood-burning equipment to increase the combustion efficiency of fireplaces and stoves. Wood can be obtained from your own well-maintained woodlot or from forest land nearby. State and local regulations will govern wood collection from public lands where a permit may be needed. Solar energy has been used in recent years to heat and cool buildings, dry agricultural products, power irrigation pumps, generate electricity, heat water, and for other purposes. Solar cells are used to generate electricity from solar energy. Costs of solar cells and associated equipment are expected to come dow^n lATith time.

155 Passive solar systems make use of the building design to capture and store heat. Windows or structural components which absorb heat energy are examples. Passive systems are relatively inexpensive and use few or no moving parts. They are designed into the structure and not added onto it later. Active solar systems use large heat-collecting panels, pumps or fans and storage facilities. The equipment is relatively expensive, requires space, and must be maintained. Ex- cept in moderate temperatures, the solar system cannot economically provide all the heating needed. A backup conven- tional heating system will provide 50 to 70 percent.

Putting finishing touch on heat collectors (bottom). Solar heat can move directly from collectors into the house or be stored in crushed rock beneath house, as shown in diagram. Working drawings of solar house are available from Extension Agri- cultural Engineers, Cooperative Extension Service at state land grant universities. Ask for Plan 7220, Solar CLJ CxasMSb "^(xx. Kx /fef r ¿TOX^oe [U House. Popular magazines carry articles about build-it-yourself systems and how they perform. A well designed build-it- yourself system will be economically feasible before one pur- chased and installed by a contractor; however, the lay builder must be capable of doing the job. Two rules of thumb on sizing the solar heating system are: 1) the collector area is equal to one-fourth to one-third of the house floor area, depending on the site and geographical location, and 2) a liquid heat storage system needs 1.5 to 2 gallons of fluid for each square foot of collector, while an air heat storage system needs one-half to three-fourths of a cubic foot of rock per square foot of collector. In addition, the house should be insulated to standards equal to electric heat. Often the many possible conservation practices give sufficient savings in an existing house so that the additional expense of putting in a solar system does not give an economic return. The fastest payoff comes in heating household water. No structural insulation is needed and comparatively small collectors—30 to 100 square feet—are used. The storage tank is con- nected to the household hot water heater by a heat exchanger. Fluid in the collector does not mix with the household water, so there is no contamination.

Insulating the attic of a house.

157 Field Machinery A wide range of tractors and implements are available from local farm machinery dealers. Most of the larger tractors and implements sold are manufactured in the U.S., while many of the smaller tractors—particularly diesels—are imported. Small compact tractors, frequently called lawn or garden tractors, are also manufactured in the U.S. and are sold by either farm machinery dealers or other specialized stores. Gar- den tractors are designed primarily for light, estate duty and are not intended for continuous heavy service. Consider product reliability, equipment warranty, dealer reputation, and availability of spare parts when you purchase machinery. A successful farm business requires careful management of land, labor and capital. In most cases, machinery costs are high and exceeded only by land costs. Thus it is important to manage machinery properly. This includes planning the use of machinery for timely and productive operation, selecting proper types and sizes, proper care to maintain performance and reliability, replacing obsolete or wornout machinery at the right time, and deciding if a custom operator should be hired or a machine leased. Most operations involve several different crops with spe- cific tillage, planting, pest control and harvesting requirements. Ideally each crop should have its own set of specialized implements to produce maximum yields. More equipment in turn means higher overhead costs. Lack of adequate equipment can delay getting crops planted or harvested on time, reducing yields and product quality. Using larger machines reduces labor costs since they complete the job faster. But while large tractors can cover more acreage than smaller ones, they also have higher overhead costs. Smaller tractors have less capacity and may cause delays in key field operations, resulting in a lower crop yield. By carefully analyzing the work to be done in the available time, you can select the right size. Farm tractors and equipment are commonly measured in terms of horsepower or machinery width. Machines should be selected on the basis of their capability to perform a given job within a certain time. This rate of performance is called field capacity, and is measured in either acres per hour or tons per hour. Some harvesting and processing machines are measured in bushels per hour but this is an inaccurate measure due to variations in grain moisture and densities. Field capacity is based on actual time spent in the field.

