''LOOK TO THE SPINE''

THE HISTORY OF

CHIROPRACTIC IN ALBERTA

WB 905.6 by .C67 1995 ELISE A. CORBET C.1 ISBN 1-89665-00-4

© Copyright 1995 Elise A. Corbet and The College of Chiropractors of Alberta "Look to the Spine"

CONTENTS

Foreword ...... iii

Preface ...... v

Acknowledgements ...... vii

Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 1. The Early Years of Struggle ...... 7

Chapter 2. The Trials and Tribulations of Legislation ...... 23

Chapter 3. Growth and Development in the Post-War Years ...... 33

Chapter 4. Chiropractic Education ...... 55

Chapter 5. The Alberta Chiropractic Association and its Members .... 67

Conclusion ...... 75

Appendix I. The first licensed chiropractors in the Province of Alberta. 84

Appendix II. Officers of the Alberta Chiropractic Association ...... 85

Appendix III. Sample of licencing examinations set for chiropractors in the 1920s ...... 87

Endnotes ...... 90

Bibliographical Note ...... 96

Index ...... 97

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FOREWORD

he College of Chiropractors of Alberta is pleased to support this impor­ T tant work on the history of Chiropractic in Alberta. We celebrated our 75th anniversary last year and now join with other provinces to share the I OOth anniversary of chiropractic worldwide. Chiropractic stands upon a single century of history since its inception in 1895. Our profession is blessed with pioneers in our past that have contributed greatly and led us well to the present day. Alberta, the first province to enact chiropractic legislation, dedicates these historical writings to the early pioneers who laid the foundation for the acceptance and recog­ nition chiropractic enjoys today. This profession has grown to be recognized as a major force within health care circles although it was not always readily accepted. This record of the journey of the chiropractic profession must not only be written and documented, but also studied, so we can all understand the great contributions which have preceded us. In this way, we can set the course for the next I 00 years. This book gives testament to the historic themes our profession has shared and to the incredible health care implication the chiropractic profes­ sion has orchestrated in Alberta. It is the first formal written history of chiro­ practic to be completed in Canada. I am proud and honored to represent the College of Chiropractors of Alberta as President, in this time of reflection and rapid change. Our vision for chiropractic in Alberta cannot be clearly focused without an appreciation and acknowledgement of those chiropractors and events which have shaped our past. I would like to thank the College of Chiropractors of Alberta as well as the Alberta Historical Resources Foundation for making this opportunity possible. We offer special acknowledgement to Elise Corbet, an Historical Resource Consultant, to a number of Doctors of Chiropractic for their contri­ bution and especially Dr. Ron Carter who was instrumental in initiating and coordinating this project. Chiropractic is indeed a proud profession and this book will stand as a major contribution to our profession's library.

Leslie D. Shaw, D.C. President, College of Chiropractors of Alberta.

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PREFACE

t was my privilege and certainly an honor to be the historian for The I College of Chiropractors of Alberta and be involved with this book during our Chiropractic Centennial Year of 1995. I found myself in a unique posi­ tion of bridging the past and the present when viewing the history of chiro­ practic in Alberta. A few of my colleagues practising today had the opportunity to meet the first chiropractor in Calgary, Dr. Laura Boyle, who began practice in Alberta in 1915. This demonstrates the youth of our profes­ sion and attests to the speed at which chiropractic has developed in Alberta. This book is the most extensive historical study of chiropractic in Alberta. Our story was developed and told by Ms. Elise Corbet. She is a gifted historian who has studied the stages of our maturing and retells our past with truth and honesty when depicting the events and personalities which molded us into what we are today. These stories include our victories as well as our defeats. The reader's attention will be drawn to many individuals who left us the benefits we enjoy today because of their commitment and effort. Early prac­ titioners practised chiropractic under very difficult and threatening condi­ tions. Some went to jail for their convictions and the right to practise their profession while the families waiting for their release also paid a ptice for the establishment of chiropractic. Ms. Corbet's commitment to quality has made this text an excellent reference resource. She has demonstrated the importance of the preservation of our stimulating and exciting history. It was a most memorable and enjoy­ able opportunity for me to have worked with her and I thank her most sincerely for her efforts. I hope this book will stimulate and encourage all of us to investigate our rich heritage and write about the individuals and events of our past. By sharing this knowledge we begin to learn where we came from and with this knowledge better direct where we go in the future.

J. Ronald Carter, D.C. Historian, College of Chiropractors of Alberta.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

would like to thank the Historical Committee of the College of ! Chiropractors of Alberta for giving me the opportunity to write this history of chiropractic in Alberta and participate in the 1OOth anniversary of the profession of chiropractic. Dr. J. Ronald Carter, the College's historian, was unfailingly co-opera­ tive and patient. His interest and enthusiasm for the project were contagious and I am grateful to him for his advice and suggestions. Drs. Murray Bowman and Keath Nevison were also extremely helpful and guided me to several avenues of research. I am grateful to those whom I interviewed; they shared their memories and insights with me and helped me develop a feeling for the profession over the years and the changes that took place. These included Drs. Norman Ibsen, Douglas Lawson Sr., Campbell McLeod and Thomas Sears. I spoke with Dr. Lavina Pederson on the subject of women in the profes­ sion and a telephone conversation with Dr. Donald Sutherland of Toronto was most useful in seeing the profession from a national perspective. Mrs. Roberta Watson, the widow of L.C. Watson, has put together a comprehen­ sive scrapbook of her husband's years as a chiropractor and I am grateful to her for sharing this with me. Ms. Peggy Sloan, the Executive-Director of the College, was most helpful and guided me to a corner of the photo-copying room where I found an immense amount of material that proved to be of great use in my research. I would also like to thank the staff of the Provincial Archives of Alberta, the City of Edmonton Archives, the University of Alberta Archives and the Glenbow Archives. And lastly, my thanks to Lindsay Moir of the Glenbow Library, for developing the Index for this book, an important adjunct to any book of this nature.

Elise A. Corbet, M.A. Historical Resource Consultant.

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- viii - INTRODUCTION

he birth of chiropractic took place on September 18th, 1895, in TDavenport, Iowa, when Daniel David Palmer adjusted the fourth dorsal vertebra of Harvey Lillard, the janitor in his office building. Lillard had been deaf for a number of years and the affliction came upon him quite suddenly when he was bent over in an awkward position and "felt something give in his back." Palmer, at that time practising as a magnetic healer, reasoned that if a movement in a vertebra in the back had caused the deafness, then an adjustment or manipulation to restore the alignment of the spine should help to cure it. After the first adjustment to the vertebra, Lillard's hearing began to improve and after one or two more he could hear normally. "There was nothing 'accidental' about this," wrote Palmer, "as it was accomplished with an objective in view and the result expected was obtained." 1 D.D. Palmer was a Canadian, born in 1845 in Port Perry, Ontario where he spent the first twenty years of his life. He then moved to the United States where, initially, he taught school in various communities in Iowa. Later he operated a grocery store. A natural curiosity coupled with voracious reading gave him a wide knowledge of alternative forms of medicine and he devel­ oped a skill in magnetic healing which was achieving some success at that time. In 1887 Palmer opened an office in Davenport, where he advertised "cures without medicine" and apparently enjoyed some success as he had to lease more space in order to deal with his growing number of patients. 2 Encouraged by his initial success and after further investigations, Palmer began to practise his new theory which he called chiropractic. The word is taken from the two Greek words "cheir" meaning hand and "praktikos"

- 1 - "Look to the Spine" meaning effective, commonly translated as "done by hand." The misalign­ ment of vertebrae he called subluxations; that is less than a luxation or dislo­ cation. Compression on the nerves of the spine was the major reason for disease, he reasoned, and this could be treated by adjustments or manipulation. Thus disease did not come from the outside, i.e. germs or bacteria, rather it came from within. When the body functioned normally it could withstand disease. Simply put, he believed that it was an interference with the nervous system through subluxations in the spine that caused disease and removal of these distortions would allow the body to heal itself through what he termed its "innate intelligence" or natural healing power. Chiropractic did not treat the disease, it treated the patient.3 Palmer read widely, studied anatomy and physiology and in some cases took lessons in the various alternative therapies. 4 He also wrote extensively, was articulate and extremely forthright in his views. In his writings, he main­ tained that the development of chiropractic was not an adaptation from a variety of other medical practices, but was a "union of various methodologies comprising magnetic therapy, spiritualistic concepts and the seif-taught (by him) disciplines of Osteology, Neurology and Functions."5 Chiropractic can trace its roots back through bone-setting in Europe in the middle ages, to spinal manipulations as practised by the Greeks, the Egyptians and the Chinese many years before the birth of Christ. Hippocrates, the Greek physician, considered to be the father of medicine, wrote: "Look well to the spine, for many diseases have their origin in dislo­ cations of the vertebral column."6 In the latter decades of the nineteenth century, medical practitioners, many of whom were as ill-trained in an academic sense as was Palmer, were still practising what has been called "heroic medicine." This involved bleeding patients, giving them strong cathartics and drugs that often contained high percentages of alcohol or narcotics and what would now be termed "crude surgery." Hospitals of the day were poorly equipped and before the advent of scientific medicine there were only a limited number of ways of treating disease and illness other than "tender, loving care." The effect on the public of such drastic measures resulted in what has been termed a medical protest movement. 7 A number of alternative forms of medicine evolved in efforts to avoid such harsh treatments. Christian Science, osteopathy, neuropathy, homeopathy, mechanotherapy, electropathy and hydrotherapy, as well as chiropractic, all had their followings. Despite many and continuing problems, chiropractic has survived and is an accepted

- 2 - Introduction form of health care. When Palmer started practising chiropractic in 1895, the state of Iowa had not yet instituted licensure for medical doctors. Two years later, in 1897, he opened the first school of chiropractic, initially called Dr. Palmer's School and Cure, later renamed the Palmer Institute and Chiropractic Infirmary. By 1902 fifteen students had graduated from the school, a third of whom were medical doctors and a number of medical doctors became associated with the school in the capacity of associate or teacher. 8 But the medical establishment was not as accepting by 1903. Iowa required a licence to practise medicine and in that year he was found guilty of practising without a licence and spent some months in jail. Palmer's son, Bartlett Joshua- always known as B.J. - was a graduate of his father's school and in 1906 took over the operation of the school while the elder Palmer left Davenport and went out to "spread the word." While D.D. was the founder of chiropractic, it was B.J. who developed it and would become its prophet. After the death of his father in 1913, B.J. Palmer became, unquestionably, the leader of chiropractic.9 A charismatic character, with a genius for organization and for self­ aggrandisement, BJ. developed the Palmer school on a firm and solid basis. His trademark white linen suit and long black silk tie, together with a black beard and moustache and long flowing hair, made him a conspicuous figure. The Palmer Institute soon became the major school in the profession and by 1912 the "fountain head" of all that was chiropractic, with an enrollment of 500 students. B.J. was a teacher and his wife, Mabel, also a chiropractor and a pupil of her father-in-law, taught in the school as well. Such was the reli­ gious fervour engendered by the Palmer family among its followers, D.D., BJ. and Mabel were seen as the "trinity" of this new philosophy and its non­ invasive and drug-less treatment of disease. B.J. Palmer was a brilliant and determined man who brooked no opposi­ tion to his theories or plans. His institution was among the first to establish x-ray laboratories, only 13 years after Roentgen made his initial discovery in 1895 in Germany. BJ. established a research clinic and also acquired a sani­ tarium which he operated as a chiropractic facility for mental patients. From a few osteological specimens left him by his father, B.J. built, "without doubt, the best collection of human spines in existence," according to an American Medical Association Committee in 1928. In 1924 he developed the neurocalometer which could identify the location of a subluxation by a heat reading and in 1935 "developed a device for reading brain waves, a prototype of today's EEG." He set up his own printing press where he published

- 3 - "Look to the Spine " no less than 39 volumes as well as numerous articles and essays. 10 At the same time he amassed a vast fortune from the new medium of radio broad­ casting. Station WOC, an acronym for Wonders of Chiropractic, was the country's second radio station and in 1932 hired Ronald Reagan as an announcer. 11 The early years of chiropractic were certainly a family affair but, like many families, they had their internal differences. B.J . and his father differed in certain aspects of treatment and similarly some of the early students and instructors of the school developed their own approaches or techniques, based on variations of one or other of the two Palmers' philosophies. They set up their own schools to promote these varying concepts, which ultimately led to a division within the profession into two major divergent routes. These became known as the "straights" and the "mixers." The former, led by the Palmer School and its mesmerizing leader, B.J. Palmer, advertised its teaching as "pure, straight and unadulterated" chiropractic using the hands only. "Mixers" on the other hand followed a more eclectic route and used other therapeutic techniques in addition to spinal manipulation, including such methods as electrical and thermal modalities as well a~ diet, physio­ therapy and nutrition. It was from the Palmer school, the definitive "straight" school, that most of the early chiropractors in Alberta received their training. Within these two basic approaches there were differences also. Some "straights" subscribed to the theory of adjustment of the entire spinal column, the Meric technique, while others concentrated on the adjustment of the atlas vertebra alone, commonly known as the HIO technique which was derived from the term Hole-In-One. Given the religious fervour of the early expo­ nents of the profession, bitter antagonisms developed between the groups. The beginnings of chiropractic coincided with a period of transition in the medical profession when it was attempting to regulate the profession, improve its educational standards and close down schools commonly known as "diploma mills." The rapid expansion of settlement of the western regions of the North American continent, first in the United States and later in Canada, had created a demand for many services, including medical ones, before there were any facilities or regulations to fulfill this demand. As a result a number of practitioners of a variety of different healing procedures, including medical doctors, offered their services to a compliant public. Many of them were graduates of "proprietary" schools that offered a modicum of training in exchange for cash and a diploma. During the latter years of the nineteenth century the major medical schools of both the United States and Canada began to place a greater

- 4 - Introduction emphasis on the sciences. Half of Canada's present-day medical schools were established before the turn of the century, had at least a loose connec­ tion with a university and were scientifically based. 12 But many medical prac­ titioners were not trained at such medical schools - only the affluent could afford them. This resulted in a certain amount of fluidity in the profession during this period. While the establishment was determined to take the profession on a strictly scientific route, many were of the old school and were not averse to looking at other methodoligies. As has been pointed out, several of Palmer's first students were medical doctors and he did initially have the support of several members of the medical profession. But the medical establishment eventually won out and, with the assis­ tance of some of the major Foundations of the day such as Carnegie and Rockefeller, established educational standards, curriculum requirements and strict licensing regulations. The Rockefeller Foundation, in 1920, gave five million dollars to Canadian medical schools, of which $500,000 went to the new medical school at the University of Alberta. 13 A scientifically based system of health care gradually evolved, one that was diametrically opposed to any type of "alternative medicine." Mr. Justice Hodgins, heading a commission on medical education in Ontario in 1915, was the first in this country to deal with the subject of chiro­ practic and the educational requirements of its practitioners. After inter­ viewing B.J. Palmer and Ernst Du Val, who headed a chiropractic college in 1 Ontario, Hodgins said: •

"/cannot bring myself to the point of accepting, as part of our legal­ ized medical provision for the sick, a system which denies the need of diagnosis, refers 95 per cent of disease to one and the same cause and turns its back resolutely upon all modern scientific methods as being founded on nothing and unworthy even to be discussed."

It has been proposed that D.D. Palmer's arrest and sentencing to a jail term was the first step in the persecution of the profession by organized medi­ cine. If so, it misfired, as he was now not only the founder but also took on the role of a martyr to the cause. 15 Accepting his lead, many chiropractors over the next couple of decades went to to jail rather than submit to the growing hegemony of the medical profession. While manipulative therapy had its advocates in nineteenth century medicine, more so in Europe than in North America, it has not been included in medical schools' curricula in this century. Therefore any "cures" obtained by this method were seen to be

- 5 - "Look to the Spine" fakes, as they could not be explained scientifically. In trying to suppress chiropractic, the medical profession professed to be protecting the public from a potentially dangerous "cult." Undoubtedly the hostility of the medical profession developed from the zealous claims made by the early practitioners that almost any disease could be treated success­ fully with chiropractic adjustments. Nevertheless chiropractic effected some obvious successes, often described as miracles. The medical fraternity, convinced that chiropractic produced only cripples, wrote these off as either imaginery complaints, or ailments that would have got better of their own accord, or as flukes. The history of chiropractic shows, however, that most patients of chiropractors came to them "as a last resort," following dissatis­ faction with the treatment they received from a previous health care practi­ tioner. Given the opposition of the medical profession and other health author­ ities, the press of the day joined in the discussion and helped perpetuate the image of quackery based on non-scientific theories and the limited education of its practitioners. Invariably articles in magazines and newspapers high­ lighted the negative side of chiropractic, often telling personal stories of harm caused by manipulations. The media would continue in this vein, portraying chiropractic as a danger to the public, for several decades. 16 Almost from its beginning, then, chiropractic ran afoul of the two major problems that would beset it for almost its entire history: the divisions within the profession itself and the hostility of the medical profession - and each contributed to the other. Chiropractic has been seen to reflect the mores of the mid-west, where it was founded. A large percentage of agricultural immigrants to western Canada came from the mid-western States and brought with them a populist tradition. They were opposed to the domination and elitism of the east and there was a distinct feeling of anti-intellectualism among them. Society assumed that most of the patients of chiropractors came from the lower middle class - the labourers, the poorly educated, the unskilled and also those who valued the simpler traditions of rural life. For many years, that was the class from which the chiropractors themselves came. Their patients, therefore, felt more comfortable in their presence, could talk to them more easily, while there was a feeling of inferiority when confronting the better educated and upper middle class medical doctor. This grassroots and class­ based "level of comfort" may well have been a corner stone to the survival of the profession. A large measure of chiropractic's support has undoubtedly come from other protest movements as well as such associations as unions and other trade organizations. - 6 - CHAPTER 1 THE EARLY YEARS OF STRUGGLE

t is difficult to ascertain when the first chiropractors arrived in Alberta. The I first to arrive in Canada settled in Ontario in 1902,' but Almeda Haldeman is thought to be the first chiropractor in western Canada, arriving in Saskatchewan in 1907. She was married with a family and did not practise on a regular basis but, as was typical of many in her profession she was very active in community, political and church affairs.2 The great surge of immigration into the prairies prior to World War I, from 1910 to 1913, undoubtedly included a number of chiropractors. Sinclair Wright practised in Lethbridge before 1914 and Laura Boyle started prac­ tising in Calgary in 1915. Guy J. Parks, also of Calgary, advertised in the 1916 Henderson's Directory and the 1917 directory showed a third chiro­ practor, T.E. Davis. By 1918 five more had been added to the list. James and Clara Kelley set up practice in Edmonton in 1914 and within a few years they were joined by J.F. Harris and Elizabeth Maxwell. Lloyd D. Clancy set up a practice in Medicine Hat in 1917 and a husband and wife, F. W. and Lena Bonsall, opened a clinic in Red Deer in 1919. Twelve were present at the inaugural meeting of the Alberta Chiropractic Association held in Calgary in 1918 and they came from Edmonton, Lacombe, Lethbridge, Medicine Hat and Vulcan. 3 The medical profession, as was to be expected, did not welcome them and in fact did its best to drive them out of the province. It was, itself, in the early stages of regulating its licensing procedures in order to develop into a

- 7 - "Look to the Spine" sound scientifically based profession . Moreover the medical profession itself was not too far removed from the era of "proprietary" medical schools, where no prerequisites were required and short training courses consisted of lectures and demonstrations. The Flexnor Report of 19 lO, commissioned by the Carnegie Foundation, condemned such schools and recommended university affiliation for all medical schools with a prerequisite of university training in the sciences. At the same time it dismissed chiropractic as unworthy of consideration. The new medical school in Alberta, started in 1913, followed the recommendations of the report, guarded its standards jeal­ ously and gradually ach ieved greater credibility and support for licensed medical practitioners.• When chiropractors first arrived in the province, it was not unusual to see the term "chiropractic-physician" used in the literature of the day, although not by chiropractors themselves and the medical fraternity deeply resented the use of this term. They saw chiropractors as "quacks and charlatans," a highly vocal "cult" that espoused only one cause and one cure for all diseases; one that was based on an educational training programme compa­ rable to the old proprietary medical schools, other than on scientific princi­ ples. Those involved in alternate forms of the delivery of health care were a constant source of irritation to the medical profession, but it and the Attorney-General's office, had a difficult time enforcing the regulations. Alberta at this time was an agricultural province with a widely scattered population. Only 25% of the people lived in urban areas, yet these commu­ nities claimed more than half the doctors in the province. Those who lived in rural areas were happy to use the services of anyone with even a modicum of medical knowledge and were not about to complain that they might be prac­ tising without a licence. Furthermore, many of them were immigrants who brought with them their traditional "old country" customs for dealing with accidents and disease and these were rarely based on currently accepted scientific medical principles. The first Medical Profession Act in Alberta, passed in 1906 just one year after it became a province, stated that anyone who "pretends to be a physi­ cian ... or assumes any title," - presumably that of doctor - was liable on conviction to a fine of $50.5 This clause referred not only to the "quacks and charlatans" and "irregular medical practitioners," such as chiropractors, but also to those doctors whose training had been obtained via the the proprietary school method. A major concern of the newly formed College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta (CPSA) was to enforce registration and licensing of

- 8 - The Early Years of Struggf e those practising medicine in Alberta and it set up an examination procedure. A number of practising doctors, as well as the irregulars, were not able to pass the scientific examinations.6 The medical profession felt that the government should protect the public from "unscrupulous or incompetent pratitioners" and pressured it to enact legislation that would ensure this. Obviously included among these was the chiropractor, who did not rely on the principles of diagnosis, but rather on an analysis of the spine to assess the causes of disease. The chiropractors already in the province reacted aggressively and determined to achieve the right to practise legally. They actively pursued the legislative route. 7 The dilemma the government faced, however, was whether to include chiropractors in the Provincial Medical Act and encourage them .to raise their levels of education and training, or to deny them any registration or Licensing at all. In the early years the provincial government relied on the advice of the University of Alberta for assessment of professional status. The medical profession, through the medical school already established at the university, exerted pressure on the University Senate and made it extremely difficult for chiropractors to achieve licensing. Jn 191 l, an amendment to the Medical Profession Act opened up regis­ tration to include osteopathy and homeopathy, but a new clause stated that anyone who advertised an ability to treat any human diseases or defects or who performed any manipulation, was deemed to be "practising medicine" under the meaning of the Act. 8 This was quite obviously directed toward chiropractors and as such they could be fined for practising medicine without a licence. At this time there were no licensing or registration regulations governing chiropractors in the province and the field was wide open - to those who had received training at reputable schools, as well as those whose diplomas came from institutions of a lower standing or, worse yet, via the correspon­ dence school method. Such schools existed for the first few decades of the century and did not finally go out of existence until 1935. The first one was established in 1906 and even the Palmer school instituted such a course in 1911. While it was intended only as a preliminary introduction prior to a period of resident tuition, evidence shows that diplomas were issued solely on the completion of a correspondence course.9 The major casualties of such activities were the graduates of reputable schools. They not only had to battle their opponents in medical and academic circles, but also had to accept the fact that, in truth, some practitioners of chiropractic did not have adequate training and required thorough examina-

- 9 - "Look to the Spine" tion before receiving a licence to practise. As a result, a number of them formed the Alberta Chiropractic Association (ACA) in 1918. The aims of the organization were to protect those who had trained at reputable schools; to achieve legislation, separate from the Medical Profession Act, that would give them the opportunity to practise their vocation in an organized and responsible manner; to work toward professionalization; and to control licensing and registration themselves. There were twelve founding members, including one woman, Laura Boyle of Calgary and they met in the offices of C.E. Messenger and S.H. Roske in that city. John F. Harris of Edmonton was elected president, Lloyd Clancy of Medicine Hat (later of Lethbridge) was vice-president and Messenger was Secretary. A committee of three was selected to draw up a constitution and by-laws. '0 The first year of organization saw the approval of a constitution and by­ laws and a scale of fees established. These were: 1 to 5 adjustments - $2 each; 5 to 10-$1.50 each; 25 -$1.35 each; and over 25 -$1 each. House calls would be $3. But the major concern of the association was legislation and most discussions revolved around the best way to achieve this. A committee, comprised of Clancy, L.A. Lawrence of Edmonton and G.J. Parks of Calgary, was selected to draft a bill. From the beginning they aimed to develop strong "grass roots" support that would be most effective in dealing with government. Participatory democracy as expressed by the Populist and Progressive traditions had a substantial following in Alberta at this time and many saw the tactics of the medical profession as restricting their freedom to choose the healer of their choice." Opposition to the "old­ line" parties, the Conservatives and Liberals, was strong among the farming communities. Organization of the ACA took place just three years before the so-called "farmers' revolt" that resulted in the defeat of the Liberals and the election of a United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) provincial government in 1921. These early chiropractors were, then, politically astute in that they had begun their lobbying efforts with the United Farmers of Alberta and the Trade and Labour Councils. Both of these organizations had strong local groups scattered throughout the province, who met at annual conventions, proposed resolutions and determined that policy decisions came from the ground up. It was felt wiser to have someone outside the chiropractic profession to speak on their behalf at the conventions of these associations, but several members attended and played an active part in the discussions. The ACA also agreed upon a telegram campaign, in which all members

- 10 - The Early Years of Struggle

would solicit telegrams from supporters which would be sent en masse to cabinet members and MLA at an appropriate time. Two Edmonton members, Lawrence and Harris, volunteered to do some lobbying among MLAs to assess the numbers who might, or might not, endorse their request for legislation. They levied an assessment of$ I 0 per month on each member to cover the costs of their campaign. And last, but by no means least, they agreed to encourage their patients to contact their MLAs in support of licensing regulations for the profession. 12 Not all those practising in the province belonged to the ACA, in fact some were violently opposed to the organization. Many of the prominent members of the group were graduates of the Palmer School in Davenport, Iowa and were imbued with a missionary zeal, a religious fervour, that had been instilled in them by BJ. Palmer, the "developer" of chiropractic. They were "straight" chiropractors, in that they limited their treatment to adjust­ ments of the spine by a hands-on method only, as opposed to "mixers" who included other facets of healing such as naturopathy, massage and herbalism. Some of the staunchest "straights" did not even condone x-rays, calling them "the mixer's first drink." 13 In an effort to increase the number of "straights" in the province, the ACA wrote to each "straight" school of chiropractic that was already represented in the province, asking for their graduates to be 1 informed of opportunities in Alberta. • Those divisions within the profession itself, contributed to the overall problem of obtaining recognition. The ACA not only had to cope with antagonism from without, the medical profession and academic circles surrounding the University of Alberta, but also faction­ alism from within. The "straights" dominated in Alberta for many years and the legislation they :-ought restricted the scope of practice to "adjustments by hand of the aniculations of the spinal column and other adjustments by hand incidental thereto." These "other adjustments" were taken to refer to adjustments to the extremities of the human frame. Many of them regarded BJ. Palmer almost as a messiah and saw chiropractic in an evangelical manner as a "healing sect," a concept that found favour with the populist ideas of the times. Palmer fostered these attitudes and in fact did not initially favour licensing, claiming that "only the people could and should determine the fate of chiropractic." Later he changed his mind and travelled to many states and into Canada advocating legislation, but supporting a licensing board made up of "straight" chiropractors only. '5 The results of all the ACA's activities achieved some support in legisla­ tive circles, as well as amongst the public. The medical community reacted

- 11 - "Look to the Sp;ne" to this growing support with an advertisement in the 1919 Edmonton tele­ phone directory, placed by the CPSA. It contained information comparing the hours of study required by the medical and osteopathic professions versus those given in the training of chiropractors, in which the latter showed up very unfavourably. The ACA reacted in indignation and protested what it considered libellous statements about the profession. The Palmer School of Chiropractic, in fact, sued the City of Edmonton, the CPSA and John Parks, its Registrar, over the contents of the advertisement. It was Parks who had written the advertisement, but the CPSA gave him complete support and instructed the Registrar to defend his actions vigor­ ously and "use all reasonable efforts and expenditures to insure rhe success of the defence." 16 ln his judgement, Judge Hyndman conceded that while Parks did not exercise great care, "as he might reasonably be expected to in acquiring information on the subject," he did not feel that he was "actuated by real or express malice." Moreover, the Palmer School had not shown any proof that there was any actual malice. Hyndman commented that had the school brought the error of the statements made to the attention of the CPSA and asked for a retraction and this had been refused, then the results of the law suit would have been quite different. As it was, he dismissed the charges and both parties had to pay their own costs. 11 As a result, an advertisement in the 1921 Edmonton telephone directory was more circumspect. Headed "A Little Argument for Osteopathy" the advertisement promoted the training, abilities and knowledge of osteopaths and warned readers to "beware of uneducated imitators." "Osteopathy is the original and only scientific system of spinal adjustment," it cautioned. While the message was clear, the word chiropractor was not used. 18 The ACA was not successful, however, in achieving its own legislative act at this time. Instead a further amendment to the Medical Profession Act, in April 1920, permitted "chiropractic, or any non-drug science, therapy, or system of practice" to register and apply for licence to practise. However, the examination of candidates for a licence was placed under the control of the University of Alberta and the Senate of that institution would have the right not only to decide who was permitted to register but would also decide on the subjects for study and examination, as well as the appointments to the exam­ ining board. 19 Based on the generally accepted concept that chiropractors were not sufficiently well educated to pass any scientific examinations, this gave acceptance to the art of chiropractic while denying chiropractors a licence to practise. Most professionals at this time obtained their licence to practise in

- 12 - The Early Years of Struggle

Alberta by passing examinations set by a University of Alberta examining board. It was common practice in the early years of the province's history and applied equally to accountants, architects, dentists, engineers, lawyers and medical doctors. The Senate administered these examinations, set the stan­ dards and adjudicated on the training institution, while university professors who were well versed in the relevant subjects marked the examination papers. While there was some support for university control over incoming chiropractors, the ACA was unsure about the ramifications of this amend­ ment. The members were concerned that they would be putting themselves, indirectly, under the thumb of the medical association which "as you know," said C.E. Messenger in a letter to H.M. Tory, president of the university, "is very antagonistic to us and which in all probability would mean the death knell of Chiropractic in Alberta."20 The ACA requested a meeting with the Senate to find out what the requirements would be and all members agreed that if they were called for examination they would answer all questions "chiropractically" and questions pertaining to diagnosis would be answered "chiropractically from our analysis of the spine."21 The delegation of some twenty people who met with the Senate, included a Mrs. Sears of Nanton who was President of the United Farm Women of Alberta, Alderman Gross of Calgary and two members of the public from Medicine Hat and Lacombe. All had received help from chiropractic treat­ ment and spoke on this issue. Well over a thousand people from across the province had signed petitions and these were presented. Dr. Ernst Du Val, President of the Canadian Chiropractic College in Hamilton, Ontario, spoke for the profession and asked that chiropractors be examined by those engaged in Lheir own profession and not by medical practitioners or scientists. His case cannot have been helped, however, by his statement that "diagnosis as practised by medical men was merely guessing and therefore unnecessary."22 The delegation had two requests: firstly that an examining board should consist only of chiropractors and secondly that they should be freed from examinations in subjects other than chiropractic subjects.23 A deputation from the CPSA also requested and received an audience with the Senate at the same meeting and suggested that standards of qualifi­ cations for all branches of the healing arts should be similar. If chiropractors set themselves up as healers of the sick they should be required to pass scien­ tific examinations similar to those required of medical doctors. They only wished to protect society from those who did not have sufficient scientific knowledge, they said. While some patients had been successfully treated,

- 13 - "Look to the Spine" there were no record of those who had been injured by the practice. The Senate, under the guidance of President Tory - a scientist, who was very anti-chiropractic - agreed that chiropractors would be required to write the same examinations in anatomy, physiology, pathology and bacteriology, hygiene and public health as did other practitioners and that a chiropractor be appointed to the examining board to set and mark a paper on the principles and practice of chiropractic.24 Members of the ACA, united in their opposition to this ruling, all sent identical letters to the Senate declining to take these examinations as they were not presently required by any school or college of chiropractic. F.W. Bonsall's letter is typical and his concluding paragraphs were as follows:

The Senate has thus at one fell swoop accomplished what the enemies of chiropractic have been endeavoring to do for years, the absolute destruction and elimination of this science which has in its short career in this young province demonstrated its merit beyond question and has already drawn to itself an army of supporters who will not be denied its service. In view of this utter unfairness of the Senate and its action which precludes the future entry into the province of any qualified chiro­ practors and thus eventually destroying chiropractic in Alberta, I cannot become a party to such action.

To give the Senate its due, there was little unbiased information about chiropractic available. Literature on both sides of the issue were highly charged diatribes. Chiropractic and its supporters showed a religious fervour about its methods and successes in curing any and all diseases and would brook no naysayers. On the other hand, scientific and medical professionals were equally imbued with the great successes of the new sciences employed in the treatment of disease and gave no credence to any form of healing not based on these principles. Neither side was prepared to move an inch. The Senate did contact the Palmer School requesting a listing of "capable and qualified schools," together with a copy of its calendar showing the subjects taught, the depth to which they were taught and its entrance requirements. BJ. Palmer replied listing his own school, the National School in Chicago, Illinois, the Canadian Chiropractic College in Hamilton, Ontario, Eastern College in Newark, New Jersey and the Universal Chiropractic College of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, as the best schools. He did not, however, give any information on his school's programme, which had, at that time, no minimum entrance requirements. Given the divisions within the profession

- 14 - The Early Years of Struggle

and lack of information about any of the schools, it was difficult for the Senate to assess the amount of scientific training in the programme, if indeed there was any. In its initial examination, in 1920, the Senate allowed gradu­ ates of any and all chiropractic colleges to participate in the procedure.26 Twenty chiropractors initially made application to write the examina­ tions but only two showed up on the day. One wrote two of the scientific examinations, the other wrote four of them. Neither achieved a passing mark. Both of them wrote the paper on chiropractic practices and principles which had been set by Dr. CJ. L' Arni of Saskatoon, but these were not marked. When L' Arni arrived in Edmonton to conduct this examination he refused to participate in it when he discovered that he was the only chiropractor on the examining board. He had been led to believe that "the resident practising Chiropractors in Alberta were about to be licensed after passing. an examina­ tion in the Principles and Practice of Chiropractic only."27 At a subsequent Senate meeting, some members expressed some misgivings as to whether they might have been too stringent in their rulings and suggested the possi­ bility of allowing those now resident in the province to practise for two years, giving them time to study for the scientific examinations. This was not a deci­ sion the Senate could make, however and any further action was in the hands of the government. The Senate had only been asked to supervise this first examination procedure.28 Chiropractors continued to practise, in contravention of the Act and all members of the ACA agreed that if charged they would not pay any fines but would serve the necessary time in jail.29 Few, if any, were charged, however. The Deputy Attorney General felt that it should be up to the medical profes­ sion to lay the information about such violations of their own Act, not the local police. "It seems to me," wrote A.G. Browning, the Deputy Attorney General, "that the Medical Council should be sufficiently interested to take care of matters of this kind without calling upon the Government to interfere more than is necessary."30 However, the Medical Council had previously decided that it would "not appear as the prosecutor against Chiropractors, Faithcurists, Christian Scientists and such fakers ... (as) ... it would bring considerable odium on the medical profession if they have to Jay charges and go to the extent of endeavouring to get a conviction."31 So the matter seemed to be at a standstill. However, there were a few cases that took place about this time that did nothing to improve the reputation of chiropractors, particularly with their lack of diagnostic skills. A.N. Holmberg, a chiropractor with a practice in Stettler, was charged with manslaughter in the case of a 15-year old girl. He

- 15 - "Look to the Spine" had been treating her with spinal adjustments until shortly before her death from a ruptured appendix. He was tried before a judge and jury, found guilty and sentenced to a month's imprisonment and a fine of $500. With the support, both financial and ethical, of his fellow members of the ACA, Holmberg appealed his conviction. The appeal court found some disagreement in the testimony and most members of the ACA gradually withdrew their support. Holmberg stated that he knew the girl was suffering from appendicitis and he was treating her for this ailment, while the mother of the girl said that Holmberg had denied that it was appendicitis, but was "colic of the left kidney and liver." The Appeal Court quashed the conviction as the judges referred to the section of the Criminal Code which stated that manslaughter was the result of "the doing of an act and not the omission of an act." As both chiropractors and medical doctors gave evidence that chiropractic was neither the practice of medicine nor the practice of surgery, then while Holmberg was guilty of not performing an act that would have helped his patient, this did not constitute manslaughter. 32 Another case involved John F. Harris of Edmonton who wa<> found guilty of malpractice when he failed to diagnose a particular ailment and gave inap­ propriate chiropractic treatment. This involved an infant girl, who was subse­ quently diagnosed as suffering from tuberculosis of the spine. Unaware of the nature of her illness, the parents took their daughter to Harris for treatment. He did not recognize the illness and proceeded to give her treatments that subsequently proved to retard her progress, necessitating a longer period of nursing and medical care. Harris's lawyer appealed the judgement arguing that since chiropractors did not consider diagnosis part of their profession, members of another school of medicine were not competent witnesses. The Appeal Court dismissed this argument, although there was one dissenting judge and damages were reduced to $600.33 Despite such occurrences, public support for chiropractic continued. In those days of limited avenues of communication they would likely not have been been highly publicised throughout the province. In 1921 the United Farmers of Alberta formed the government of Alberta and many local groups of this grass-roots organization had shown consistent support for chiroprac­ tors. The following year the new Attorney-General, J.E. Brownlee, intro­ duced an amendment that granted chiropractors from recognized schools, then practising in the province, an interim licence for one year while the government undertook a thorough and unbiased investigation into the prac­ tice. 34 This amendment specifically omitted chiropractors coming into the

- 16 - The Early Years of Struggle province, even those who graduated from reputable institutions. But the stage was now set for the struggle to remove chiropractic from the Medical Profession Act and achieve one of its own.

D.D. Palmer, the discoverer of chiropractic in 1895 and founder of Palmer College of Chiropractic in 1897. (Courtesy, Palmer College of Chiropractic) "Look to the Spine "

B.J. Palmer, son of D.D. Palmer and President of Palmer College of Chiropractic from 1904 to 1961. (Courtesy, Palmer College of Chiropractic) The Early Years of Struggle

Students and patients pose in front of the Palmer School of Chiropractic, cl 916. (Courtesy, Palmer College of Chiropractic)

The Canadian Chiropractic College in Hamilton, Ontario from about 1914 to 1919. (Courtesy, Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College)

- 19 - "Look to the Spine"

Dr. Lloyd Clancy of Lethbridge, Alberta. He was one of the 32 chiropractors who received their licences to practise in 1923 and served as president of the Alberta Chiropractic Association from 1932 to 1939. (Courtesy, Miss M.M. Clancy, Lethbridge)

Dr. Hyrum Smith of Lethbridge, Alberta in 1926. (Courtesy, Glenbow Archives, NA-3181-89)

Graduation photograph of Dr. Lawrence Clement Watson, April 22, 1921, Ross College of Chiropractic, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA. (Courtesy, Mrs. Roberta Watson)

- 20 - The Early Years of Struggle

Mom /1940

Bruce /1973

Three generations of chiropractors, all of whom practised in Alberta. The Pederson family. From the top, William and Lavina, parents; centre, Herman, grandfather; bottom row, Don and Bruce Pederson. (Courtesy, Ruth Lennan)

- 21 - "Look to the Spine"

Illuminated display "maintained in the interest of Chiropractic" by Dr. George L. Barton. (Courtesy, Glenbow Archives, ND-3-724)

Jlinme 3JlOpOBJUI

XTO P06HTb CJ1A6HX 3)lOPOBHMH? Dr. L. C. Watson XIPOnPAKTOP

1-le.llyrH OlfHA Btt.1i11yt:MO pa3 H3 ~ce. VECREVILLE ALRERTA

Dr. L.C. Watson 's advertisement in a Ukrainian newspaper, cl 928. (Courtesy, Mrs. Roberta Watson)

Street sign outside Dr. Lou Heard's offices in Edmonton. (Courtesy, Provincial Archives of Alberta 88.567153)

- 22 - CHAPTER2 THE TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS OF LEGISLATION

he hard work, the organization, the lobbying and the financial outlay Tseemed about to pay off early in 1923 when J.C. Buckley, the MLA from Gleichen, placed a private member's bill before the legislature. Buckley was the party whip for the UFA government and an important member of the House. The bill he proposed was to establish the chiropractic profession as a pri vate corporation with the right to set regulations for admission as well as its own examinations, licensing and standards for both supervision and disci­ pline. A thorough investigation into chiropractic, promised by the Premier some two years earlier, had not taken place and this bill, promoted by the ACA and its legal adviser, Allan T. Mode, created shock waves on the government benches and within the medical community. The first move came from the CPSA which suggested that an independent commission be estab­ li shed before any legislative action was taken that might open the door wider to the chiropractic profession in the province. The CPSA recommended that a commission of three would conduct a complete and thorough inquiry into chiropractic and its schools and should be made up of one appointee each from the CPSA, the ACA and the University of Alberta. None of the members of the proposed commission were to be medical doctors or chiro­ practors and they would report directly to the government.' A deputation of members of the Alberta Medical Association to the premier followed up on

- 23 - "Look to the Spine" this suggestion. Premier Greenfield admitted that pre sure of work had prevented the intended investigation and promised to give the suggestion careful consideration. He pointed out, however, that there was a wide demand from the public for greater recognition of chiropractic and in many cases good results had attended such treatment. 2 In the meantime Buckley's bill was before the House and due for second reading. This resulted in a vote of 29-17 in favour, but the 17 opposed included the Premier and all the members of cabinet. Before the third reading took place, "legislative warfare" became the order of the day and the gloves came off on all sides. An Edmonton osteopath accused the chiropractors of being afraid to write scientific examinations. President Tory, of the University of Alberta, who had visited several chiropractic colleges in 1920, including the Palmer Institute, reported that none of them had any laborato­ ries for scientific investigation and study. Furthermore none of them required a minimum educational standing for acceptance into the programme. He heaped scorn on the chiropractic colleges which, he said, "put all scientific knowledge in the waste paper basket ... (and) ... were back in the sixteenth century so far as scientific knowledge was concemed."3 The medical association brought in an expert from McGill University in Montreal, Professor Whitnall, who said it was absurd to say that all diseases came from some slippage in the spine and declared that the human spine did not get out of alignment and could not be adjusted. "Chiropractic was an illu­ sion," he affirmed, "and its cures were only effected by means of mental suggestion."' A.T. Mode, solicitor for the chiropractors put up a spirited defence. He called Whitnall an extremist and theorist; charged Tory with being prejudiced against chiropractors; and accused the medical profession with trying to drive chiropractors out of the province in order to maintain their monopoly on the healing arts. He also pointed out that the new bill required a three year resi­ dency course before chiropractors could be licensed and outlawed corre­ spondence school certificates. Chiropractors did not attempt to treat or cure all diseases, he said and they were fully qualified in the "chiropractic way" to recognize all diseases. There were repeated calls from members of the House for "a real live chiropractor" to appear before them and so the following day an Edmonton practitioner, N.E. Shorten, attended and was grilled by a full house of MLAs. He held up his end very ably with supportive evidence using a spine and skull base to illustrate the philosophy and concepts behind chiropractic. Many leading athletes of the day, he contended, had a chiropractor attached to their