158 If it requires 5 days, working 8 hours a day, to plow an 80-acre field, the field capacity is 2 acres per hour. Field capacity = 80 acres divided by 40 hours = 2 acres/hour. Field efficiency is the ratio of the effective capacity of a machine to the theoretical capacity. It measures the relative productivity of a machine under field conditions. Operating the machine at less than full width, lost time spent filling hoppers, cleaning and adjusting machines in the field, all reduce field efficiency. Some of the time lost in doing field work cannot be elimi- nated. Other lost time can be substantially reduced by careful planning and good management. Servicing Machines Keeping farm machinery in top mechanical condition is one of the best ways to improve field efficiency. Machines should be serviced regularly and adjusted correctly. Neglecting this can cause expensive repairs or complete overhauls. An operator's manual provided with all new machines Making adjustments on machinery may give an opportunity for a relaxing work break (below). Indian girl gets tractor lesson [right) in Alaska. (Photos selected and captions written by Yearbook Editor.)

George Robinson

Wii gives proper instructions for servicing, repairing and adjusting. Manuals for older equipment can usually be obtained from the manufacturers. Taking time to read the manual before using the equipment will eliminate future problems and save you money. Replace farm machines when they become unreliable for completing the job on time. It is difficult to keep a wornout machine repaired once it starts having excessive breakdowns. When purchasing a replacement, consider a used machine. Frequently machines in good mechanical condition have been traded in because larger equipment was needed. If these fit your needs they are a good buy. Leasing machinery or hiring custom operators are alternatives to owning farm equipment. In some cases custom operators can complete the work faster and cheaper than you can. This is especially true when you have only a few acres and specialized machines are needed. When considering hiring a custom operator, talk to other people who have used his services. Waiting for a custom operator to arrive can be expensive if the crops are not planted or harvested at the optimum time. Timeliness is important when you compare leasing equipment, owning equipment, or hiring a custom operator. Comparing Costs Costs of owning and operating machines should be deter- mined before comparing viable alternatives. Machinery costs involve both fixed and operating costs. Fixed or overhead costs include machinery depreciation, insurance, interest, shelter, and taxes. Operating costs include fuel, labor, lubrication, maintenance, and repairs. Fixed costs generally depend upon how long a machine is owned while operating costs relate to its use. Depreciation is a loss in the value of a machine caused by age, wear, and obsolescence. Frequently this is the largest machinery cost. There are several different ways to calculate depreciation. Internal Revenue Service methods can be used to calculate this cost. Premiums paid for machinery insurance are included in the total costs of owning farm machines. Frequently only the more expensive equipment is insured while a calculated risk is taken on less expensive machines. Typical insurance costs run about 0.3 percent of the original list price. Interest on borrowed capital or cash used to purchase farm equipment is a direct expense. Prevailing interest rates are used to calculate this machinery cost.

160 Storing machinery under shelter is a good management practice in most of the U.S. Studies on expensive tractors, combines and other machinery have generally shown that storing these machines adds one or tw^o years to useful life. Typical shelter costs are less than one percent of the machine's original cost. Taxes paid on machines are included in the cost of owning them. Typical annual charge for taxes are one to two percent of the machine's value at the beginning of the year. Typical fuel and lubricant needs amount to between 20 and 30 percent of total machine cost. The ratio of fuel and lubricant cost to total machinery costs increases as annual use of the machine increases. Fuel use can be reduced by matching tractor horsepower to machinery size. Other fuel-saving tips include eliminating unnecessary tillage operations, combining operations so the tractor can operate at full load, and throttling back and shifting to a higher gear when pulling a light load. Labor to operate farm machinery is an operating cost and should be included in total machinery cost. Either hourly wages paid for hired labor or a fair value for your own time should be used to determine the cost. This cost is particularly important when comparing custom machinery costs with owning or leasing machinery. Maintenance and repairs are operating costs since the amount spent for repairs is proportional to machine use. While some repair costs are caused by deterioration, the majority are due to use of the machine. Repair costs are almost impossible to predict because of the many factors involved. Excessive repair costs can almost always be traced to excessive speed, overloading, poor daily maintenance, abuse of equipment, and ignoring first signs of problems. Repairs should be made to maintain the farm machine's reliability and keep it performing at top capacity.