- 24 - The Trials and Tribulations of Legislation regular staff. He was also honest enough to admit that a number of "so-called chiropractic schools should be run off the earth."5 D.G. Revell, professor of anatomy at the University of Alberta, attended this session and said that the claims of chiropractic were wrong, had no basis in science and furthermore the practitioners were unqualified to deal with sick people and were a danger to the public. He threw down the following challenge to Shorten: I'll make this offer to the chiropractors. There is a case of smallpox in town and I have been vaccinated, while Mr. Shorten has not. I am willing to go and live with that case, along with the chiro­ practor and if, as he says, smallpox is not caused by the germ but by the germ lodging in a devitalised body, then he should not take it, but perhaps I would. If that happens, then I say, let the legislature legalize the practice of chiropractic in the province. If Mr. Shorten takes the disease, then chiropractic is self-confessed as a failure. 6

After all the hot air had died down, MLA Buckley, who had guided his private member's bill so ably through the initial stages, suddenly withdrew it in favour of a public bill introduced by Attorney General Brownlee. The latter explained that the government could not approve the idea of establishing the chiropractic profession as a private corporation with the right to set its own rul es. The cabinet felt that regulation of the art of chiropractic would be better accomplished by means of an advisory board of five members appointed by and responsible to the Minister of Health. 7 Passage of the government's Act took place on April 23, 1923 and it was the first Chiropractic Act in Canada. The advisory board, to be appointed by the Minister of Health, consisted of two chiropractors who had to be gradu­ ates of a school with a course of instruction of not less than six months resi­ dence in each of three years, two members of the Faculty of Medicine and a chairman who was entitled to vote and, in the event of a tie, had a casting vote. Following enactment of this Act no chiropractor was allowed to prac­ ti se unless he or she held a valid certificate of registration. However, any chiropractor who had been living and practising in the province for at least one year prior to that time and held a diploma from a school of chiropractic following a course of resident tuition of not Jess than six months in each of two years, was entitled to register under this Act without further examina­ ti on.8 Newcomers to the province, however, were required to show that they had a minimum standard of education before entering a chiropractic college;

- 25 - "Look to the Spine" that they held a diploma from a recognized school which offered only resi­ dential courses for six months in each of three years (later amended to eigh­ teen months within a period not exceeding three years); and that they had attended at least ninety percent of the total hours of instruction. They were then required to write examinations in a number of basic sciences as well as the principles and practice of chiropractic treatment, as set down by the examining board. Chiropractic was defined as: "the method of treatment of human beings for disease and the causes of disease by means of adjustments by hand of the articula­ tions of the spinal column and other adjustments by hand incidental thereto." Chiropractors were specifically denied the right to prescribe drugs or medicines, to treat venereal or communicable diseases, or perform any surgical operation, or practise obstetrics or osteopathy. The examining board also had the power to deal with any complaints concerning chiropractors and/or their treatment. An important and gratifying clause entitled them to use the term "Doctor," provided it was used with words indicating the holder was a chiropractor.9 J.F. Harris and N.E. Shorten were the first two chiro­ practors appointed to the examining board, with C.E. Messenger as an alter- nate. And so, finally, 32 chiropractors received a licence to practise chiro- practic legally in Alberta. The ACA as well as the CPSA now kept a vigilant eye open for chiropractors practising without a licence. Members of the ACA decided that the names of such people should be passed on to the Attorney­ General.10 In their ongoing efforts to promote the professionalism of their art, graduates of recognized chiropractic colleges were anxious to rid the province of those whose education and training fell below standard, some of whom brought disrepute on the profession as a whole. The ACA agreed to write to those interested in settling in the province and encourage them to make application for the examinations. Similarly the association contacted all non-licensed practitioners and urged them to make application to write the examinations, assuring them that it was possible to pass them. They were also informed that if they did not apply, the ACA would report them to the Department of Health.'' It seems, however, that the examinations were indeed difficult to pass. Three applicants wrote them in 1925, one in 1926 and one in 1929. None were successful. '2 Two wrote the examinations in 1931 and were successful. n

- 26 - The Trials and Tribulations of Legislation

In 1931 there were, then, but two more licensed chiropractors to add to the original 32 licensed under the terms of the 1923 Act and some of these had already given up practice, for a variety of reasons. An amendment to the Act in 1925 gave the examining board permission to grant an interim licence to those who were entitled to make application for registration, with the proviso that the applicant practise at a place not less than twenty miles from a regis­ tered chiropractor. The interim licence was granted for a period of not more than one year, but "such licence may be renewed from time to time." 14 It would seem, therefore, that there were a number of people practising over a period of time with an interim licence. By 1936 there were only 18 licensed practitioners in the province while there were 19 either unlicensed or working on an interim Iicence. 15 As one correspondent pointed out, the Act was forcing the "slow death" of the profession. 16 All the licensed chiropractors were not members of the ACA. This caused concern within the association, which felt that in order to further the standing of the profession in the province it was necessary to enlist the moral and financial support of all fully licensed chiropractors. They instituted a campaign to enroll them all as members. This was an ongoing concern that was not resolved until a new Act came into force in 1945. Their disillusion at the state of chiropractic in the province at the time can be discerned from a statement in the minutes that "our present Chiropractic Bill was discussed and cussed at great length by all members present." 17 A number of cases of practising without a licence came before the courts in 1924 and 1925 and in most cases the practitioner pled guilty and paid the fin e. A few, unable or unwilling to pay the fine, went to jail. 18 And it soon became apparent that the legislation created some injustices as a number of practitioners fell between the cracks. Those who had not attended a recog­ ni zed college were not eligible for admission, yet several of them had been practising for a number of years, had become proficient in their art and had a growing clientele of satisfied patients who felt "their doctor" should be able to practise legally. Such practitioners knew they would not be able to pass the examinations in the basic sciences, did not make application to do so and therefore had no chance of obtaining a licence. Some of their loyal patients wrote letters of protest to their MLAs and the Premier. Similarly those who came into the province from schools offering only two year courses, or those who did not measure up to the minimum educa­ tional qualifications on entry, were not eligible to apply for a licence. Many of those who did fulfill these requirements felt they would not be able to pass

- 27 - "Look to the Spine" the science examinations anyway and simply did not apply. Their training at the chiropractic schools of the day did not prepare them for such examina­ tions and few made application. William and Edith Cassady, who practi ed in Yegreville and later in Calgary, were charged under the Act. He was found guilty and fined $50, but as Edith was only present when female patients were taking treatment, she was not charged. '9 R.A. Somerville of Trochu, who took the two year course at the Toronto Chiropractic College, pied guilty and had trouble raising the money to pay the fine. 20 In the case of Ellis Wagner of Kathryn, it is not clear that he had any training at all. He was a minister of the Church of Christian Brethren and simply pied guilty to the charge of practising without a licence." In the meantime, there was a continuing groundswell from the public in support of the profession. The government received resolutions from such diverse groups as the United Farm Women of Alberta, the Local Council of Women, the Alberta Anti-Vivisection Society and a number of indiv;dual . Women's groups in particular were supportive and some wrote to Agnes McPhail, Canada's first woman MP, seeking her support on a national scale.22 Jean McWilliams, an activist in the Women's Labour Movement and the Local Council of Women in Calgary, was a vociferous supporter of chiro­ practic and made many trips to Edmonton to interview provincial officials in an effort to gain their support.23 These supporter~ requested a variety of changes to the Act, including: the appointment of an examining board comprised solely of qualified chiroprac­ tors; less rigorous scientific examinations; removal of restrictions to the scope of practice; admission of chiropractors into the University Hospital and all municipally owned hospitals, especially mental and tubercular institu­ tions; and the right to be allowed to enter prisons and treat prisoners. The most frequent question raised was, "why has this examining board granted only two licences since its inception in 1923?"24 The UFA government showed little inclination to make any further changes to the Act, or to broaden the activities of chiropractors in the province. It was the Social Credit government of William Aberhart, elected in 1935, that exhibited a more favourable attitude toward the profession and opened up the field for more chiropractors to achieve registration. In 1936 a further amendment to the Act incorporated an Advisory Board of Examiners consisting of five members, four to be registered chiropractors, graduates of a recognized school and a layman who would be chairman, all to be appointed by the Minister of Health. 25 Solon Low, the MLA from Warner,

- 28 - The Trials and Tribulations of Legislation shepherded the bill through the House and J. L. Robinson the Medicine Hat MLA, who was himself a chiropractor, strongly supported it. It did not pass, however, without one more concerted, but futile effort on the part of the medical profession to stop its passage. A number of local medical associa­ tions from around the province sent telegrams to the Premier questioning the unfairness of the bill as compared to that of other professions, all of whom had to qualify by passing examinations set by the university. The present bill, they said, granted privileges to chiropractors denied to any other profession. 26 Which was true. With the passage of this amendment, the ACA made it clear that non­ registered chiropractors would be liable to prosecution if they refused to write the examinations as set by the examining board. Over the years the Association made numerous requests to the government to prosecute, but the revenue from fines, licence and examinations fees were insufficient to cover the costs of prosecution and the government hesitated to follow up on these charges. This was the 1930s, the years of severe depression on the prairies, when times were hard and money scarce. The fine was $50 and the costs of securing evidence, travelling expenses of those involved and the time involved by the police and the judiciary to bring the case to court were considerable. The government could ill afford to pursue unlicensed chiro­ practors. This major change in the Act, however, gave new impetus and growth to the ACA. It was in a position to exercise more control over the registration and licensing of new practitioners. Examinations in scientific subjects continued but they were less rigorous and more attuned to the specific training in chiropractic colleges. The Association chose the following members as examiners: C.E. Messenger in anatomy and the theory and prac­ ti ce of chiropractic; Gordon Souch in bacteriology and chemistry; J.S. Irving in diagnosis; W. McArthur in hygiene and public health and physiology; and J. L. Robinson in histology and pathology. Solon Low, MLA, a great supporter of chiropractic, attended the annual meeting of the ACA in 1936 and spoke on the value of organization and co­ operation, particularly with respect to the ACA. A number of unlicensed chiropractors also attended the meeting, which was an encouraging sign. Low also spoke at the 20th annual meeting held in convention at Sylvan Lake in 1937, at which time seven new chiropractors who had recently passed their examinations were initiated into the association. They were the first to receive licences since 1931. In the following years, Stanley McQuaig, K.C., the layman appointed as

- 29 - "Look to th e Spine" chairman of the Advi ory Board of Examiners, attended the annual meetings of the Association to speak of the duties and responsibilities of the Board and keep the membership up to date with its activities. Once more prosecutions of unlicensed practitioners began to take place and more people applied for registration. 27 As the Association began to flex its muscles, some members felt that all registered chiropractors should belong to the ACA, a proposal they felt would help unify the profession and keep out those who were insufficiently trained. With an established line of communication between the Association and some members of the legislature, discussions took place concerning the writing of a completely new Act. L.D. Clancy, who was president for most of the l930s and H.F. Messenger had several meetings with a committee of MLAs and set forth some proposals for discussion. Rumblings of dissent among the members had been taking place for several years, however, and it was accentuated by non-members who were using their influence with some MLAs to attempt to nullify the status of the Association. Clancy appealed to the membership to discuss their concerns openly within the Association and not meet with individual members of the legislature.28 One of the proposals for change was that membership in the ACA should be compulsory and another was that educational requirements should be raised to eight months in each of four years spent at a recognized school of chiropractic. There were several reasons for this change. In 1943, the House of Commons appointed a special committee to study a form of social secu­ rity for Canadians. A brief presented by the Canadian Chiropractic Association requested that chiropractors should be included in such a plan as well as medical doctors and dentists. They were turned down because the committee felt that chiropractors needed more education. If the standard of education were raised there was a good chance they would be included in any forthcoming Act. The soon-to-be opened chiropractic college in Toronto would be based on a four year course and many American colleges had already made the change. Furthermore both Ontario and Saskatchewan had incorporated the changes in their Act and several other provinces were considering doing so. 29 The government decided to write a new Chiropractic Act which passed the legislature on April 6, 1945, but not without some dissension. This time it came from a small, but highly vocal group of chiropractors and their supporters. E.L. Taylor, of Calgary, was a staunch "straight" chiropractor who opposed any description of chiropractic that went further than "the adjustment of the spine by hand only." Anything more was "doing something

- 30 - The Trials and Tribulations of Legislation that is not chiropractic ... it would be legalizing what is known to the courts as malpractice."30 Taylor won over a few MLAs to his side and sponsored a group calling itself "Alberta's Chiropractic Layman's League." Harry Knight of Castor, who had two sons who were chiropractors, seemed to be the spokesman of this group and he sent a brief to all members of the legislature. 31 The proposed Act, he said, gave "unlimited powers (to the ACA) which it can use for its own selfish ends ... a monopoly of the worst kind and absolutely unde­ mocratic." Chiropractic, he concluded, "belongs to no profession. It belongs to the people for whom it has been developed and it is the people's right to protect it from exploitation by any group."32 This group was also cpposed to the extension of time to be spent in training and asserted that more science subjects and a longer period of training would not necessarily make a better chiropractor. They put up stiff opposition to the proposed legislation. To no avail, however and the new Act established the ACA as a corpo­ rate association in which all registered chiropractors in the province would be members. Scope of practice was:

"the philosophy, science and art of things natural, a system of analyzing and of adjusting by hand only, the articulations of the human spinal column and other articulations incidental thereto, for the purpose of removing the cause of disease; "33

The legislative committe of the ACA had polled its membership on the wording of this section. Thirty one out of 38 had replied to the questionnaire and 16 were in favour of the inclusion of "and other articulations" while 11 were opposed. The remaining four gave their vote to "the majority."34 Regulations concerning officers, their duties and responsibilities, the appointment of an Examining Board and qualifications for registration were set out. The ACA therefore became responsible for not only examining and registering chiropractors, but was also responsible for discipline and for the investigation of complaints. As well as the increased period of training, appli­ cants also had to show a pass in junior matriculation examinations before entering college. Some exceptions were later made in connection with members of the armed forces allowing them to take the previously acceptable period of three years of six months per year or 18 months over three years. 35 Applicants were required to write an examination in either Meric or HIO chiropractic technique as well as the basic sciences. The use of x-ray tech­ nology was limited to those who had a certificate of competency from an approved school. 36

- 31 - "Look to the Spine"

The passage of this Act put the Association in an entirely new situation, one that made it responsible for all aspects of the training, administration and discipline of the profession within the province and was a major step on the ladder of recognition of chiropractic in Alberta. The association had control of its own funds, collected licensing and examination fees and thus was in a position to institute proceedings against unlicensed practioners.

Workmen's Compensation Board

It was due to the persistency, expertise and hard work of L.D. Clancy that the words "chiropractic treatment" were included as a type of assistance available to injured workers under the Workmen's Compensation Board. As early as 1924, injured workers had requested inclusion of chiropractic in the programme.37 Clancy, L.C. Watson and H.F. Messenger constituted a committee charged with approaching the Board in 1932 to explore the possi­ bility of including chiropractic within the policies of the WCB. The committee met with some initial success and the following year presented a brief to the Board. Later a delegation of chiropractors met with members of the provincial government and subsequently with members of the WCB to work out the details of their inclusion in the programme.38 Once more the ACA rallied support from members of the general public throughout the province and from groups such as union and labour organiza­ tions, to back their request for inclusion in this programme. While it took several years to finalize, arrangements were concluded by 1937 and workmen's compensation cases were allowed to go to a chiropractor for treatment.39 Victor Wright, chairman of the WCB for several years, attended the annual meetings of the association in the late 1930s in order to work out the ongoing details of this procedure, explaining the forms and general procedures and answer any questions. Some problems arose concerning x­ rays and relations with the local medical refereee, but on the whole it proved a satisfactory arrangement. Wright reported that work done by chiropractors during 1938 showed a 400% increase over 1937 and he fully expected a continuing increase in the years to come.40 This acceptance by the WCB was another positive step on the ladder of recognition of chiropractic in Alberta.

- 32 - CHAPTER3 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE POST WAR YEARS

he year 1945 was a momentous one in Canadian history. World War II, Tin which thousands of Canadians died, finally came to an end. Because of its role in that war, Canada achieved a well deserved place on the interna­ tional stage. Changes also took place on the home front. After a decade of depression, followed by five years of war, the economy began to stabilize. In the years following the war, Canadian society gradually became more demanding, particularly in such areas as health care. Changes were even more pronounced in Alberta. During the "dirty thirties" a national depres­ sion, combined with a decade of dry and arid conditions on the prairies, severely affected the economy of the province. When Imperial Oil struck a productive well at Leduc in 1947, it heralded a slow but steady improvement in Alberta's economy that culminated in another "boom" period in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Changes took place in the chiropractic profession as well. There were 4J 8 practitioners in the country as a whole, almost half of whom lived in Ontario and five provinces had enacted legislation to regulate the practice of chiropractic - British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario. In the 1940s the federal and provincial governments initiated a series of discussions about a national health care scheme in Canada. Chiropractors, concerned about their role in such an eventuality, felt it was time they formed a national organization to deal with this and other issues

- 33 - "Look to the Spine" best dealt with on a country-wide basis. Under the guidapce and leadership of Walter Sturdy, a prominent chiropractor from British Columbia and with the able assistance of John Burton, the B.C. Association's lawyer, enough support for a national organization was found within the profession and the first meeting took place in 1943. Later it was incorporated and named the Canadian Chiropractic Association (CCA) and the provincial associations all became divisions of the national organization. In 1945 the membership of the ACA included 33 active and eight inac­ tive members, of whom five were women. There would soon be an influx of younger people into the profession as war veterans completed their training. Some of these came from the newly formed Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC), but the majority were Palmer graduates, ensuring Alberta would remain a "straight" province. The membership had a great deal of re-organizing to do to cope with the added responsibilities under the terms of the new Act. It required not only the election of a president, vice-president and secretary-treasurer - the execu­ tive - but also the selection of a Chiropractic Council. This was essentially a council of management, responsible for administering the regulations of the Act and consisted of a chairman and four members elected for periods of two years each, none of whom could be members of the executive. L.W. (Lou) Heard, served as chairman of the Council from 1946 to l 952 and again from 1955 to 1958. Examiners were also elected for the various required subjects - anatomy, philosophy, physiology, bacteriology and chemistry, histology and pathology, the Meric and HIO techniques.' All seemed to go well for the first few years and a number of initiatives were put into place. The institution of a newsletter in 1947, entitled the Bulletin, kept the membership apprised of the activities of the Association and of other matters of interest to the profession. Lou Heard formed a Chiropractic Educational Bureau, also in 1947, which published pamphlets on chiropractic that could be placed in offices for the interest of patients. And in 1948 the first Western Canada Chiropractic Convention was held at the Palliser Hotel in Calgary. There was still some concern about unregistered practitioners in the province, then known as "bootleg practitioners." It was difficult to prosecute them as they could claim to be physiotherapists or masseurs, who were not then licensed. However when the new Drugless Practitioners' Act provided for the licensing of naturopaths, physiotherapists and masseurs, the ACA worked with the Naturopathic Association to investigate and charge those who were both unlicensed and practising.

- 34 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years

Dissension within the ranks, never far from the surface, reared its ugly head in the early 1950s. While Alberta remained a predominantly "straight" province, a significant minority were graduates of "mixer" colleges and the new Canadian college, CMCC, which at that time did not receive the unqual­ ified support of the ACA. Some of the graduates from these latter schools complained to their MLAs about the divisive nature of the practice in the province and the Government, in its turn, accused certain members of the Association with using the Act to protect practitioners rather than protecting the public. There were accusations of a "closed shop" in that graduates of certain schools were denied admission to practise in the province.2 Of the 22 established schools of chiropractic, only five had been accredited by the ACA. 3 This resulted in the ACA losing its control of licensing and registration of chiropractors in 1953. The executive and council of the ACA met to discuss this most unfortunate occurrence and it too was marred by discord and bitterness. A committee made up of a representative from each college represented in the province prepared a brief seeking delay of the amendments for one year while the ACA attempted to resolve its problems.4 But it was not to be and amendments to the Act took effect in April, 1953. The government appointed a Chiropractic Appraisal Board made up of four members, all to be appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council. This board was required, firstly, to establish a list of approved schools and colleges of chiropractic and, secondly, maintain a list of those people who were graduates of one of the approved schools. These "listed" chiropractors could then practise in the province without further examination and also without the obligation of joining the ACA. Furthermore the Act established a discipline committee to control the ethics and practice of all chiropractors in Alberta. The Deputy Provincial Secretary chaired this committee, which included the chairman of the Appraisal Board, a member appointed by the ACA and a member appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor.5 In effect these changes meant that the government substantially enlarged the ACA's list of accredited colleges; it approved 13 of the 22 schools then in existence including CMCC and 12 in the United States. A new chiropractor coming into the province could now obtain a licence through the ACA, in which case he would be "registered," or through the government, in which he case he would be "listed." In both cases he was eligible to practise in Alberta. The ACA remained intact, but its loss of control of the profession was a severe blow and a major setback. In the words of S.R. (Sam) Souch:

- 35 - "Look to the Spine"

The Government of Alberta has told the chiropractors here that it is not interested in a law by which chiropractors may force other chiro­ practors into their line of thinking .. .. The Alberta government is interested, not in dogmas or creeds, but in results. Thus in trying to get a narrower law than we had and in trying to keep out chiro­ practors who thought differently, we have destroyed that which our forebears worked so hard to attain.

We have a Chiropractic Act in Alberta. I believe we should accept any chiropractor who has the proper credentials, regardless of school - if he is desirous ofpractising chiropractic. if he is not, then refer him to the Naturopathic board. But we must at least give chiro­ practors a chance to practise as chiropractors. 6

In 1956, nine new graduates wrote the ACA examinations, passed them and joined the ACA. Another nine chose to apply through the Chiropractic Appraisal Board. They had graduated from an accredited school, their appli­ cations were approved, they wrote no examinations, they were "listed" and chose not to join the ACA. 7 These events heralded a critical period for the ACA and over the next several years there was much soul searching. The definition of chiropractic remained the same, however, including the words "by hand only." There was still vigorous discussion concerning the scope of practice and in 1957 a committee was formed which included representatives from each accredited school represented in the province. Its role was to "analyze and investigate all the ramifications of chiropractic philosophy and definitions of practice" and present its findings and conclusions to the membership in order to help them make an informed decision on the definition of chiropractic.8 In the meantime, President Murray Bowman sought unity among the members and asked them to put their advice or criticisms in the form of letters so that they could be di scussed in a calm and responsible manner. In an effort to maintain an active and viable association, a list of the advantages of membership were sent to all chiropractors in Alberta, active, non-partici­ pating and listed and then sent again, every four months, to those who did not join." Both sides kept up the debate. The "straights," still in the majority, upheld the development and perpetuation of pure, unadalterated chiropractic as a separate and distinct science. Their argument was that by staying strictly within their speciality of dealing solely with the spine they were gaining the

- 36 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years respect of the medical profession and retaining the integrity and individuality of the profession. They reasoned that if it were diluted and absorbed other medical procedures, eventually it would be subsumed by the medical profes­ sion, as was osteopathy. The "mixers," however wanted to "broaden chiro­ practic - to limit it was to destroy it." While they retained the essential therapy of spinal manipulation, they wished to add modalities which they felt were of benefit to their patients. Eventually the government agreed to further discussions with the ACA with a view to opening up the Act and a legislative committee was established to prepare a brief. Once more the membership was requested not to discuss these matters with individual MLAs, but to leave all contact to the committee, so that the Association could be seen as speaking with one voice. 10 New amendments were enacted in 1961 and show that there was some give and take. The new definition did not include the words "by hand only," but compulsory membership in the association for all chiropractors registered in Alberta was restored. The ACA took over the discipline of membership but one more member was added to the Appraisal Board, making it three government representatives and two from the ACA. Educational requirements and standards and accreditation of schools remained with the Appraisal Board and application for registration went initially to the Board and was then passed on to the executive of the ACA. "After seven frustrating, difficult, anxious years" the ACA once again enjoyed compulsory membership. 11 The ACA made various changes to the structure and organization of the association in order to make it more representative of all areas of the province and to involve more members in the responsibilities and duties of the organi­ zation. A committee system was established and efforts made to have repre­ sentation from all areas of the province on each of them. Education and research, ethics, insurance, industrial relations, x-ray and radiation, bulletins and publications, membership, legislation, public information and adver­ tising were among the committees established. The registration fee entitled members to a licence to practise, membership in the ACA and the CCA, malpractice insurance, 12 and the periodicals issued by the ACA and the CCA.13 Some areas of the province, such as Calgary, Edmonton and southern Alberta, had developed their own societies and their members met on a fairly regular basis for educational and social purposes. These were now officially incorporated into five divisions that functioned within the jurisdiction of the provincial Association. They held monthly meetings "based on fellowship,

-37- "Look to the Spine" education and public relations." 14 President H.F. Russell recognized that it was not going to be easy to absorb the previously "listed" chiropractors into the Assocation but appealed to the members to "drop personal feelings, past experiences and animosities and welcome them with a smile and a handshake." 15 Perhaps this was too much to expect. In any event, several issues of the Bulletin in 1961 contained some vitriolic attacks and took the controversy between "straights" and "mixers" to even greater heights of hostility and disrespect. Such attacks appalled the more rational thinkers on both sides and the following issues of the periodical contained a number of articles appealing for unity, understanding and respect for each other's judgement and integrity. In looking over the past 15 years of chiropractic in Alberta, said Larry Schnell "we have had misunderstandings, bitterness, disunity, disrespect, suspicion and consequent dictatorial control to hold together this seething mass of conflicting school beliefs and philosophies and opposing techniques. Let's swap prejudice for progress." Others pointed out that national and provincial health insurance plans were inevitable and if chiropractors wanted to be included in them, they must work together and show a united front. 16 The 1962 convention "developed into a low form of personality and character assassination," but this seems to have been the end of overt problems between the opposing factions. Medicare was on the horizon and a united effort, both provincially and nationally was required to ensure that chiropractic would be included in it. In 1962 there were 121 members in active practice, an increase of over 250% in the 17 years since the end of World War II. During this same time period the population increased by approximately 62%. The ratio changed from one chiropractor for every 23,790 people in 1943 to one for every 10,000 in 1961. The ACA conducted a survey of association members in 1961 while they were preparing their brief to the Royal Commission on Health Care. They came up with the following statistics, which identify the rate of growth of the profession in the province in the previous five years. 11

1956 1960 Office calls 233,190 502,920 House calls 5,292 7,965 Patients Attended 72,225 112,320 New patients 24,165 38,385

- 38 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years

A new Act assented to in April 1966 included most of the amendments of the past few years as well as one or two changes. One of these was in the definition of chiropractic which added the words "and includes the use of x­ ray and analytical instruments in relation thereto." The composition of the Council changed to include the executive plus three other members, but the Appraisal Board remained the same. In 1962 this Board comprised two chiropractors, the Registrar of the University of Alberta, a retired busi­ nessman and the Secretary of the Department of Health. '8

The Introduction of Medicare

In 1961 the federal government appointed a royal commission on health services to look into the existing facilities for health care in Canada; to assess fu ture needs; and propose methods of ensuring the "best possible health care for all Canadians." Mr. Justice Emmett Hall of Saskatchewan chaired the commission and it became known as the Hall Commission. Over the next two years it conducted an exhaustive study, receiving over 400 submissions, including one from the chiropractic profession. While the CCA presented the major brief on behalf of the profession, the CMCC and several provincial divisions, including the ACA, presented supplemental briefs. The next few years were critical as chiropractors across the country fo ught for inclusion in federal and provincial plans. An Alberta Health Plan was in the discussion stages and the Association was very active seeking meetings with the Department of Health, presenting briefs and in contacting Social Credit constituencies and labour councils throughout the province, seeking support for the inclusion of chiropractic in the plan. The initial bill presented to the legislature in 1963, however, excluded all the healing arts except medicine, although the Minister of Health announced on the radio that the government intended to provide extended services, that would include chiropractic, within a couple of years. '9 As time went by, it became clear that the Minister of Health was stalling. "It is obvious that Dr. Ross considers chiropractic as a service that is like the extras you may buy with a new car," reported President Bruce Simpson.20 According to one report, Ross asserted that chiropractic would never be included in the Alberta Health Plan while he was Minister. However, at a subsequent Social Credit convention his was the sole voice opposed to its inclusion and he was forced to include it. 21 Finally, in 1966, he announced his proposal for extended services. There were to be three policies, Policy A -

- 39 - "Look to the Spine., the existing medical plan; Policy B - included d,rugs and optometric services; and Policy C - covered chiropractic, osteopathy, naturopathy and podiatric services.12 Only spinal manipulation was accepted under the policy, there was a maximum of$ I 00 per person per year and maximum fees were $4 per office visit and $10 for x-rays. The Association was not happy with this proposal, feeling the benefits were inadequate, but at least it was a first step toward full inclusion. The ACA kept up its lobbying efforts, but when the second volume of the Hall Commission was released it unleashed a storm of protest from chiro­ practors across the country. While chiropractic care was included, the commission recommended that it be available only on medical prescription. This was a point that had been discussed in detail during the rebuttal hearings of the commission, as the chiropractic profession realized only too well that if the medical profession were given control of chiropractic care, it would spell the death knell for the profession. The report however did not assess the viability of chiropractic as a healing art and left this to be decided by the Lacroix Commission, underway at this time.23 Mr. Justice Gerard Lacroix had been appointed as a one-man commis­ sion by the province of Quebec to study Chiropractic and Osteopathy. He made a thorough and wide-ranging study, submitting his report in 1965. Briefly the commission recommended the retention of the treatment of manipulation by chiropractors and while it found the training of chiroprac­ tors adequate for this purpose, it recommended an upgrading of their educa­ tion in order that they could make a differential diagnosis. 24 This left the door open for the inclusion of chiropractic treatments in the national health scheme. The new compulsory Alberta Health Care Insurance Commission came into force on July I st, 1969 and chiropractors were included under the basic plan. Again each person was entitled to $100 a year, but the maximum office visit fee was increased to $5. This rate gradually increased over the years and by 1983 it had risen to $11.50 for each visit with a limit during each benefit period of $192 for single people and $384 for those with one or more depen­ dants and included $19 for x-rays for each particular disability. The fee-for­ service payments made for chiropractic services for the year 1984/85 amounted to $20,959,926.00, a 4.36% increase over the previous year. The average fee-for-service payments to Chiropractors was $67,687, an increase of 1.66% over the previous year. 25

- 40 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years

Old Age Pensioners

Lou Heard had first introduced the subject of free chiropractic care for pensioners under the Treatment Services Act as early as 1950 and asked indi­ vidual chiropractors to keep records of the work they did with pensioners in order that those figures could be used in negotiations with the government. It would be many years before there was any success in this area, however. During the 1950s pensioners already enjoyed free medical care but if they wi shed to see a chiropractor they needed the permission of their medical doctor. In the vast majority of cases, this was not forthcoming. Over the years various OAP associations around the province sent reso­ lutions to the Department of Health requesting a similar programme for chiropractic care. Similarly the Social Credit Leagues of Calgary, Edmonton and Lethbridge recommended such a programme.26 But negotiations with Donovan Ross, the Minister of Health, who was himself a medical doctor, were long and drawn-out. Benefits to pensioners under the Act were controlled by the medical profession and Ross maintained that they should stay that way. The ACA prepared a brief and sent copies to all Social Credit MLAs, requesting support for a contract between the Department of Health and the ACA similar to the one it had with the medical association. Under this scheme, the Association received a lump sum payment for distribution to its members and all chiropractic treatment would be given to pensioners without charge. Finally, on June l , 1961 the ACA entered into an agreement with the Department of Health whereby the ACA would receive $1.20 per year per capita on all pensioners in Alberta who qualified for medical services. The ACA administered the funds, paying out money to chiropractors on a pro-rata system according to the number of pensioners under their care. The agree­ ment was for a five year period and no increase in the basic sum could be re­ negoti ated during that time period. As the initial contract drew to a close, the ACA entered into negotiations with the Department for a new one. The Association requested a two year term, as five years was too long a period to maintain a reasonable fee struc­ ture in the face of a rising economy. The plan was extended for a further two years, with a 50% increase in fees, but by the time this contract expired, pensioners were included in the Alberta Health Plan. 27

- 41 - "Look to the Spine "

Workers Compensation Board

As discussed in the previous chapter, chiropractic care had been avail­ able through this Board since 1937. The relationship between the WCB and the ACA continued on an amicable basis throughout the years. Re-negotia­ tion of the fees went on from time to time and on occasion some practitioners met with discrimination from a medical referee or from an employee of the Board.28 In all cases, such actions were dealt with promptly and the affiliation was a long and rewarding one. During 1960 the number of WCB and insur­ ance cases was close to 8,000, or about one fifth of al l new cases seeking chiropractic care. 29 Another government department that accepted chiropractic in a health care programme was the Department of Highways. In 1965 the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act was amended to accept accounts from chiro­ practors for injuries sustained through motor vehicle accidents covered under this Act. The policy was to be administered in the same way as that followed by the WCB.30

Advertising and Public Relations

Advertising has had a long and contentious history in the chiropractic profession and was a major point of dispute with the medical profession. Medical doctors could not advertise and the type of advertising used by the early chiropractic practitioners provided a strong point in their argument that chiropractors were not scientific, not professional and not well educated. Chiropractic was a new healing procedure and in its early years in Alberta neither the public nor the medical profession understood it, indeed large sections of the public were not even aware of it. The only way that chiropractors could get their message across to the public and to build up a practice, was to advertise. They also felt this was the only avenue open to them to combat the hostility generated by the medical profession and some segments of the media. Individual chiropractors advertised in a most flamboyant manner. They placed advertisements in newspapers, in telephone directories, in municipal directories and in convention literature, such as programmes for the United Farmers' of Alberta conventions. Some also went in for large and illuminated signs. They placed them outside or near their offices, on the boulevards and streets and even along the highway near the entrance to a community. J.F. Harris of Edmonton took out a full page advertisement in the Edmonton Journal in 1918. The entire page was covered in fine print

- 42 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years explaining the intricacies of chiropractic and its methods. A graphic of a body with the spine highlighted, identified the relationship of various physical systems to the spine and another showed an enlarged vertebra showing a "normal and abnormal nerve." 11 C.E. Messenger of Calgary identified such graphics as a "spine index to health." Often the advertisements included a picture of the chiropractor, informa­ tion as to where he trained and explicit directions as to how to find his office. Consultations were usually free, often testimonials from satisfied patients were included and long lists of the diseases that could be treated were all part of the advertisement. In 1916, G.J. Parks placed an advertisement in Calgary's Henderson's Directory announcing that he was a Chiropractor and Food Specialist, a specialist in "removing the causes of all Nervous and Digestive Disorders, Stiff Joints, Lameness, Skin Diseases and Chronic Ailments generally."32 Even in its early days the ACA expressed some concern about the validity of some of the advertising. H.F. Messenger of Edmonton placed an advertisement in a local paper in 1932 offering to perform adjustments for $1 (that was half the agreed price) and he also guaranteed success. He agreed not to use the word "guarantee" in the future "if it was against the wishes of some of the members," but there is no record of an agreement to increase his fee. 33 His brother, C.E. Messenger of Calgary, had successfully treated C.R. Forrester who was the cartoonist for Bob Edward's well known satirical newspaper, the Calgary Eyeopener. Forrester was almost blind and Messenger had completely restored his sight by chiropractic adjustments. In gratitude, Forrester drew a delightful cartoon of a chiropractor's office showing a huge, burly practitioner bending over a screaming patient, a line up of crippled patients on one side of the office and several healthy and joyous patients on the other. Messenger was very proud of this: he not only hung it prominently in his office, but also used it in his advertisements in the Calgary telephone directory. (See page 44) Initially some advertisements claimed cures, but this soon changed to a more subtle approach. For example: "During the past fifteen years we have had very good success in treating the following diseases," or "If you have an acute or chronic disease and wish to get well, call and see a chiropractor. He gets results."34 Such advertising continued through the 1940s. Some members felt it should be curtailed and attempted to incorporate some limitation to adver­ tising in the legislation. Their efforts were defeated by the majority, however, who felt that those who "endeavoured to circumscribe, limit or hinder, or

- 43 - "Look to the Spine"

DIPA.liT•INT POft CHILDllEH T-ti_..., - otudJ' - - ifW iM -.i;...., _ ....r la ill. · ~ i. lhoo - - a..""'.,,..._ o1 ~ --.,.i..,. Mi -it1.. __. .,-4 ·dllilnia. w~ · ...,.. _ ...... _.. _ l• - ..,....., ... ~ - .. ~ ..u.- .... - n """'- '"' d.. littlo -. u

:·. I Dr. C.E. Messenger's advertisement in the 1931 Calgary Telephone Directory. C.R. Forrester, who was the cartoonist for Bob Edwards' Calgary Eyeopener, drew this cartoon in graritude to Messenger; who had successfully treated him for failing eyesight. (Courtesy Glenbow Archives) prohibit chiropractic advertising were working to the detriment of the prac­ tice of chiropractic in Alberta."35 A Public Relations committee was appointed in 1950 with a view to acting as a censoring board to review the ethics of chiropractic advertising. Its recommendation that the ACA should regulate all forms of advertising and publicity met a lot of resistance and it was a couple of years before the membership accepted any restrictions. By 1953 all advertising had been removed from telephone directories, except for a listing of names, with an address and telephone number.

- 44 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years

Some individual advertising, however, continued to utilize questionable methods and for several years the ACA had problems controlling it. While regulations required all advertising material be sent to the committee for vetting before use, this did not always occur. Some practitioners sent out newsletters, not only to their patients, but to all homes on a mailing route in the area in which their office was located. In 1962 the Public Relations Committee proposed a set of regulations concerning advertising that encouraged ethical public relations and discour­ aged extravagant or sensational advertising that brought discredit on the profession as a whole. Some of the recommendations included: material should be concerned with chiropractic, not the individual chiropractor; no guarantees of cure to be included; no free services to be advertised; and indi­ viduals should not use their professional status to promote controversial subjects.36 As far as outdoor signs were concerned, these had to be well main­ tained, could show only the name and address of the doctor; had to be black letters on a white background and with letters no larger than ten inches in height. Stationery and business cards were also subject to regulation. Good ta te and high quality were the order of the day. 37 Later regulations prohibited the use of an illuminated or neon sign except on a window or flat against a building. 38 At the same time, the ACA encouraged members to upgrade and main­ tain their offices. While "the finest practitioners can work wonders in a dingy hole in the wall," said Byrnes Fleuty, "we are judged by our appearance and socio-economic standing."39 With the influx of veterans into the profession after the war, the number of chiropractors in practice was increasingly rapidly in the 1950s and some of the newcomers experienced problems building a practice. Public aware­ ness of the profession was still rather limited and a combination of a public relations programme together with individual advertising was necessary to attract patients. Sid Sheard of James Lovick Co., proposed a programme that included newspaper and magazine articles, radio programmes, a public speaking programme, back-to-school spinal check-ups and good posture week. The ACA hired this company, which also conducted the public relations programme for the other western provinces, to assist and advise the associa­ ti on in presenting itself as a profession. Sid Sheard, who later left the company and enrolled in a chiropractic college,4° strongly recommended a programme that was controlled and conducted by the Association. Ad vertising, he advised, should promote the profession, not the professional.

- 45 - "Look to the Spine"

"An embarassing ad by one doctor is embarassing to the. entire profes ion."• A couple of years later the Association ended its contract with James Lovick as finances would not permit a renewal. For a while the divisions of the ACA conducted their own publicity campaigns and seemed to have more luck in the local arena than on the provincial level. They instituted local radio, TV and newspaper programming. A recurring small advertisement on the front page of the second section of the Calgary Herald read "Sick? See your Chiropractor." It was an expression that caught the fancy of many people and became the "latest fad" for a while.42 Arthur R. Smith and his company handled the public relations for the 75th anniversary all-Canadian convention of chiropractors held in Banff in 1970. Despite the company's best efforts most national publicity came about from the fact that the popular columnist Charles Lynch was the guest speaker. Otherwise, press coverage was limited. "I believe," said Smith," it is symp­ tomatic of your problem, in that the media are still suspicious of you." Smith advised discreet signs, well-kept offices and individual involvement in community affairs in order to represent the image by which the profession wished to be accepted.43 Gradually the Association brought advertising and public relations under control but it was a slow process. As late as 1969, when chiropractic was already included in the Alberta Health Care Insurance Plan, President Helmet Koch released the following statement after a meeting with the new Minister of Health, James Henderson:

"The Minister challenged us to discipline our profession. He stated that our AHCIC would not be increased until all our advertising and sales pitch solicitation of patients were discontinued. He inferred that we were not acting as professional people by today's standards in regards to our advertising used to procure patients. Particularly, he doesn't like mailings to patients' homes with an advertising sales pitch in them .... He asked us if any other profession used neon or lighted signs."44

Opposition from the Medical Profession

During the 1960s the American Medical Association began an all-out drive to eliminate the chiropractic profession from the United States. In 1963 it formed a Committee on Quackery and entered into a planned campaign of obstruction and harassment.45 During this campaign in the United States

- 46 - Growth and Development in the Post War Years irnmen e amounts of anti-chiropractic literature flooded the market and rnuch of it crossed the border into Canada, setting up a renewed onslaught on the profession in this country. This was a very critical period for chiroprac­ tors across the country as they were negotiating their position with provincial governments for a place in the health care system. A concerted campaign by the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta took place in Alberta in the mid 1970s. In 1975 a registered medical practitioner could not refer a patient to a chiropractor, nor could he provide patient test results or progress reports.46 A section of the new Medical Profession Act of 1975 forebade a registered medical practitioner from asso­ ciating, directly or indirectly, with any person who was not a registered prac­ titioner or a medical professional medical assistant.47 If they did so they could be found "guilty of unbecoming conduct." Consequently chiropractors, who by this time were included in the health care plan, could not obtain x-ray or laboratory reports. The Medical Registrar did not allow private medical and x-ray laboratories to accept patients of chiropractors referred to them for urine and blood analysis. He also ordered the Provincial Laboratories to refuse acceptance of laboratory samples submitted by chiropractors, as they were "not trained to interpret the results of the laboratory tests." Furthermore, a professor of the Calgary Medical School was prohibited from addressing the ACA convention in April, 1975.48 The following year T.J.J. Walker, MLA, a medical doctor, proposed a notice of motion in the Legislature seeking the removal of chiropractic services from the Alberta Health Care Insurance Act and from the Workers' Compensation Act and furthermore requested the establishment of a committee "to study and report ... on the status of chiropractors in the overall health care of Albertans in general."49 This did not pass the legislative assembly. L.H. LeRiche, the Registrar of the CPSA, was particularly anti-chiro­ practic. He chaired a committee on quackery, attended meetings of the American Medical Association on Quackery and made a particular study of chiropractic.50 While the medical profession continued its rejection of chiropractic, government officials and the press were beginning to tire of the continual feuding between the two professions. Justice Emmett Hall, in his royal commission report commented that the controversy had been going on for some fifty years and for the sake of the continuing health care of the Canadian people it was high time that it was resolved. When the Canadian Medical Association, in convention in Montreal in

- 47 - "Look to the Spine"

1972 condemned chiropractic therapy as medical quacke~y. the general reac­ tion from the press of the nation was generally unsympathetic to the CMA. Such headlines as "CMA's attack on Chiropractic both Unworthy and Inaccurate," "CMA's comments called malicious" and "The Annual Put­ down," were the norm. An editorial in The Globe and Mail called on the CMA to end its war and substitute regulation and co-operation for denuncia­ tion. 51 A step in the right direction came with the tabling of a major report on chiropractic in New Zealand in 1979. The commissioners had visited Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States and the report was extremely favourable to the profession. "By the end of the inquiry we found ourselves irresistibly and with complete unanimity drawn to the conclusion that modern chiropractic is a soundly-based and valuable branch of health care in a specialised area neglected by the medical profession." The report also directed criticism at organised medicine in New Zealand, asserting that they found its opposition to be "largely rnisconceived."52 Another favourable ruling in support of chiropractic care came with the decision of a lengthy law suit in the United States. In 1978 five American chiropractors launched an anti-trust law suit against the American Medical Association and after eleven years in the law courts, a federal district court judge found the AMA guilty of conspiracy "in that it had unlawfully deprived chiropractors of association with medical doctors and that by calling them "unscientific cultists" it had eroded the credibility of the profession.""