Mowers, Lawn Tractors Small equipment will meet the needs of some activities on a few acres. Large lawn areas and small gardens require powered equipment but not the large equipment used for field operations. Riding lawnmowers will handle the grass-cutting chores. A garden tractor offers more versatility to do mowing, snow- blowing, plowing, roto-tilling and many other tasks. The bigger the job and the more tasks you have to do, the greater the

161 horsepower and special features the tractor will need. Lawn tractors are light duty while a garden tractor is often heavier duty and more capable of handling attachments that plow, disk, or till the soil. Some manufacturers distinguish between the two types. These tractors are commonly powered by air-cooled single- cylinder gasoline engines ranging from 7 to 14 horsepower. Above 14 horsepower, a two-cylinder air-cooled or four- cylinder water-cooled engine will be used. Electric-powered compact tractors are available and operate with minimum noise and vibration. The batteries are re- charged by plugging into a 115 volt convenience outlet. Electric- powered tractors do have some drawbacks, including relatively short operating time between battery recharges and generally greater expense. Features such as front, center or rear power takeoff (PTO), standard Category O three-point hitch for attaching and raising and lowering rear mounted equipment, hydrostatic or automo- tive type transmissions, lug-type or lawn tires and wheel weights should be considered. The PTO supplies power to attached equipment. Small lawn tractors have no standard PTO location, speed, or type. While manufacturers have made some efforts to standard- ize attachments, the best bet is to purchase the same brand tractor and attachments. Some attachments are not available for the complete size range of compact tractors since the smaller tractors do not have enough horsepower to operate them satisfactorily.

Small agricultural tractors have standard three-point hitches and are designed for continuous duty.

162 Available tractor attachments

Aerifier Lift Boom Cultivator Plow Disk Harrow Powersaw Duster Rotary Broom Earth Auger Rotary Plow Electric Generator Rotary Tiller Fertilizer Spreader Seeders Flatf Mower Snowblower Forklift Sprayer Front-end Loader Stone Picker Front-mounted Scraper Blade Tool Bar Garden Cart Tractor Cab Hydraulic Wheel Scraper Transplanter Insect Fogger Trencher Landscape Rake Turf Sweeper Land Leveier Water Pump Lawn Mower (Reef, Rotary-sickle) Wheel Rake Lawn Roller

Small 20 to 45 horsepower agricultural tractors are available from local farm machinery dealers. These tractors are specifically designed for continuous duty field work and cost more to buy than compact garden tractors. They should be equipped with a three-point standardized Category I hitch for attaching the various Implements. Three-point hitches provide near parallel lift of the attachments, give better depth control of tillage implements, and provide weight transfer for heavy plowing. Standardizing the hitch lets you attach any brand of Category I implement to any Category I tractor. Options available usually include a choice of either diesel or gasoline engines. Diesel engines cost more to buy initially but require less maintenance and use a lower priced fuel. Con- sider the total number of hours you plan to run the tractor each year before deciding on the economics of a diesel versus gasoline tractor. Bear in mind that many of these small agricultural tractors —particularly the diesels—are imported. Before purchasing, make sure your dealer has adequate repair parts or that they are available from some central location in the U.S. Spare parts shipped from abroad take longer and can delay getting your tractor repaired and back into use.

163 Small Tools A wide selection of hand and power tools are available from local garden centers, hardware stores, and mail order houses. Select good quality tools as they will give better service and with proper care last longer than less expensive equipment. Name brand tools usually are more reliable but you should shop comparatively, noting the best features and quality of each. After buying power tools and equipment, read and follow the printed instructions. More tools are damaged and broken by improper use than are worn out through a lifetime of service. Store hand tools and equipment in an indoor area. A small combination farm shop and tool storage is ideal. Small cutting tools should be cleaned and sharpened before storing. A light film of oil or grease spread thinly on hoes, saws, shovels, shears, trowels and similar tools will provide rust protection. Larger equipment that cannot be stored under cover should be protected from the weather. Canvas or plastic sheets make excellent covers; tie or tape them securely to the machine. Winterize engines that you need to store for long periods. Consider operator safety when you either purchase equipment or operate it in the field and on the road. The Occupa- tional Safety and Health Act requires safe and healthful working conditions for everyone. You are not only responsible for your own safety when operating machinery, but also responsible for other people working for you or using your equipment. Machinery is potentially dangerous. Treat it with respect. Farm machinery designers have built in many safety features, but it is impossible to protect an operator who disregards all safety precautions. Practicing good judgment and common sense is the best protection. Safety precautions you should follow include: (1] keep equipment in good operating condition, (2) don't operate machinery on steep sidehills or near ravines, (3) use a large enough tractor to handle the load—a tractor can pull a heavier load up a hill than its brakes can control coming down, [4] don't turn at high speeds—centrifugal force can cause side tipping, and (5) don't rush to finish a job and become careless. Machines are built to help you and they will do an excellent job if handled carefully and treated properly.

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