- 48 - C'l ~ s.~ I:) ;::: l:l... tl (1:) ..:; (1:) .g

~ (1:) ;::: ...... s· s. (1:) ;ti "'...... ~ "" ~ The first Western Canadian Chiropractic Convention held at the Palliser Hotel in Calgary in June 1948. I:) Front row, seated, left to right: Clarence E. Messenger, Calgary; ??; Cecil Webb, Brandon; Vera Littlejohn, Winnipeg; Rudolph Muller, Dean of CMCC; ;:; J.A. Henderson, Toronto;??; CJ. L' Ami, Saskatoon; J.A. Palmer, North Battleford. Back row, standing, left to right: Dr. Rutherford, Winnipeg; Barry Byerstein, Camrose; Lou Heard and Campbell McLeod, Edmonton; Johnny Cheladyn and Harold Ramsey, Olds; Doug Knight, Calgary; Wm. Pederson, Lacombe; Harold Russell and Gordon Souch, Edmonton; Jim Bramhan; Harold McPhail and Lionel Theobald, Winnipeg. (Courtesy, Murray Bowman) A group of Calgary chiropractors make a "white hat presentation" at the Western Canada Convention in Vancouver, May 1950. Left to right: Douglas Knight, John Burton, Legal Counsel from Vancouver, Gavin Knight, Jack Jackson and Clarence E. Messenger. Seated: Gil Young, President of the B.C. Association. (Courtesy, Murray Bowman) Q cs ~ ..... ;::;-- ~ ~ !::l.. 0 ~ -<:: .._~ .g

~ ,.._Vi ~ .....~ -~ · s. ~

~ c., .....

....,~

~ ~ ;::; The 1952 Western Canada Chiropractic Convention held at the Macdonald Hotel in Edmonton. BJ. Palmer is fourth from the right in the front row and Benjamin Gullekson of Westaskiwin, a blind chiropractor, is seventh from the right in the front row. (Courtesy, Murray Bowman) The 9th annual Western Canadian Chiropractic Convention, held at the Banff Springs Hotel in June, 1956. Front row ~eated,left to right: L.C. Watson and Lou Heard, Edmonton; Cecil Webb, Brandon; Earl Himes, Dean of CMCC; Dr. Rich of Lincoln College; ??; Wilf Morgan, Vancouver; Murray Bowman, Calgary; Mrs. Sears and Tom Sears, Edmonton. (Courtesy, Murray Bowman) a cs ~ ..... ~ $::) ;:::; ~ 0 ~ ~ ...._~ .g

~ Vi ~ - ~ ~~·,u,,.~...... r~a ~~~'; . y;~J- 'L\\w.&Mt,~ w.r ie .- .~{-WI ;:::; """ ~ ...... s· ..... ;::;... ~

:.,,d' .....

~ "I ~ $::) ;::;

This photo of the Western Canada Chiropractic Convention held at Banff in June 1970 demonstrates the tremendous growth of attendance at the an nual conventions. In the front row, seated, from left to right, are: I. Len Faye of the Motion Palpation Institute; 2. Jack Cameron, Calgary; 6. Helmut Koch, Edmonton; 8. Byrnes Fleuty, Edmonton; 9. Darrell Laddel, Calgary. (Courtesy, Murray Bowman) "Look to the Spine"

Past Presidents' Awards Dinner, cl966. Left to right: Orville Berg, Lloydminster; Murray Bowman, Calgary; Harold Russell and Bruce Simpson, Edmonton. (Courtesy, Murray Bowman)

Executive members of the Alberta Chiropractic Association, cl958. Left to right: Lou Heard, Edmonton; Murray Bowman, Ross Lawson, Doug Lawson and Wally Thompson, Calgary. (Courtesy, Provincial Archives of Alberta 88.567158)

- 54 - CHAPTER4 CHIROPRACTIC EDUCATION

.D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, opened the first school in DDavenport, Iowa in 1897, just two years after his initial discovery. He held the first classes in his professional offices in the Ryan Building, but in 1904 moved the school into a large old house. It was not particularly successful, graduating only fifteen students in its first five years, five of whom were medical practitioners. Palmer's son, B.J .. took it over in 1906 and remained as head of the college until his death in 1961. These early years of chiropractic training employed tutorial methods and emphasised the philosophy, principles and techniques of manipulative therapy. Very quickly differences of opinion asserted themselves as some of Pal mer's first graduates disagreed with particular aspects of the methodolo­ gies or techniques of manipulation. They left the school and the area and went on to found their own schools in different parts of the country, teaching their own particular techniques. Others had disputes over curriculum. John A. Howard, for instance, a member of the faculty of the Palmer school, disagreed with BJ .'s lack of interest in obtaining cadavers for dissection. Howard founded the National School, first in Davenport and then moved it to Chicago in 1908. Several graduates of these early schools moved on and set up their own schools. Diplomas issued from many of them, in fact, declared the graduates able to "teach and practise." 1 Numbers vary, but it has been esti­ mated that at least three or four hundred schools of chiropractic have been in existence over time. Some of them were recognized training schools, but

- 55 - "Look to rhe Spine" many more were little more than "diploma mills" whose owners were in it solely for the money. The early chiropractic schools emerged at the tail end of the proprietary medical school era, so roundly condemned by Flexnor in his report in 1910. Government and Foundation grants became available to medical educators to help them improve their facilities, but no such grants were available to chiro­ practors - they had to do it themselves and it was many years before the profession could afford to do so. The correspondence schools that proliferated throughout the early decades of the century were the worst and accentuated the poor reputation of chiropractic education. Their advertisements were designed to appeal to the poorly educated, those stuck in humdrum and poorly paid jobs and offered them "wealth and respectability" in the new healing art of chiropractic. Even some of the legitimate schools offered mail-order instruction. Both the National School of Chiropractic and the Palmer School and perhaps others, offered lessons by correspondence. Admittedly they usually stipulated that such lessons were simply a preliminary introduction to chiropractic, to be followed up by a residential course. However, there is some evidence that thi residential course could be a mere two weeks of lectures. ~ The most flagrant and long lasting of the correspondence schools was one that called itself the American University, based in Chicago. It claimed to be the "largest institution in the world teaching the Science of Chiropractic" and was in existence from 1913 until 1935. The following is a typical advertisement in one of the popular periodicals:

BE A CHIROPRACTOR. Learn at home. By the American University system of instruction you can become a doctor of chiropractic by studying in your spare time at home or in class at the university. You do not require special talent or advanced education. 3

In fact there was no opportunity to attend a class at the university, as the American University comprised two small rooms in a business block. The complete course consisted of 65 lessons and the only admission requirement seemed to be an ability to complete the application form and pay the tuition fee. Age was not a factor, minors could apply, provided they were sponsored by an adult, who presumably paid the fee. Costs were $128.50, or $145 if paid in monthly installments.' During this explosive growth of chiropractic training schools, three opened in Canada and operated between the years 1910 and 1928. All were

- 56 - Chiropractic Education owner-operated and all were "straight" schools. W.J. Robbins, a medical doctor from Michigan, together with W.E. Lemon, also a physician, estab­ lished the Robbins School of Chiropractic in 1909 in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Following a nine month~' course, fourteen ~tudents graduated from the school in 1910, but by 1914 it was out of business.5 There is some evidence that this school also offered correspondence courses. In 1914 Ernst DuVal, a former instructor at the Palmer School, estab­ lished the Canadian Chiropractic College in Hamilton. He offered a one year course taken continuously, or two years of six months each, renting part of the Hamilton public library building for this purpose. There was no entrance examination nor any admission requirements. Students paid $250 for the course. As to the curriculum the college offered courses in anatomy, physi­ ology, symptomatology and diagnosis, embryology, the rudiments of obstet­ rics and the science, philosophy and art of chiropractic.6 About 1919 DuVal moved his school to Toronto. It was a family busi­ ness. Du Val, the president, taught chiropractic philosophy, hygiene and gyne­ cology; his two sons A.R. and D. Robert taught technique; while his son-in-law, T.E. Patterson was the vice-president. Becky, DuVal 's wife, was shown in the brochure as an assistant. 7 DuVal was a true disciple of B.J. Palmer and when asked why he had such little equipment in his school, he replied, "the essential apparatus necessary to teach chiropractic is brains, hands, knowledge and the ability to impart to the students."8 The college went out of business about 1923. J.S. Clubine, a graduate of the Canadian Chiropractic College, estab­ li shed the Toronto College of Chiropractic about 1921 and it was the most successful of the three Canadian schools. It graduated 76 chiropractors in 1922 and 54 the following year. But it, too, was destined to failure and closed in 1928.9 From this time until the establishment of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC) in 1945, Canadians wishing to become a chiropractor were forced to take their training in the United States. In any event, the number of students graduating from these three schools in Ontario comprised a minority of the chiropractors practising in that province, the majority went to the United States for their training and many of these were to "mixer" schools. Student enrollment also escalated during the early decades. Enrollment at the Palmer School increased from 8 in 1906 to 2,300 in 1921. 10 The course was approximately nine months in length and included formal lectures in anatomy, physiology, symptomatology and diagnosis followed by clinical training at the Palmer Clinic. During the 1920s the length of courses began

- 57 - "Look to the Spine" to expand and one or two of the major colleges began t9 offer longer cour e as an option. By this time, as some States and Provinces began to license chiropractors, greater pressure was brought to bear on the colleges to increase the length of training, offer more scientific courses, acquire more technolog­ ical equipment and demand certain educational standards for admission. The Palmer School, with its mesmerizing leader, BJ. Palmer, remained the "fountain head" of chiropractic training and from about 1913 held an annual lyceum, or homecoming, for graduates. These gatherings attracting chiropractors from far and wide, included continuing education programmes and often association conventions were held just before or after the lyceum. They provided both entertainment and moral support for practitioners who were out in the world battling medical associations, government health authorities and licensing boards. Traditionally the lyceums started with a parade through the streets of Davenport, welcoming speeches by City Fathers and continued with several days of enthusiastic educational presentations as well as entertainment." It was the time and place for announcements concerning the latest devel­ opments in the profession and it was at the 1924 lyceum that B.J. presented his neurocalometer. This instrument was designed to identify subluxations of the vertebra by measuring variances in temperature, whether the patient exhibited symptoms or not. It was a distinct and startling departure from the "hands only" method. However, as has been pointed out, the neurocalometer, like the x-ray introduced by Palmer several years earlier, was for diagnosis or analysis and not for treatment purposes.12 BJ. owned the patent on the instrument and he made it available only to Palmer graduates and then only on a lease basis. The cost of the lease was $2,200, with a cash down payment of $1,000 and the balance payable at $I U a month. Its introduction and limited availability, as well as the fact that it didn't always work very well, led to a controversy within the profession that took decades to die down. It also heralded the beginning of B.J.'s decline as the leader of the profes­ sion.1 3 Both attendance at the lyceums and enrollment at Palmer School dropped off alarmingly following this furor. From J 922 to 1929 enrollment fell from 2,300 students to less than 300 and the school suffered severe finan­ cial problems. Four faculty members left the school and established the Lincoln Chiropractic College in Indianapolis.1' The annual lyceums did continue, however. When BJ. died in 1961, he was succeeded by his son, David Daniel Palmer, the third generation of Palmers to head the school. Dr. Dave, "the educator," as he became known, dropped the title of lyceum for

- 58 - Chiropractic Education the homecoming and changed the name from the Palmer School to the palmer College of Chiropractic. In 1955, after 25 years of concentrating on the teaching of the upper cervical techniques - HIO - the Palmer School announced that it was developing a new programme to "investigate the lower spine, in a practical research manner." The school felt that the upper cervical was still the most effective and would remain the main area of tuition, but lower spine adjusting was necessary. In announcing this new progamme, Dr. Herbert Himes said "It is time ... the so-called controversy between lower spine and upper cervical be given its death blow."' 5 During the 1930s the various chiropractic associations initiated proposals to improve educational standards. It had become increasingly obvious that if chiropractic was to survive and achieve a professional status and acceptance within the health care system, then the "diploma mills," the correspondence schools and other sub-standard proprietary schools would have to be eliminated. In the late 1930s, they established a Committee on Educational Standards and in 1941 it appointed John Nugent as Director of Education. Often called the Flexnor of chiropractic, Nugent's recommenda­ tions included: merging of the smaller schools; all schools to be non-profit and professionally owned; clinical training and faculties be expanded; and the requirements for a diploma be four years of nine months each. Over the next two decades these recommendations were gradually adopted, the number of schools decreased substantially and both the length of the courses and the standards of education increased. 16 At the end of World War II all accredited chiropractic schools were flooded with returning veterans. Both the United States and Canada had financial assistance programmes to assist veterans in rehabilitating them­ selves into civilian life. While CMCC was established at this time the large numbers of Canadian veterans applying for admission was overwhelming and more than CMCC could accommodate, so the Department of Veteran Affairs provided funding for attendance at chiropractic colleges in the United States as well. The large numbers of students during this time period assisted the schools in their implementation of some of the recommendations initiated by Nugent, giving them the financial assistance needed to improve both their facilities and their instruction. Many of the American schools were still offering eighteen month programmes or three years of six months each. As the veterans were older than the usual first year students and many of them had wives and families to support, most of them opted for a straight eighteen

- 59 - "Look to the Spine,. months of training. In Alberta, most of the veterans interested in taking up chiropractic opted for the Palmer School. In many cases they sought the advice of the chiropractors then practising in the province, the majority of whom were Palmer graduates. By the 1960s most of Nugent's recommendations had been implemented and the major schools began a programme of renovation and new construc­ tion. Palmer's new buildings included the D.D. Palmer Library which housed an extensive collection of books, archival material and "the largest osseous collection in the world." '7 By 1968 there were eleven recognized chiropractic colleges in the United States - eight were "mixer" schools and three were •·straight" following the "traditional methods established by Palmer limiting therapy to manual adjustment with little or no use of ancillary devices."'8 In 1974 the U.S. Office of Education recognized for the first time the Council on Chiropractic Education. This meant that colleges accredited by CCE had a legitimate standing in graduate education in the United States.'9 Since chiropractic colleges in both the United States and, until very recently, in Canada received no public funding, they were entirely dependent upon tuition fees and support from the profession.20 This made it difficult for them to implement changes as rapidly as they would wish, but improvements were ongoing.

Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College

The first major campaign of the newly organized national association was the establishment of a Canadian school of chiropractic. From its incep­ tion CMCC was professionally owned and operated and funding came from the provincial associations, individual practitioners and tuition fees. C.E. Messenger of Calgary contributed more than $ l ,000.2 1 It has never at any time received any public funding, although students were eligible to apply for loans. Ontario students became eligible for grants under the Ontario Students Assistance programme in 1975.22 Two people closely involved with the first Canadian schools were also involved with the development of CMCC. J.S. Clubine, the founder of the Toronto Chiropractic College, was elected the first president of CMCC and served in that capacity for one year. John A. Henderson, a graduate of Robbins School in Sault Ste. Marie in 1911, who helped bring Ernst DuVal to Ontario to set up the Canadian Chiropractic College in 1914, served as registrar and business manager from 1945 to 1950.23 These two practitioners

- 60 - Chiropractic Education

provided an historic link between the two periods of chiropractic education in Canada. Another historic link occurred in the naming of the college and in its timing. The word "memorial" in the title serves to remember the founder of chiropractic, D.D. Palmer, who was born and raised in Ontario. And the college opened its doors on September 18th, 1945, exactly fifty years to the day from the first recorded spinal adjustment in modern times. Initially the college was flooded with applications from returning veterans who were supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs. The first building, a residential hotel hurriedly adapted for teaching purposes, soon became overcrowded and in 1947 the college erected a second building containing an auditorium, classrooms, laboratories and demonstration rooms. The library contained only about 1,200 books but students were· able to use the library of the University of Toronto which was nearby. 24 In 1959 Metropolitan Toronto expropriated part of the college property for subway construction. As a result some damage occurred to the buildings and it was almost ten years before a law suit was finally settled and the college given some reimbursement. CMCC then went ahead with plans to build a new college in the North York area of Toronto, which opened in 1968. After the influx of veterans died down in the early 1950s, student enroll­ ment decreased considerably, which was typical of most secondary educa­ tional institutions. The college entered into a period beset by many problems. The Board of Directors was comprised of representatives from the various provinces, with a heavy weighting from Ontario. Conflicts arose between this Board, which attempted to control day-to-day affairs of the college, and the management and the early years were marred by resignations, complaints and unrest. Over the years control of the college was taken over by the educa­ tors and individual chiropractors in the field had increasingly less control over the decisions of policy and curriculum. There were serious financial problems also and there were the usual regional disputes, which form such an integral part of Canadian history. The "straight/mixer" conflict split the country down the middle. Western provinces, particularly Alberta and British Columbia, came down strongly on the side of "pure unadalterated chiropractic" as the basis of tuition at the college. Ontario, however, was predominantly "mixer" and it had a majority on the Board. Furthermore higher education in Canada is under provincial rather than federal control, so CMCC, located in Toronto, was controlled by Ontario's legislative authorities and the Ontario licensing board favoured the "mixers."

- 61 - "Look to the Spine"

This led to a great deal of ill-feeling and support for CMCC from Alberta chiropractors was slow in developing. In fact the annual general meeting of the ACA in 1950 decided to "withhold all support of CMCC until it is satis­ factorily proven to be a "straight" chiropractic college."25 Over the next few years gradually and grudgingly, the two sides began to converge and there was give and take on both sides. In 1954 H.F. Russell, the president of ACA, suggested Alberta offer more co-operation in making CMCC more successful. Murray Bowman, president in 1955, mentioned in his report that the highest marks attained in philosophy of chiropractic in the recent exami­ nations, were made by a graduate of CMCC. "Perhaps many of us were too hasty in our indictment of the college," he reported. 26 A.E. Homewood, Dean of CMCC spoke feelingly of some of the prob­ lems in the early years in an article he wrote for inclusion in ACA's Bulletin in February 1961:

CMCC has over the years adhered religiously to the principles taught by D.D. Palmer; attempted in every possible manner to serve the vastly different needs of each province; striven to educate young people as doctors of chiropractic; sought to bring unity without uniformity into Canadian chiropractic; aspired to improve in facili­ ties, quality of instruction and useful research of benefit to the profession; and to serve faithfully the profession. Much misunder­ standing, apathy, mistrust, disinterest and plain, unvarnished hostility have been encountered in many areas. 27

CMCC's course consisted of four years of nine months each, not the seven months year usual in universities, with a minimum of 4,200 hours of instruction. One half of the total lecture and laboratory time was devoted to basic sciences, most of which were taught during the first two years, leaving the clinical sciences to the third and fourth years. In the third years students received practical diagnostic and treatment experience in the college's out­ patient clinic. Initially they provided care for fellow students, only later were they allowed to treat patients. A graduate received a diploma which referred to him or her as a Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.).28 Three years after the college moved into its new buildings, which were, according to Duncan Proudlock, the Alberta representative, "magnificent, stupendous, prestigious and functional," the college was once again suffering from overcrowding. By this time the baby boom generation was flooding all educational institutions. The college had a quota of 120 freshmen each year,

- 62 - Chiroprartic Education

but in 1973 it received 475 applications. Most came from Ontario universi­ ties, a number of whom had degrees ranging from a B.Sc. to a Ph.D and included two medical graduates and two students with an M.Sc. In order to deal with such large numbers, the College adopted a selection formula based on both academic and geographic backgrounds. The formula ensured repre­ sentation from each province based on "population percentages and ratio of chiropractors to population."29 Initially the entrance requirement at CMCC was completion of high school at a level required for admission to university although a number of applicants had some university background. All applicants had to supply letters of reference and take psychological tests to evaluate their intelligence, emotional stability, reading ability and study habits.30 In 1968 the Council on Education of the American Chiropractic Association required that admission requirements must include two years of university training and CMCC incor­ porated this admission requirement. Many of the States that had chiropractic legislation already required two years university as an admission requirement to a chiropractic college. Admission requirements now are three years of university, although most applicants have a degree. A sociological study of chiropractic in Canada in 1976 noted the changing expectations of the now more highly educated students entering chiropractic colleges. Many already had a science degree and brought with them the questioning and sometimes sceptical minds of the scientifically trained. This became a transitional period both in the profession and for its educators, as they adapted to changes in the character of the newly qualified practitioners 31

University Affiliation

The college continued to receive many more applicants than it could accommodate and they came with increasingly higher qualifications. For several reasons college authorities decided to work toward affiliation with a university: it would be particularly advantageous in the teaching of basic sciences where the students would have better qualified teachers; it would enable the college to establish research facilities and programmes; the students would have the opportunity to train within a university community encompassing many other professions; and it would improve the financial situation, as CMCC was still entirely dependent upon tuition fees and support fro m the profession. It also became clear that another college was required in Canada. Many

- 63 - "Look to the Spine"

Canadian students had to attend American colleges, at a .much greater cost to the individual. The provincial associations in Alberta, British Columbia and Manitoba all made applications to their universities for the establishment of a faculty of chiropratic, but without success. A.J. Macfarlane spent years working on this project in Alberta, first initiating a proposal in 1955. He began by making contacts on a purely personal level and received results that were "encouraging but inconclusive." He then headed a committee that would prepare a proposal to present to the Board of Governors of the University of Alberta. In 1963, theACA submitted a proposal seeking the establishment of a Faculty of Chiropractic at the Calgary campus, which was at that time a branch of the University of Alberta. It outlined the history of the acceptance of the profession over the years, the physical facilities required, the faculty, regulations concerning admission requirements and a detailed programme of study and descriptions of the courses. It requested "physical facilities, equipment and faculty, similar to, but SEPARATE AND DISTINCT from, the Faculty of Medicine at Edmonton."32 In discussing the proposal the Board of Governors noted that no univer­ sity on the North American continent had a Faculty of Chiropractic associ­ ated with it and turned down the application, stating that the establishment of such a faculty at Calgary would not be economical as it would duplicate facil­ ities already available in Edmonton.33 Another request in 1965 proposed the establishment of a "Health Sciences Complex" that would provide for the study of the basic sciences in the first two years for students of chiropractic, medicine and dentistry. This was a method proposed by Emmett Hall during the rebuttal session of the Health Care Commission. Clinical training for the individual profession& would follow. This proposal placed more emphasis on the fact that students of chiropractic should have the same advantages of a university education as did students of other professions.34 It too was turned down. In 1970, after the University of Calgary had achieved autonomy, it established a Faculty of Medicine. The ACA did not let the matter drop, however and it has remained an ongoing subject for discussion. The need for a second Canadian chiro­ practic college, preferably in western Canada, became increasingly obvious. University affiliation has finally been achieved in Canada, however. While the province of Quebec was one of the last in the country to enact a Chiropractic Act, it became the first and as yet the only province, to establish a faculty of chiropractic at a university. Following the passage of their provincial Act in 1973, a health services report recommended that, since no

- 64 - Chiropractic Education training programme existed in the province financial aid be given to students who had of necessity to leave the province to be trained. In the 1980s the Universite du Quebec worked with the Order of Chiropractors of Quebec to formulate the establishment of a training programme within the province. While an independent group that acted as an umbrella group for repre­ sentatives of all Quebec universities approved the plan, opposition came from the provincial medical association and from the Council of Universities, a government body mandated to advise the Minister of Higher Education and Science. After further discussion, the Minister announced in 1992 that a university doctoral programme in chiropractic would begin the following year. The five-year programme would be fully integrated within the univer­ sity curriculum, the degree would be a fully recognized university degree and the programme would be taught entirely in French. Forty five students enrolled in the Universite du Quebec at Trois Rivieres in September 1993. 35

Continuing Education

From its earliest days, the members of the ACA have been interested in refresher courses and learning about new techniques and advances in the profession. Several members returned to Palmer and other schools for home­ comings and refresher courses. On their return they gave papers at the regular Association meetings. In 1934 attempts were made to bring in outside teachers to give a clinic, but this was during the middle of the depression and funds were not available. Following the war when the Western Canada conferences began, outside speakers were always brought in to speak on varying subjects relating to the profession. In the 1960s, privately run seminars and courses on a variety of techniques and therapies began to appear on the market and a number of indi­ viduals participated in them. They were generally quite expensive and in many cases the ACA was reluctant to approve them. They agreed to sponsor some if they were given for a reasonable honorarium plus expenses.36 ln view of this decision, the members requested that the ACA sponsor at least one educational seminar per year, perhaps held in conjunction with the annual convention. The Association set up a Post Graduate Education Committee, which organized at least one seminar each year. In addition x-ray educational semi­ nars and quality control presentations were held on an annual basis. In 1968 came the first suggestion that continuing education should become a part of a chiropractor's obligations to his profession. The present

- 65 - "Look to the Spine" regulation that members are required to attend 75 hours ~f accredited contin­ uing education every three years as a condition of licensure came into effect in 1990.

The first building of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College in Toronto, opened September 18, 1945, the 50th anniversary of D.D. Palmer's first adjustment. (Courtesy, Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College)

The present day campus of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College in Toronto. (Courtesy, Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College) CHAPTERS THE ALBERTA CHIROPRACTIC ASSOCIATION AND ITS MEMBERS

n 1966 a change in the Act allowed Council to appoint a secretary-treasurer I who need not necessarily be a member of the Association. This cleared the way for the employment of a Jay person and the eventual establishment of an office. Since 1962 there had been discussions about employing outside help to handle the administration and finances of the Association, but the ACA was not in a financial position to support such a venture. To facilitate commu­ nication within the association, a telephone "hot line" was installed in the office of the president and in 1970 a paid employee, Betty Cunningham, was hired. She worked out of her home until the Association established an office on January 1, 1972 with Cunningham in charge. For 55 years the ACA had operated as a volunteer organization. All the work and effort - the lobbying, registration, setting and marking of exami­ nations, legislation, finances, the various committees - had been carried on by chiropractors who were, at the same time, carrying on their practice. The survival of the profession and the progress it has made in Alberta is a direct result of the years of dedication given over this long period of time by so many people. In the years prior to 1936, the Association was made up of a very small group of practitioners, who worked hard and diligently, to achieve recogni­ tion for their profession. Some of the meetings had as few as ten or twelve members present - travel was not as fast or as convenient as it is today -

- 67 - "Look to the Spine" yet they worked unstintingly to achieve their goal. These early practitioners in the province were imbued with a religious fervour. They were fearless, strong minded and determined and would give their all for the benefit of the profession. They were willing to go to jail and some did. Indefatigable in their purpose, indomitable in their courage, their energies were seemingly inexhaustible. They faced insurmountable obstacles with complete loyalty to chiropractic, had a zealous belief in the beneficial rewards of chiropractic and were utterly convinced that they "could make sick people well." 1 They needed this determination. Weaker personalities would have succumbed under the continual hostility they faced from medical and other health professionals, from academia, the press, as well as certain segments of the public. Generally speaking they were not well educated, they came from the working class strata of society and many were raised in rural communi­ ties and were attuned to a natural and simple lifestyle. It was to this segment of the public that they had their greatest appeal, the labour unions and the farmer organizations. In the early days about half the chiropractors practised in small towns in the province. Their chiropractic philosophy was incorruptible, but for the ultimate good of the profession they were, perhaps, over zealous in their concept of the unlimited power of chiropractic to heal. And, ironically, their utter devo­ tion to their own particular concept of chiropractic care would eventually lead to a divisiveness that would sometimes threaten to tear the profession apart. Nevertheless, great credit must go to this small group, spread out over a large geographic region, in the days when transportation and communication facilities were in a primitive stage. They laid the groundwork for what has become the third largest healing art in the province. They were outgoing personalities and many became involved in commu­ nity and political affairs, some had successful political careers as MLAs and MPs. In this way they brought chiropractic to the fore in their community, did their best to fight off the perception of "quackery" and helped to broaden the field of those who supported the practice. In the early years of chiropractic in Alberta, the majority had taken their training at the Palmer School. A few were graduates of other American insti­ tutions and even fewer had taken their training at one or other of the short­ lived Canadian schools in Ontario. Palmer remained the alma mater of the majority of the province's chiropractors for many years, even after the opening of CMCC in Toronto. In 1957 of the I 06 members of the ACA, 64

- 68 - The Alberta Chiropractic Association and Its Members had trained at Palmer, 20 at CMCC, 7 at the National School, 5 at the Lincoln School and the remainder from a variety of other colleges. By 1993 the majority had taken their training from CMCC, 47% of the total (201 out of 428), while 36% were Palmer graduates (156), 5% were from Logan and 4% from Western States. It is impossible to enumerate all those who worked so hard for the estab­ lishment of the profession and to further its acceptance in various other fields. I have, therefore, made my own, purely arbitrary choice of a few that have left their mark. William (Bill) Baronsfeather practised in Edmonton for thirty years. Born in Ireland, his family moved to China where his father was a medical missionary in charge of a leper hospital, before emigrating to ~dmonton in 1930. He graduated from Lincoln Chiropractic College in Indianapolis in 1941 and then went into the medical branch of the RCNVR. Returning to Lincoln after the war, he took a post-graduate course, earning the degree of Ph.C. At the time of his death in 1976 he was a member of the Alberta Chiropractic Appraisal Board as well as the Examining Board. He served as a member of the National Chiropractic Examining Board and instructed in many technical demonstrations at the local, provincial, national and interna­ tional levels. In 1963 he was named Chiropractor-of-the-Year and in 1965 received an Honour Membership in the Canadian Association. Laura Boyle was one of the charter members of the ACA and while she was never elected to an executive position she was an active member of the Association. Born in Lincolnville, Kansas she came to Canada in 1903 and later took her training at the National College of Chiropractors in Chicago. She was one of the group of practitioners who were the first to receive a licence to practise in Alberta in 1923. She lived and practised in Calgary from 1915 until her death in 1965 at the age of 79. Her husband, Colonel Russell Boyle died in World War I while commanding the 10th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. As a result she was an honorary member of the Chapter of the IODE that was named after her husband and was also Honorary President of the I 0th Battalion Association. 2 Lloyd D. Clancy came to Alberta from St. Paul, Minnesota in 1917 and set up an office in Medicine Hat before moving to Lethbridge, where he prac­ tised for more than fifty years. He was one of the charter members of the Alberta Chiropractic Association, serving as vice-president of the Association for the first two years of its existence. Later he would serve as president, from 1932 to 1939. He was heavily involved with the 1936 amend­ ment, which changed the composition of the Examining Board to include

- 69 - "Look to the Spine " four chiropractors and a lay chairman. And it was due primarily to his hard work and expertise that the words "chiropractic treatment" were included as a type of assistance available to injured workers under the Workmen's Compensation Board in 1937. Clancy remained as chief negotiator with the WCB as changes were made to their rules and regulations that affected the profession and discussions with the Board and the ACA always remained amicable. Clancy was elected to the first Examining Board after the 1945 Act serving as the examiner in the Meric Technique. He was one of the group of practitioners who were the first to receive a licence to practise in Alberta in 1923 and had a dual licenceship as he also practised as a naturopath. In 1962 he was named Chiropractor-of-the-Year and died in J 972. Benjamin L. Gullekson of Wetaskiwin was named Chiropractor of the Year in 1961 for his "service and dedication to his patients and profession ... (and)... his outstanding contributions to the chiropractic profession." Gullekson's story is unusual in that he was blind. Born in South Dakota, where his father was a member of the state legislature, the family home­ steaded near Wetaskiwin in 1908. At the age of 10 Gullekson lost his sight through a domestic accident and went to a school for the blind in Montreal. Despite his handicap he was determined to become a doctor and read all the Braille books he could find on the medical sciences. He graduated from the Toronto Chiropractic School in 1922 and returned to Wetaskiwin to begin his practice. He was one of the group of practitioners who were the first to receive a licence to practise in Alberta in 1923. Blessed with an extremely good memory, he was also able to vizualise clearly what the instructors were teaching. He "punched out" his patients records on a braille typewriter and with the assistance of some instruments designed by himself to assist him in his work, he built up a good practice. He credited his extremely sensitive touch to his lack of vision. 3 L. W. (Lou) Heard was born in Saskatchewan and studied banking after graduating from high school. He served as manager of several Treasury Bank branches before resigning to attend the Palmer School of Chiropractic. He graduated from there in 1943 and set up a practice in Edmonton. He was an appointed or elected officer in some capacity in the ACA practically every year of his active practice. He started off as an examiner in HIO technique, then became chairman of the Chiropractic Council, a position he held for over a decade. He was closely involved with the CCA, serving as president of that association, with CMCC and with the ACA presentation to the Royal Commission on Health Care. He was named Chiropractor-of-the-Year in

- 70 - The Alberta Chiropractic Association and Its Members

1960 and two years later was made an Honour Member of the CCA. "Chiropractors must show an interest in their municipal and provincial affairs," he said. "By so doing, one is at the same time contributing his talents to his community and also improving the public image of the chiropractic profession.''• Heard certainly lived by these rules himself. He was active in community, municipal and provincial affairs, holding local and district offices in the Optimist Club, as well as joining the Social Credit League in 1935. Elected to the legislature as a Social Credit MLA in 1948, he served for three terms. His contacts with the Social Credit League and his position as a government member were invaluable assets to the ACA. Norman Ibsen was born and raised in Nova Scotia and after serving in the Royal Canadian Navy during World War II attended the Palmer School of Chiropractic. He returned to Nova Scotia where he served as pres.ident of that province's chiropractic society before moving to Edmonton. Ibsen is a musi­ cian himself and has concentrated in his practice on the health problems peculiar to those involved in the fields of music and theatre. He was the chiro­ practor-in-attendance to the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra and the Citadel Theatre and assisted many well known visiting artists who came to him for help. In 1979 he assisted with the development of a custom chin rest for violinists. 5 Clarence E. Messenger came from the United States and was one of the group of practitioners who were the first to receive a licence to practise in Alberta in I 923. He was also one of the charter members of the ACA, in fact the inaugural meeting was held in his offices in Calgary. He served as secre­ tary-treasurer for the first three years and then as president in 1923 and 1924, the crucial years when the first Act was proclaimed. He held the office of secretary-treasurer again from 1929 to 1932 and was heavily involved as the Alberta representative to both CCA and CMCC in their formative years. Always a willing and enthusiastic member, he acted on behalf of the Association and the profession in many ways and on many committees. In 1943 the Association made him the Honourary Life President of the ACA, a position he refused to accept until he was assured that he wouldn't lose his vote. Messenger was a colourful and flamboyant character, well known on the streets of Calgary. He was a handsome man who sported a Vandyke beard and owned a bright red Stutz Bearcat car. He built a Spanish style house, very innovative for the time period, at the end of Elbow Drive along the banks of the Elbow River. Every hallowe'en he held a well attended, mammoth party for all the children in the neighbourhood in his large garden.6 Among a

- 71 - "Look to the Spine" certain age group in Calgary today, the word chiroprac~or still conjures up memories of the hallowe'en parties they attended as a child. His brother, Harold F. Messenger, was also very active in the ACA serving as secretary-treasurer from 1936 to 1943 and as president on two' occasions. He was also chairman of the first Chiropractic Board after the 1945 Act. Robert N. Thompson was born in Duluth, Minnesota in 1914 but was raised in Innisfail. He trained at the Palmer School of Chiropractic, returned to Innisfail to practise and took the oath of Allegiance to the ACA at its annual meeting at Sylvan Lake in July 1941. He spent many years in Ethiopia, as a director of education and working in a leper colony where he put his chiropractic training to good use. In 1961 he was appointed President of the Board of Directors of CMCC for a three year term and the same year was elected national leader of the Social Credit Party of Canada. He served as an MP for Red Deer from 1962 to 1972.7 Regina Wall practised in Red Deer from the mid 1930s to the late l 950s and was active in the ACA as well as in her community. In 1947 she was elected President, the only woman to have served in this capacity and also served as Vice President in 1936 and 1946, again the only woman to have attained this position. She also served in several other executive and board positions, including an election to the first Examining Board set up after the 1945 Act. She was responsible for Histology and Pathology. Wall was active in community affairs and "opened a lot of doors to chiropractic" in the city of Red Deer. In 1934 she became the first woman and the first chiropractor, to became a member of the Board of Trade. 8 A year or two later she was the driving force behind the organization of a branch of an international women's service club known as the Quota Club. This club promoted fellowship, good citizenship and the recognition of achievements of women. Dr. Wall served as its president and district governor and attended district and international conventions.9 Lawrence Watson was born in Ontario in 1900 and his family moved to Castor in 1910. When Jack and Jean Fish, both doctors of chiropractic, came to Castor and "fixed his back" he decided that was the career for him. He took a two year course at Ross College in Fort Wayne, Indiana, graduating in 1921 and then returned to Alberta. He practised in several small towns before moving to Edmonton where he joined BJ. Chevalier in the Tegler Building. One of his specialities was adjustment of the feet. Watson was one of the group of practitioners who were the first to receive a licence to practise in Alberta in 1923 and became well known in the

- 72 - The Alberta Chiropractic Association and Its Members profession for his imaginative advertising. He served as president of the ACA in l 928 and again in 1930 and received an Honour Membership in the CCA in 1977 for his many years of devoted service to the profession .

Women in the Profession

The role of women in chiropractic is somewhat enigmatic and also erratic. Representation of women in the profession of chiropractic has varied considerably over the years, but they enjoyed their best years in the early days of the profession as far as numbers were concerned. There seems to be no apparent reason why women would not make good chiropractors and it is difficult to understand why more women have not been attracted to the profession, particularly since the 1960s when more and more w9men began to enter the work force. In 1993, however, only 13% of chiropractors prac­ tising in Alberta were women. 10 It was not always this way. Of the first fifteen students accepted by D.D. Palmer, at least three were women. One of them went on to establish a school along with two of her colleagues, where she taught gynecology and obstet­ rics and physiology and symptomatology. D.D.'s daughter-in-law, Mabel Palmer, also trained in his school and after taking a course in anatomy taught that subject in the Palmer School for many years. She became a symbolic figure to many of the students and was known in the profession as the "First Lady of Chiropractic." In 1911 she founded Sigma Phi Chi, a chiropractic sorority, to "promote a social, mental and spiritual culture at the Palmer School of Chiropractic and to strengthen the bonds between women in chiro­ practic." Over 1,000 members have belonged over the years. 11 From the available figures, female students were well represented at the three Canadian schools during the years 1910 to 1926. The percentages of female students ranged from a low of 8% to a high of 66%, with an average of 29%. 12 The numbers of women in the profession began to decline following the passage of legislation in the provinces that authorized the licensing of chiropractors. These in tum led to regulations, standards and the upgrading of education. This coincided with the beginnings of organized associations whose purpose was to "professionalize" the profession. History has shown that occupations with a large proportion of women within their ranks had a more difficult time achieving recognition. Nevertheless, it is an anomaly that in a time period when women's role was that of wife and mother and her place was in the home, that women played a more prominent role in the profession than in later years. It is likely

- 73 - "Look to the Spine" that many of them had a background in nursing and/or m!dwifery. There is also evidence that a number of these women were, in fact, wives who took the training with their husbands. A study of graduating class photographs shows that most of the students, both men and women, were more mature. The profession did not seem to attract as many young people as was the case in subsequent years. Palmer School instituted a "man and wife tuition plan" in 1910 for married students, fees for the spouse being half of the full tuition. 13 There were a number of husband and wife teams in Alberta in the early days. James and Clara Kelley were in practice in Edmonton in 1914 and F.W. and Lena Bonsall set up a practice in Red Deer in 1919. Edith and W.M. Cassady practised first in Vegreville before moving to Calgary in the 1930s. Edith and David Elliott practised in Calgary from the 1940s and Lavina and William Pederson graduated from Palmer in 1941 and practised in Lacombe and Rimbey. There may well have been advantages to having a woman in a practice, few chiropractors have nurses in their offices and women patients may well have felt more comfortable if a female chiropractor was also present. Compared with the numbers of women in other professions during the 1960s and 1970s, chiropractic fell well short, although there has been a marked increase over the past decade. The number of women in the profes­ sion has increased at a much greater rate than their male counterparts. A prominent position in the field of chiropractic in Canada, that of president of CMCC, has been held by a woman, Dr. Jean Moss, since 1991. In the five year period between 1986 and 1991, the number of male chiropractors in Alberta increased by 39%, while the number of females practising in Alberta increased by 70%. 14 The percentage of women now training at CMCC has also increased substantially over the past few years.

- 74 - CONCLUSION

welve chiropractors formed the ACA in 1918 and following the passage Tof Alberta's Chiropractic Profession Act in 1923, the first in Canada, 32 practitioners received a licence to practise legally. In 1945, at the end of World War II, because of a variety of problems, thi s number had barely increased to 37. Since that time there has been a gradual, but ever increasing number of practitioners in Alberta. Over the past several years however, there has been an exponential increase and there are now 453 registered active members in the province. Alberta's population also increased rapidly after 1945, but as the following table shows, it has not increased as rapidly as has the chiropractic profession. '5

Year Population No. of Ratio: Chiropractors Chiropractors to Population

1946 803,330 37 1: 21,712 1951 939,501 73 1: 12,870 1971 1,627,875 145 1: 11 ,227 1991 2,545,550 410 1: 6,208

Early chiropractors were tenacious and totally dedicated to the technique of chiropractic care. They implemented a well-honed lobbying process, supported by a band of satisfied patients and a loyal following from the labouring classes. Their total dedication to their profession, practised as they had been taught, led to grievous di ssensions within the profession as well as supplying fuel to the fire of the medical fraternity's hostility. While many of the early doctors entered the profession because they personally had benefited from chiropractic care, over the past twenty years there has been a different breed of people entering the profession. They are more highly educated, particularly in the sciences, and more questioning about the wide ranging cures advertised by the early practitioners. They are, however, still as devoted to the profession, are independent-minded and convinced of the therapeutic advantages of chiropractic care. They have paid dearly for their training: tuition fees are very high. Education for the chiropractic profession receives no support from the public purse. CMCC is entirely dependent upon tuition fees and support from the profession, which has tended to inhibit continuing progress in the educational facilities. With the opening of a Doctor of Chiropractic programme at the Universite du Quebec, the profession has high hopes that CMCC will soon

- 75 - "Look to the Spine " achieve affiliation with a university. This will improvt: teaching in the sciences, develop more extensive research facilities and broaden the base of chiropractic support. And perhaps, at long last, a western school will materi­ alise. The ACA became the College of Chiropractors of Alberta in 1988 and has instituted several programmes leading to progress both within the profes­ sion and in the general field of health care. It is responsible for the regulation of the profession, including examinations, licensing, continuing education and practice reviews, as well as the promotion of the chiropractic profession. It offers scholarships to students and new graduates as well a~ recognition awards to those performing outstanding services to their profession. Chiropractic started in 1895 as a form of holistic medicine, one that treated the whole person. It was non-invasive in that it did not use drugs or surgery. One hundred years later, with the re-emergence of such concepts, some members of our society are again moving toward a more naturalistic approach to health care. They are seeking alternative forms of medicine that take into account all factors or causes that may contribute to disease and treat the whole person rather than just the disease. Chiropractic fits right into this philosophy.

- 76 - Conclusion

"A chiropractic family." Ors. William M. and Edith Cassady, taken in 1956 on their 50th wedding anniversary and their son Dr. William James Cassady. They all practised in Calgary. (Courtesy, Dale Stoen)

Dr. Keath Nevison's graduation picture from Palmer College, l 956 (Courtesy, Dr. Keath Nevison)

- 77 - "Look to the Spine"

Mobile clinics used in the 1950s and early 1960s by the McLeod Brothers, Colin and Campbell. They travelled on a regular schedule through a number of small towns in Alberta. (Courtesy, Dr. Campbell Mcleod)

- 78 - The Alberta Chiropractic Association and Its Members

I 983 Annual Convention in Banff. LtoR: Don Wood, Darrell Ladell, Percy Boyko, Brian Redpath, Dan Campbell, Gordon Hasick, David Petersen (Courtesy, Alberta Chiropractic Association)

Edmonton Annual Convention. LtoR: Carolee Bateson-Koch, Lambert Sinclair, Ned Witherbee, Landlin Johnson, John Kenlin, Ivan Sloan, Tom Amaolo, Tom Smith (Courtesy, Alberta College of Chiropractic)

- 79 - "Look to the Spine"

Service Award presented to Dr. Douglas Pogue by Dr. Darrell Ladell (Courtesy, Alberta Chiropractic Association)

Official Banquet Master of Ceremonies Doug Lawson and wife Ruth (Courtesy, Alberta Chiropractic Association)

- 80 - Some of the Past Presidents

Dr. L.D. Clancy Dr. Lawrence Watson

Dr. Harold F Russell Dr. J. W Jackson

Dr. M.H. Bowman Dr. A.R. Lawson

- 81 - "Look to the Spine "

Dr. Douglas F Lawson Dr. O.C. Berg

Dr. Bruce R. Simpson Dr. R.B. Fleuty

Dr. A.I. MacFarlane Dr. H.G. Koch

- 82 - Some of the Past Presidents

Dr. Keath R. Nevison Dr. D.E. Pedersen

Dr. Ken Harrison Dr. Don L. Wood

Dr. Grayden Bridge

- 83 - "Look to the Spine" APPENDIX I

The first licensed chiropractors in the Province of Alberta, under Clause 6 of the Chiropractic Act, 1923 .

E.A. Anderson, Camrose George Bach, Camrose Laura H. Boyle, Calgary A.E. Bozer, Stettler E.G. Buhler, Camrose John 0. Butler, Lloydminster Jos. E. Carrigan, Drumheller J.L. Chapelle, Calgary BJ. Chevalier, Edmonton Lloyd D. Clancy, Lethbridge C.C. Crafts, Edmonton J.S. Currie, Provost L.E. Davis, Calgary B.L. Gullekson, Wetaskiwin John F. Harris, Edmonton J. Hellerud, Rimbey A.J. Higgs, Cardston J.S. Irving, Lacombe G.A. Jamieson, Calgary C.A. Jensen, Cardston J.H. Lewis, Medicine Hat C.E. Messenger, Calgary H.F. Messenger, Edmonton S.E. Milligan, Calgary Wm. McArthur, Calgary N.E. Shorten, Edmonton Hyrum Smith, Lethbridge J.B. Smith, Lethbridge G.P. Souch, Edmonton L.C. Watson, Provost H.E. Williams, Sylvan Lake Frank Young, Innisfail

- 84 - Appendices APPENDIX II Officers of the Alberta Chiropractic Association Year President Vice-President Secretary 1918 J.F. Harris L.D. Clancy C.E. Messenger 1919 J.F. Harris LD. Clancy C.E. Messenger 1920 J.F. Harris Bates (Lacombe) C.E. Messenger 1921 G.L Barton A.E. Wight G.J. Parks 1922 G.L Barton A.E. Wight G.J. Parks 1923 C.E. Messenger F. Young N.E. Shorten 1924 C.E. Messenger H. Smith Wm. McArthur 1925 J.S. Irving L.E. Davis W. McArthur 1926 J.S. Irving LE. Davis W. McArthur 1927 J.S. Irving LC. Watson W. McArthur 1928 LC.Watson LE.Davis W. McArthur 1929 H.F. Messenger LH. Clancy C.E. Messenger 1930 LC. Watson LH. Clancy C.E. Messenger 1931 H.F. Messenger L.H. Clancy C.E. Messenger 1932 L D. Clancy W. McArthur B.L. Gullekson 1933 L D. Clancy W. McArthur B.L. Gullekson 1934 L D. Clancy W. McArthur B.L Gullekson 1935 L D. Clancy W. McArthur B.L Gullekson 1936 L D. Clancy Regina Wall H.F. Messenger 1937 L D. Clancy R.L McSwain H.F. Messenger 1938 L D. Clancy R.L McSwain H.F. Messenger 1939 L D. Clancy LE. Davis H.F. Messenger 1940 LE. Davis L.C. Watson H.F. Messenger 1941 L.E. Davis Gordon Souch H.F. Messenger 1942 LE. Davis H.H.W. Byerstein H.F. Messenger 1943 H.F. Messenger Hugh Elliott H.H.W. Beyerstein 1944 H.F. Messenger Hugh Elliott H.H.W. Beyerstein 1945 D.H. Elliott LW. Heard H.H.W. Beyerstein 1946 I.S. Irving Regina Wall H.H. W. Beyerstein 1947 Regina Wall J. W. Jackson H.H.W. Beyerstein 1948 J. W. Jackson Gordon Souch H.H.W. Beyerstein 1949 J.W. Jackson Garvin Knight H.H.W. Beyerstein 1950 J.W. Jackson Garvin Knight H.H.W. Beyerstein 1951 J.W. Jackson Garvin Knight H.H.W. Beyerstein 1952 H.F. Russell T. Sears H.H.W. Beyerstein 1953 H.F. Russell W.N. Baronsfeather H.H.W. Beyerstein 1954 H.F. Russell W.N. Baronsfeather H.H.W. Beyerstein 1955 M.H. Bowman A.R. Lawson H.H.W. Beyerstein 1956 A.R. Lawson D.F. Lawson M.H. Bowman 1957 A.R. Lawson D.F. Lawson M.H. Bowman 1958 D.F. Lawson A.J. MacFarlane M.H. Bowman 1959 D.F. Lawson A.J. MacFarlane M.H. Bowman

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Year President Vice-President Secretary 1960 O.C. Berg W. Pederson J.C. Speelman 1961 O.C. Berg L. Russell J.C. Speelman 1962 O.C. Berg W.H. Foord J.C. Speelman 1963 B.R. Simpson J.L. Parsons A.R. Hoefling 1964 B.R. Simpson R.B. Fleuty A.R. Hoefling 1965 R.B. Fleuty D.H. McLeod D.M. Proudlock 1966 R.B. Fleuty N.H. Gainor D.M. Proudlock 1967 A.J. Macfarlane H.G. Koch D.M. Proudlock 1968 H.G. Koch D.M. Proudlock Keath R. Nevison 1969 H.G. Koch D.M. Proudlock Keath R. Nevison 1970 H.G. Koch C.D. Lundgren Keath R. Nevison 1971 C.D. Lundgren D.D. Swartz D.D. Swartz 1972 C.D. Lundgren D.D. Swartz F.M. Remedios 1973 K. R. Nevison J. Ronald Carter F.M. Remedios 1974 K. R. Nevison H.C. Kleeman Karen Barber 1975 L.F. Schnell Derrill Ladell Karen Barber 1976 L.F. Schnell Ron Stiern C.A. McLeod 1977 L.F. Schnell Raymond Brodeur C.A. McLeod 1978 D.E. Pederson R.K. Elder Douglas Oke 1979 D.E. Pederson R.K. Elder Douglas Oke 1980 D.E. Pederson Glenn Stirling Douglas Oke 1981 Donald Wood Doug Lawson Don Pederson 1982 Donald Wood Bryan Redpath Don Pederson 1983 Donald Wood Bryan Redpath Don Pederson 1984 Donald Wood Ken Harrison Percy Boyko 1985 Ken Harrison Bryan Redpath Don Pederson 1986 Ken Harrison Bryan Redpath Don Pederson 1987 Grayden Bridge Ray Graham Greg Parsons 1988 Grayden Bridge Ray Graham Doug Reid 1989 Wilf Foord Doug Reid Brian Gushaty 1990 Jim Bortolotto Brian Gushaty Todd Newfield 1991 Jim Bortolotto Todd Newfield Richard Gehrke 1992 Richard Gehrke Leslie Shaw David Brosz 1993 Richard Gehrke Leslie Shaw David Brosz 1994 David Brosz David Walcott Jane McDearmid 1995 Leslie Shaw Brian Luco David Lawson In 1930, Laura Boyle was made an Honorary Life Member of the Association, but in 1938 she reverted to active membership, at her own request. In 1943, C.E. Messenger was elected Honorary Life President of the Association. He accepted the honour, but only after it was agreed that he would still be able to vote on issues and that he would continue to pay his annual dues.

- 86 - Appendices APPENDIX III This appendix includes some examples of the examinations set for chiro­ practors to obtain a licence in the 1920s. *

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF CHIROPRACTIC. 1925 examination 1. Why is a good knowledge of Chiropractic Philosophy essential to a Chiropractor? 2. Differentiate Diagnosis and Chiropractic Analysis. 3. Discuss diagnosis, setting forth your opinion of its value to a Chiropractor and stating reasons for your belief. 4. How would you determine what specific vertebra or vertebrae to adjust in any specific inco-ordination? 5. Explain retracing. 6. How, in your opinion, are the large majority of spinal abnormalities produced? (2) Is it advisable to adjust a curvature or rotation where no apparent inco-ordination exists? Explain the reason for your answer. 7. Name all possible subluxations of the Atlas. (2) Where would you take contact for adjustment on a sacrum subluxated apex anterior? 8. Explain how a person may have a spinal curvature or rotation without inco-ordination resulting there-from. 9. Why are rotations more common in the lumbar than other regions of the spine? (b) Define Rotary scoliosis. (c) Differentiate between a rotation and a rotatary scoliosis. 10. Explain the adjustment of a seventh dorsal vertebra subluxated P.L.I. (b) What are the possible points of contact in adjusting lumbar vertebrae. 11. Describe carefully a complete palpation of the spinal column. 12. Define: subluxation, cord pressure. 13. What vertebra or vertebrae would you adjust for jaundice and why? * These examination papers, and others, were obtained from the Premiers' Papers in the Provincial Archives of Alberta.

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ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 1925 e~amination 1. (a) Describe a typical cervical, a typical thoracic and a typical lumbar vertebra. (b) Describe the articulations between two lumbar vertebrae, giving the ligaments and other structures which bind these vertebrae together. 2. Give the origin, insertion and nerve supply of the muscles of the orbit. 3. Describe and indicate the function of the following: (a) Papillary muscle. (b) Coronary sinus. (c) Mitra! valve. (d) Bundle of His. 4. (a) Describe a typical nerve cell. (b) What are the special features of the following nerve cells: l. Cell of the spinal ganglion. 2. Pyramidal cell of the cerebral cortex. 3. Sympathetic ganglion cell. 5. Describe the brachia! plexus. 6. Describe the sympathetic trunk. 7. Give the microscopic structure, blood supply and nerve supply of the stomach. 8. Give the microscopic structure, blood supply and nerve supply of the pancreas. 9. Give the microscopic structure, blood supply and nerve supply of the kidney. 10. Give the microscopic structure, blood supply and nerve supply of the suprarenal gland.

PHYSIOLOGY. 1925 examination 1. Describe the functions of the spinal cord. 2. Describe the pathway of conduction of a painful sensation from the lower extremity to the conscious centers. 3. Enumerate the changes which take place in the heart during a single beat. 4. Describe the changes which the food undergoes in the stomach. 5. (a) Briefly describe the respiratory movements. (b) What changes are brought about by respiration in the air breathed and in the blood in the lungs?

- 88 - Appendices

SYMPTOMATOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS. 1926 examination

1. (a) Define Angiosclerosis. (b) State three conditions that tend to raise the arterial blood pressure. (c) Under what conditions may a person with arterioscolerosis have a low blood pressure? (d) What precautions should be observed by one suffering from high blood pressure? 2. Describe a typical case of ascending paralysis. In what way does this disease produce death. 3. (a) Differentiate lobar and bronchial pneumonia. (b) State pathological changes in various stages of lobar pneumonia. (c) Why would you view with alarm a marked decrease in cough and expectoration in broncho-pneumonia? 4. Differentiate symptoms of pancreatic, renal and biliary calculi. How would you distinguish right renal colic from acute appendicitis? 5. Describe a typical case of carcinoma of the stomach stating its five cardinal symptoms and distinguishing it from chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer. 6. (a) State possible adjustments for chorea. (b) In what class of individuals is this condition most commonly found? (c) Why do the muscular contractions practically always cease during sleep? (d) What function is primarily affected in this disease? 7. (a) Name the disease in which the following distinguishing symptoms are found: Kemig's Sign; Koplik's Spots; Argyll-Robertson Pupil; Raspberry Tongue; Corrigan's Pulse; and Parkinson's Mask. (b) Name several diseases in which Chyne-Stoke's respiration may occur. 8. (a) Locate the valvular areas. (b) Describe the symptoms of Aortic Incompetency. 9. (a) Name six conditions that may cause vertigo. (b) State several diseases in which a continued type of fever is found. What types of diseases does the fever usually terminate by crisis? 10. To what disease is acute endocarditis often secondary? What modes of physical examination would you employ in detecting endocarditis?

- 89 - "Look to the Spine" Endnotes Introduction

Quoted in Brian L. Beck, "Magnetic Healing, Spiritualism and Chiropractic: Palmer's Union of Methodologies, 1886-1895," in Chiropractic History, Vol. 11 , No. 2, 1991. p. 13. 2 Vern Gielow. " Daniel David Palmer: Rediscovering the Frontier Years, 1845-1897," in Chiropractic History, Vol. I, No. l, 1981. pp. 11-13. 3 Merrijoy Kelner, Oswald Hall, Ian Coulter. Chiropractors. Do They Help ? Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside. 1980. pp. 20-21. 4 Allan J. Terrel. "The Genius of D.D. Palmer: An Exploration of the Origin of Chiropractic in His Time." in Chiropractic History, Vol. 11 , No. I, 1991. pp. 31-38. 5 Beck, op.cit. p. 15. 6 John Langone. Chiropractors: A Consumer's Guide. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishjng Company, 1982. pp. 5-6. 7 Russell W. Gibbons, "The Evolution of Chiropractic: Medical and Social Protest in America," in Scott Haldeman. Modern Developments in the Principles and Practice of Chiropractic. Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton-Century, 1979. p.7. 8 Russell W. Gibbons. "Physician-Chiropractors: Medical Presence in the Evolution of Chiropractic," in Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. 55, No. 2, Summer 1981. pp. 233- 245. 9 Susan Moore. Chiropractic. The Illustrated Guide. The Art and Science of Body Alignment. New York: The Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1988. p. 136. I 0 Gibbons, The Evolution. op.cit. pp. 5-12. l l J. Stuart Moore. Chiropractic in America. The History of a Medical Alternative. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, l 993. p.58. 12 Elise A. Corbet. Frontiers of Medicine. A Hi story of Medical Education and Research at the University of Alberta. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press. 1990. p. 197. 13 Corbet, op.cit. p.29. 14 Quoted in Donald C. Sutherland. "Trial By Fire: Canadian Royal Commissions Investigate Chiropractic." in Chiropractic History, Vol. 5, 1985. p. 29. 15 Russell W. Gibbons. "Chiropractic History: Lost, Strayed or Stolen," in The ACA Journal of Chiropractic, January 1976. p. 21. 16 Moore, op.cit. p. l 18.

Chapter 1

I. A.E. Homewood, "Chiropractic" in The University of Toronto Medical Journal, February 1961 issue.

2. Scott Haldeman. "Almeda Haldeman, Canada's First Chiropractor: Pioneering the Prarie Provinces, 1907-1917 ," in Chiropractic History, Vol.3, No. I, 1983. pp. 65-67. 3. Minutes, ACA Meeting, June 28, 1918. 4. Corbet. op.cit. pp. 139-142. 5. Medical Profession Act, 1906, Statutes of Alberta, Chapter 28. 6. Corbet, op.cit.

7. See discussion of this movement in the United States in Walter Wardwell's "Chiropractor's Struggle for Legal Recognition: Balancing Rights and Protections" in Chiropractic History, Volume 12, No. 2, 1992. pp. 25-31.

- 90 - Endnotes

8. Amendment to the MPA, 1911-12. Statutes of Alberta, Chapter 27. 9. William S. Rehm, "Pseudo-Chiropractors: The Correspondence School Experience, 1912- 1935," in Chiropractic History, Volume 12. No. 2, 1992, p.33-35. I 0. Minutes of Meeting, ACA, June 28, 1918. 11. Donna Rubens. ''The Legitimation of Chiropractic: The First Thirty Years, 1900-1935." in Chiropractic History, Volume 13, No. l, 1993. p.18. 12. Minutes, ACA Meetings held in 1918 and 1919. 13. Wardwell, op.cit. p. 28. 14. Minutes, ACA Meeting, October 5, 1919. 15. Wardwell, op.cit. p. 25. 16. Minutes, ACA Meeting, November 27, 1919. 17. Western Weekly Reports, Volume 2, 1921. pp. 7 and 8. 18. Edmonton Telephone Directory, Edmonton Municipal Automatic System, June 1921. p. 268. 19. Amendment to the MPA, April LO, 1920. Statutes of Alberta, 1920 and Letter from President Tory, U of A, to Allan T. Mode, Solicitor for the ACA, February 7, 1920. (University of Alberta Archives, Presidents' Papers, hereinafter referred to as UAA, P.P.) 20. Letter, Messenger to Tory, January 19, 1920. (UAA, P.P.) 21. Minutes, ACA Meeting, April 11, 1920. 22. Minutes, University Senate meeting, May 12, 1920. (UAA) 23. Letter, Tory to Minister of Education, June 19, 1920. (UAA, P.P.) 24. Minutes, Senate meeting, May 12, 1920. (UAA) 25. Letter, F.W. Bonsall , D.C. of Red Deer to the Senate, May 21 , 1920. (UAA, P. P.) 26. Letter, BJ.Palmer to Registrar, U of A, May 10, 1920 and Letter, Tory to Minister of Education, June 19, 1920. (UAA, P.P.) 27. ibid. and Letter, L' Ami to Tory, May 28, 1920. (UAA. P.P.) 28. Minutes, Senate Meeting, October 29, 1920. (UAA) 29. Minutes, ACA Meeting, April 24, 1921. 30. Letter, Browning, Deputy Attorney General to W.G. Hunt, Secretary, Alberta Medical Association, July 27, 1920. (Provincial Archives of Alberta. Attorney General's Papers, here­ inafter referred to as A.G. Papers) 31. Letter, John Park, Registrar, CPSA, to A.G. Browning, January 29, 1920. and Hunt to Browning, July 20, 1920. (A.G. Papers.) 32. Alberta Law Reports, Volume XV l , 1920-21. pp. 355-364. 33. Western Weekly Reports, Volume 3, 1923. pp. 159-160 and Volume 1, 1924, pp. 674-706, and newspaper clipping in City of Edmonton Archives Clippings file, n.d. I 923. 34. The Edmonton Bulletin and The Edmonton Journal, March 29, 1922.

Chapter 2

l. Letter, W.G. Hunt, Secretary, CPSA to Herbert Greenfield, Premier of Alberta, February 2, 1923. (PAA. Premiers' Papers f.287. hereinafter referred to as PAA.PP.) 2. The Edmonton Journal, February 13, 1923. 3. ibid, March 13, 1923.

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4. Edmonton Bulletin, March 16, 1923. 5. Edmonton Bulletin, March 22, 1923. 6. Edmonton Journal. March 2 1, 1923. There is no evidence that Shorten took up this challenge. 7. ibid.April 17, 1923. 8. An Act to Regulate the Practice of Chiropractic. in Statutes of Alberta. Chapter 28. 1923. 9. ibid. 10. Minutes. ACA Meeting, July 25, 1925. 1 1. Minutes, ACA Meeting, November 9, 1930. 12. Department of Health Papers. (PAA. 70.414, f. l 082.) 13. Letter, J.G.Cameron, Secretary, Alberta Chiropractic Research Association to the Premier, January 31, 1936. (PAA. P.P. f.872) 14. An Act to amend the Chiropractic Act, April 10, 1925. Statutes of Alberta, Chapter 45, 1925. 15 . Letter, Cameron to Aberhart, (PAA.P.P. f.872) 16. Letter, Joe Doherty of Corn,ort to Jean McWilliams. February 13, 1931. Mc illiams Papers. (Glenbow Alberta In stitutes Archives. M724, f. 2.) 17. Minutes ACA Meeting, July 18, 1926. 18. See Crime Reports and letters to the Attorney General in the Attorney Generals' Papers. (PAA, A.G. Papers, f. 758 and 759) 19. ibid. (f.758c) 20. ibid. (f.759) 2 l. ibid. (f.758a) 22. Letter, Canadian Women 's Protective Association to Agnes McPhail, February 26, 1926. (PAA. P.P. f872) 23. McWilliams Papers. op.cit. 24. See: PAA. P.P. f. J 70A, I 70C, 434A and 872; and Mc Williams Papers, op.cit. 25. An Act to amend the Chiropractic Act, April 3, 1936. Statutes of Alberta, Chapter 58, 1936. 26. PAA. P.P. f.872. 27. Minutes, ACA Annual Meetings, 1937- 1939. 28. Minutes, ACA Meeting, November 20, 1944. 29. Report to The Social Credit Members of the Alberta Legislature by H.F. Messenger, March 15, 1944. (PAA. P.P. f.1376) 30. Open letter from E.L. Taylor to "Dear Chiropractic Devotee," March 39, 1945. (PAA. P.P. f. 287) 3 1. "To the Gentlemen of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, Edmonton, Alt." n.d. c 1945. (PAA. P.P. f.287) 32. ibid. 33. "An Act Respecting the Practice of Chiropractic," Assented to April6, 1945. Statutes ofAlberta. 1945, Chapter 16. 34. Minutes, ACA Legislative Committee, January 7, 1945. 35. ibid. 36. 1945 Act, op.cit. 37. Letter, J.S, Irving, D.C. to Attorney General, May 26, 1924. (PAA. A.G. Papers, F.758C) 38. Minutes, ACA Meetings, 1932-1939. 39. The Edmonton Journal, October 25, 1938. 40. Minutes. ACA Annual Meeting, July 22 and 23, 1939.

Chapter 3

"The Chiropractic Act." Chapter 41 , Statutes of Alberta, 1945; and Minutes, ACA Annual Meeting, May 14, 1945. 2 Letter, Deputy Minister of Health to Minister of Health, November 21, 1958. (PAA 70-414) 3 Brief from the ACA to the members of the Legislative Assembly, March 1955. 4 Minutes, ACA Special Meeting, March 15, 1955. 5 Amendments to the Chiropractic Act. Revised Statutes ofAlberta, Chapter 18, April 2, 1953 and

- 92 - Endnotes

Chapter 41, 1955. 6 Quoted in the ACA's Bulletin, March, 1955. 7 Minutes. ACA Annual Meeting, October 5, 1956. 8 Minutes, ACA Meeting, December 7, 1957. 9 Minutes, ACA Meeting, June 14, 1957. IO Minutes, ACA Meeting. November 20, 1960. 11 Bulletin, April, 1961. 12 Chiropractors have paid malpractice insurance since the end of WW IL However, the low premium they paid and still do pay, reflects the fact that relatively few claims have been made upon it. 13 Bulletin, June 196 I. 14 Bulletin, February, 1961. 15 ibid. April, 1961. 16 Bulletin, January and February 1962. 17 "Brief to the Royal Commission on Health Services by the Canadian Chiropractic Association, Alberta Division," Toronto, May 1962. p.3. 18 ibid. 19 Bulletin, April 1963. 20 President's Report in Bulletin, December, 1964. 21 Personal communication. Dr. Helmut Koch. 22 Bulletin, March 1966. 23 ibid, April, 1965, p.31; and Donald C. Sutherland. "The Development of Chiropractic in the Canadian Health Care System," A historical review. First published in the Journal of the CCA, September I 993. p. 22. 24 ibid. p. 23. 25 Annual Reports of the Alberta Health Care Insurance Commission, 1972, 1977, 1979 and 1984- 85. 26 Bulletin, January 1956. 27 Bulletin, March, 1966. 28 Bulletin, October, 1962. 29 Brief to R.C. op.cit. p.4. 30 Letter, Gordon Taylor, Minister of Highways to Dr. Heard, n.d Produced in the Bulletin. October 1965. 31 Edmonton Journal, May 7, 1918. 32 Calgary Henderson's Directory, 1916. p.38. 33 Minutes, ACA meeting, July I, 1932. 34 Messenger's adverti sement in the Edmonton Journal, October 27, 1928; and John F. Harris in the Edmonton Telephone Directory, 1920. 35 Minutes. ACA meeting. July 18, 1942. 36 For instance, some chiropractors opposed the fluoridation of water. 37 Bulletin, December 1962. 38 Minutes, ACA meeting, November 1, 1969. 39 Bulletin, April, 1968. 40 Bulletin, September, 1959. 41 The International Review of Chiropractic, August, 1959, pp. 5-6. 42 Bulletin, October, 1956. 43 ACA Journal, August 1970, pp. 16-17; and ACA News-0-Gram, August 1971. 44 Bulletin, December 1969. 45 "The Chiropractic Profession of Alberta" prepared by ACA, October, 1976. p. 7. (Files of the College of Chiropractors' of Alberta (CCOA)) 46 Letter J. Dvorkin, President, CPSA to Keath Nevison. President, ACA. May 6, 1975. (CCOA files) 47 Section 62, the Medical Profession Act, Statutes of Alberta, Chapter 26, 1975. 48 Letter L.F. Schnell, President, ACA to Premier Lougheed. April 8, 1976. (CCOA files)

- 93 - "Look to the Spine"

49 A brief relative to the Notice of Motion of J. Walker, M.D. April 15, 1976. 50 L.H. LeRiche. "It All Hangs Upon the Spine," in Canadian Doctor, Match 1972. pp. 39-41. 51 The Globe and Mail, June 26, 1972. 52 "Chiropractic in New Zealand." Report of the Commission of Inquiry, l 979. 53 Ellen Ruppel Shell. "The Getting of Respect," in The Atlantic, February 1988. pp. 78-79.

Chapter 4

Peter Blacher. "The Evolution of Higher Education in Chiropractic: A Survey 1906-74." in Chiropractic History, Vol. 12, No. I, 1992. p.37. 2 William S. Rehm. "Pseudo-Chiropractors: The Correspondence School Experience, 1912- 1935 ," in Chiropractic History, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1992. pp. 33-34. 3 Blacher, op.cit. p. 38. 4 ibid. pp. 34-35. 5 Lesley Biggs. "Chiropractic Education: A Struggle for Survival," in Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapewics, Vol. 14, No. I, January 1991. p. 23. 6 "Report of Mr. Justice Frank E. Hodgins in Regard to Chiropractic," Commissioned by the Province of Ontario, 1916. 7 Biggs, op.cit. 8 Hodgins Report. op.cit. 9 ibid. p. 24. LO Blacher, op.cit. p. 38. 11 Kathleen A. Crisp. "Chiropractic Lyceums: The Colorful Origins of Chiropractic Continuing Education," in Chiropractic History, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1985. p. 17. 12 Moore, Chiropractic in America. op.cit. p.62. 13 ibid., pp. 18-20. 14 Blacher, op.cit. p.39. l 5 Quoted in Bulletin, January, 1956. 16 Blacher, op.cit. p.40. 17 Blacher, op.cit. p.40. 18 Donald E. Larsen. 'The Education and Regulation of Chiropractors in Ontario." Report commissioned by the Ontario Committee on the Healing Arts. 1968. p. 4. 19 Rehm, op.cit. p. 33. 20 Until 1993 , when the Universite du Quebec opened a chiropractic doctoral programme, no Canadian institution had received any public funding. 21 Minutes, ACA meeting. November 20, 1944. 22 CCA Journal, December l 974, p.5. 23 Herbert K. Lee. "Honoring the Founder in His Country: Conception and Struggle for Canada's Memorial College," in Chiropractic History, Vol. 1, No. I, 1981. p.43. 24 Larsen, op.cit. p. 40. 25 Minutes of meeting, July I, 1950. 26 Bulletin, 1955. 27 Bulletin, February 1961. p.7. 28 Larsen, op.cit. p. 37. 29 CCA NEWS, Vol. 1, No. 1, January, 1973. p. l. 30 Larsen, op.cit. p.3 l . 3 l Merrijoy Ke Iner. "Report on the Sociological Study of Chiropractic in Canada," in CCA Journal, October 1976, pp. 18-19. 32 "Proposal for Consideration of a Plan for the Establishment of a Faculty of Chiropractic at the University of Alberta, Calgary." August 21, 1962. (CCOA files) 33 Minutes of Meeting, Board of Governors, October 3, 1963. (UAA. 74-l l 9. Fl 13) 34 Letter, A.J. MacFarlane to all members of the ACA. October 15th, 1965. (CCOA files)

- 94 - Endnotes

35 Peterson & Weise, Chiropractic. An Illustrated History, 1995. pp. 382-383; and "Chi ropractic Goes to University," A CCA Report, September 1993. 36 Bulletin, May 1965.

Chapter 5

I ACA Journal, July, 1969. 2 Calgary Herald, November 16, 1965. 3 Edmonton Journal, November 17, 1952 and CCA Journal, August, 1961. 4 CCA Journal, October/November, 1963. p. 16. 5 /CA Review. July/August, 1986. pp. 29-31. 6 Telephone interview with Doris Falconer, Receptionist for Dr. Messenger for 23 years. 7 CCA Journal, August, 1961. 8 "History of the Red Deer Chamber of Commerce, 1894-1994," by Michael Dawe. Red Deer Archives. 9 Papers of the Quota Club, 1936- 1954. Red Deer Archives. I 0 Annual Report, College of Chiropractors of Alberta, 1993. 11 Peterson and Wiese. op.cit. pp. 446, 453-454. 12 Biggs, "Chiropractic Education," op.cit. pp. 24. 13 Ru ssell W. Gibbons. "'Mom & Pop' Chiropractic Schools in Kansas," in Chiropractic History, Vol. 12, No. 1, June 1992. pp. 12-13. 14 Census of Canada, 1991. Table 1, p. 189. 15 Census of Canada, 1946, 1951 , 197 l and 1991.

- 95 - "Look to the Spine" BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

As 1995 is the 1OOth anniversary of the chiropractic profession several new books have been published in the last year or two and were useful for background material on the profession. They included Scott Haldeman's Principles and Practice of Chiropractic (Norwalk, Conn. 1992); J. Stuart Moore's Chiropractic in America. The History of a Medical Alternative, (Baltimore, 1993); Chiropractic. An Illustrated History, by Dennis Peterson and Glenda Wiese, (St. Louis, Missouri 1995); and Walter Wardwell's Chiropractic: History and Evolution of a New Profession, (St. Louis, Missouri 1992). Two periodicals proved particularly useful as they included a number of articles that were pertinent to the Canadian scene, as well as the early history of the profession. These were Chiropractic History which is published by the Association for the History of Chiropractic in Davenport, Iowa; and the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics. Several other arti­ cles and periodicals contained useful information, but the Alberta Chiropractic Association's Bulletin, copies of which, dating from the early l 950's to the 1970s, were obtained from the College's offices and these were invaluable sources of information about developments in Alberta. Copies of the Canadian Chiropractic Association's Journal, were also most useful. The minutes of meetings of the Alberta Chiropractic Association, dating from 1918, were kindly made available to me from the Association offices and were an immense source of information. Other articles, letters, docu­ ments and reports were also made available to me. The Premiers' Papers in the Provincial Archives of Alberta and the Presidents' Papers in the University of Alberta were a good source of information for the early period. The City of Edmonton Archives has an excellent collection of newspaper clippings on the chiropractic profession and the Alberta Scrapbook Hansard file at the Glenbow Archives was most helpful. Finally, various submissions to both levels of government, as for instance, the Brief to the Royal Commission on Health Care in 1961, gave much information.

- 96 - Index Index

Numbers in bold type refer to illustrations.

ACA see Alberta Chiropractic Association advertising: 12, 22, 42-46, 56 Advisory Board of Examiners: 28, 29-30 Alberta Anti-Vivisection Society: 28 Alberta Chiropractic Association and accreditation: 35 and legislation: 10-11, 14, 23-26, 29, 30-32. 34, 35, 37, 39 annual meetings: 7, 29, 32, 38, 47, 65 Bulletin: 34, 38, 62 committees: 37, 44 divisions: 37-38 formation of: I 0 membership: 27, 30-31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 67-69 officers: 54, 81, 85-86 Alberta Department of Health: 25, 26, 41 Alberta Department of Highways: 42 Alberta Health Care Insurance Commjssion: 40, 47 Alberta Health Plan: 39-40, 41, 46 Alberta Medical Association: 23-24 Alberta's Chiropractic Layman's League: 31 alternative medicine: 2, 5, 8, 9, 12, 24, 40, 76 Amaolo, Tom: 79 American Chiropractic Association: 63 American Medical Association: 46-48 American University: 56 Anderson, E.A.: 84 Bach, George: 84 Baronsfeather, William (Bill): 69 Barton, George L.: 22 Bateson-Koch, Carolee: 79 Berg, Orville: 54, 82 Bonsall, F.W.: 7, 14, 74 Bonsall, Lena: 7, 74 Bowman, Murray: 36, 52, 54, 62, 81 Boyko, Percy: 79 Boyle, Laura: 7, 10, 69, 84 Bozer, A.E.: 84 Bramhan, Jim: 49 Bridge, Grayden: 83 Buckley, J.C.: 23, 25 Buhler, E.G.: 84 Burton, John: 50 Butler, John 0.: 84

- 97 - "look to the Spine"

Byerstein, Barry: 49 CCA see Canadian Chiropractic Association CPSA see College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta Cameron, Jack: 53 Campbell, Dan: 79 Canadian Chiropractic Association: 30, 34, 39 Canadian Chiropractic College: 14, 19, 57 Canadian Medical Association: 47-48 Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College: 34, 35, 39, 57, 59, 60-63, 66, 68, 69, 74, 75 Carnegie Foundation: 5, 8 Carrigan, Joseph E.: 84 Cassady, Edith: 26, 74, 77 Cassady, William James: 77 Cassady, William M.: 26, 74, 77 Chapelle, J.L.: 84 Cheladyn, Johnny: 49 Chevalier, BJ.: 84 Chiropractic Act (1923): 25-26, 27, 28-29 Chiropractic Act (1945): 30-32, 35, 37 Chiropractic Act (1966): 39 Chiropractic Appraisal Board: 35, 36, 37, 39 Chiropractic Council: 34, 39 chiropractic, definition of: 1-2, 26, 30-31, 36, 39 Chiropractic Educational Bureau: 34 chiropractors, numbers of: 27, 33, 38, 45 , 75 Clancy,LloydD.:7, 10,20,30,32,69-70,81, 84 Clement, Lawrence: 20 clinics, mobile: 78 Clubine, J.S.: 57, 60 College of Chiropractors of Alberta see Alberta Chiropractic Association College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta: 8-9, 12, 13, 23, 26, 47 Committee on Educational Standards: 59-60 complaints: 31-32 continuing education: 65-66 Council on Chiropractic Education: 60, 63 Crafts, C.C.: 84 Cunningham, Betty: 67 Currie, J.S.: 84 Davis, L.E.: 84 Davis, T.E.: 7 discipline: 31-32, 35, 37 Dr. Palmer's School and Cure see Palmer School of Chiropractic Drugless Practitioners' Act: 34 Du Val, A.R.: 57 - 98 - Index

DuVal , D. Robert: 57 DuVal, Ernst: 13 , 57 education: 9, 12, 24, 27, 30, 31-32, 37, 40, 55, 59-63, 65-66 cost of: 75 see also schools Elliott, David: 74 Elliott, Edith: 74 ethics: 35 examinations: 12-15, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31-32, 34, 87 Faye, Len: 53 fees: 10, 40, 41, 42, 43 Fleuty, R. Byrnes: 53, 82 Flexnor Report: 8, 56 Forrester, C.R.: 43-44 Gullekson, Benjamin: 51, 70, 84 HIO technique: 4, 31, 34, 59 Haldeman, Almeda: 7 Hall, Emmett: 64 Hall Commission see Royal Commission on Health Care Harris, John F.: 7, 10, 11, 16, 26, 42-43, 84 Harrison, Ken: 83 Hasick, Gordon: 79 Heard, Lou W.: 22, 34, 41, 49, 52, 54, 70-71 Hellerud, J.: 84 Henderson, John A.: 49, 60 Higgs, A.J.: 84 Himes, Earl: 52 "Hole in One" see HIO technique Holmberg, A.N.: 15-16 Homewood, A.E.: 62 Ibsen, Norman: 71 Irving, J.S.: 29, 84 Jackson, Jack: 50, 81 Jamieson, G.A.: 84 Jensen, C.A.: 84 Johnson, L.: 79 Kelley, Clara: 7, 74 Kelley, James: 7, 74 Kenlin, John: 79 Knight, Doug: 49, 50 Knight, Gavin: 50 Knight, Harry: 30 Koch, Helmet: 46, 53, 82 Lacroix Commission: 40 Ladell, Darrell: 53, 79, 80 L' Ami, C.J.: 15, 49 Lawrence, L.A.: 10, 11 - 99 - "Look to the Spine"

Lawson, A.R.: 81 Lawson, Douglas F.: 54, 80, 82 Lawson, Ruth: 80 Lawson, Ross : 54 legislation: 10-11 , 23-24, 25, 27, 28, 30-31, 37, 39 see also names of specific ac ts, e.g., Chiropractic Act, Medical Profession Act Lemon, W.E.: 57 LeRiche, L.H.: 47 Lewis, J.H.: 84 licensing see registration listing: 35, 36, 38 Littlejohn, Vera: 49 Local Council of Women: 28 Low, Solon: 28, 29 McArthur, William: 29, 84 MacFarlane, A.J.: 64, 82 McLeod, Campbell: 49, 78 McLeod, Colin: 78 McPhail, Agnes: 28 McPhail, Harold: 49 McQuaig, Stanley: 29 McWilliams, Jean: 28 malpractice: 15-16 Maxwell, Elizabeth: 7 media, attitude of: 6, 42, 46, 47-48 Medical Council: 15 Medical Profession Act: 8, 9, 12, 17, 47 medical profession, education of: 4-5, 8, 9, 12 medical profession, hostility of: 5-6, 7-9, 12, 13, 15 , 24, 25, 29, 39-40, 41 , 42, 46-48 medical profession, regulation of: 4-5, 7-9 Medicare see national health care Meric technique: 4, 31, 34 Messenger, Clarence E. : 10, 13, 26, 29, 43-44, 49, 50, 60, 71-72, 84 Messenger, Harold F.: 30, 12, 43 , 72, 84 Milligan, S.E.: 84 "mixers": 4, 11 , 31, 35, 37, 38, 60, 61 , 62 Mode, Allan T.: 23, 24 Morgan, Wilf: 52 Moss, Jean: 74 Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act: 42 Muller, Rudolph: 49 national health care: 30, 33, 38, 39-40 see also Alberta Health Care Insurance Commission, Alberta Health Plan

- 100 - Index neurocalometer: 3, 58 Nevison, Keath: 77, 83 Nugent, John: 59-60 old age pensioners see senior citizens Palmer, Bartlett Joshua (B.J.): 3-4, 11 , 18, 51 , 57, 58 Palmer, Daniel David: 1, 2, 3, 18, 55, 60, 62 Palmer, David Daniel: 58 Palmer, J.A.: 49 Palmer, Mabel: 3, 73 Palmer College of Chiropractic see Palmer School of Chiropractic Palmer Institute and Chiropractic Infirmary see Palmer School of Chiropractic Palmer School of Chiropractic: 3, 11, 12, 19, 24, 34, 55, 56, 57-~9, 60, 68, 69, 73, 74 Parks, Guy J.: 7, 10, 43 Parks, John: 12 Patterson, T.E.: 57 Pederson, David: 79 Pederson, D.E.: 83 Pederson, Lavina: 21, 74 Pederson, William: 21, 49, 74 pensioners see senior citizens Pogue, Douglas: 80 public, attitude of: 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 23, 27, 28, 32, 68, 75 public relations: 44-46 radio: 4 Ramsey, Harold: 49 Reagan, Ronald: 4 Redpath, Brian: 79 registration: 8, 9, 10-11, 12, 15, 16-17, 23, 24, 25-26, 27, 29, 31-32, 35, 37, 73 Revell, D.G.: 25 Robbins, W.J.: 57 Robbins School of Chiropractic: 57 Robinson, J.L.: 29 Roske, S.H.: 10 Ross, Donovan: 39, 41 Royal Commission on Health Care: 38, 39, 40, 47, 64 Russell, Harold F.: 38, 49, 54, 62, 81 schools: 3, 9, 14, 24, 25, 30, 34, 35, 37, 55-66 correspondence: 9,24,56,57,59 curriculum of: 24, 57-58, 59, 62 enrollment: 57, 58, 59, 61, 62-63, 73, 74 entrance requirements: 14, 24, 56, 57, 58, 59, 63 university affiliation: 63-65, 76 see also names of individual schools, e.g., Palmer School Sears, Tom: 52 - 101 - "Look to the Spine" 1111111 1111 1111 1111111111111 11111 111 1111111111 1111111 111 000093845212 semor c1t1zens: 41 Shorten, N.E.: 24, 26, 84 Sigma Phi Chi: 73 Simpson, Bruce: 39, 54, 82 Sinclair, Lambert: 79 Sloan, Iran: 79 Smith, Hyrum: 20, 84 Smith, J.B.: 84 Smith, Tom: 79 Souch, Gordon: 29, 49, 84 Souch, Sam R.: 35-36 "straights": 4, 11, 30-31 , 34, 35, 36-37, 38, 57, 60, 61, 62 Taylor, E.L.: 30 Theobald, Lionel: 49 Thompson, Robert N.: 72 Thompson, Wally: 54 Toronto College of Chiropractic: 57 Tory, H.M.: 13, 24 Trades and Labour Council: 10 training see education Treatment Services Act: 41 United Farm Women of Alberta: 28 United Farmers of Alberta: 10, 16 University of Alberta: 23, 64 Medical School: 9, 64 Senate: 12-13, 14-15 unregistered practitioners: 26-28, 29, 30, 32, 34 veterans: 59-60, 61 Wagner, Ellis: 28 Wall, Regina: 72 Watson, Lawrence C.: 22, 32, 52, 72-73, 81, 84 Webb, Cecil: 49, 52 Western Canada Chiropractic Convention: 34, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 65 Williams, H.E.: 84 Witherbee, Ned: 79 women: 73-74 Wood, Don L. : 79, 83 Workers Compensation Board: 32, 42, 47 Workmen's Compensation Board see Workers Compensation Board Wright, Sinclair: 7 Wright, Victor: 32 x-rays: 3, 31, 32, 39, 47, 65 Young, Frank: 84 Young, Gil: 50

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