MARCUS GARVEY AND MALCOLM X: A

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THEI R 'r HOUGH:l'

by

Anthony C. williams

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Humanities in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts

Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida April 1985 ~ Copyright by Anthony c. #illiams 1985

ii MARCUS GARVEY AND MALCOLM Xa A

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ·r HEI R THOUGH

by

Anthony C. ~Villiams

This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate's thesis advisor, Dr. John O'Sullivan, Department of History, and has been approved by the members of his advisory committee. It was submitted to the faculty of the College of Humanit ies and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Mast er of Arts.

iii ABSTRACT

Author a Anthony c. Nilliams

Titlea Marcus Garvey and Malcolm Xa A Comparative Analysis of ·£heir ·r hought Institutiona Florida Atlantic University Degree a Master of Arts Year a 1985

This thesis examines the inter-relationship and signif- icant effect of the ideas that Marcus Garvey and Malcolm x had upon their people. It also explores the common forces that affected these two black leaders. 'rhe comparative structure of this thesis allows comprehension of how influential ideas of black advocates were absorbed, reshaped, and perpetuated by Marcus and Malcolm on an international scale, in order to assist in the procurement of freedom and dignity for Africans at home and abroad. TABLE OF CONTEN TS

ABSTRACT • • • ...... iv

IN'TRODUC·riON • • . . • • • • • . . • • . . • • vi CHAPl'ER

ONE EARLY LIFE AND ENVIRONJ:V:!ENI' t t I I I t I I I I l

CHAP'J:ER rwo PEER INFLUENCE • ...... 15 CHAPTER l'HREE PUBLICNriONS • Jl CHAPTER FOUR ORGANIZA.i'IONAL ROLE J4

CHAPrER FIVE APPEAL l'O IN'I'ERNA1'IO!'iAL BODIBS • ...... 41 CHAP£ER SIX JIARcus GArtVEr Is AND MALCOLM A: Is APPHOACH ·ro PAL'i-AFJ:tiCAl~ISNI ...... 45 CHAP'I'ER SEVEN CONCLUSION • • • ...... 49 BL3LIOGRAPHY • ...... 5J

v INTRODUCTION

This thesis will examine the inter-relationship and significant effect of the ideas that Marcus Garvey and Malcolm X had upon their people. It will also explore the common forces that affected these two black leaders. The special comparative structure of this thesis will allow comprehension of how influential ideas of black advocates were absorbed, reshaped and perpetuated by Marcus and Malcolm on an inter­ national scale, in order to assist in the procurement of freedom and dignity for Africans at home and abroad.

vi CHAPTER ONE

EARLY LIFE AND ENVIRONMENT

On the seventeenth day of August, 1887, in St. Ann's Bay on the northern coast of Jamaica, Marcus Garvey was born to a direct descendant of the Maroons. Historically, the Maroons are known as the daring ex-slaves who challenged the oppression of the Spanish and British to maintain their freedom in the cockpit country of Jamaica during the seven­ teenth and eighteenth centuries.1 The descendant I speak of was known in his village as Marcus Garvey, Sr., a stocky, muscular, well-read man of African blood. Occasionally villagers inquired of' this self-taught scholar concerning matters of legality. 2 He was an assiduous reader who "stayed mostly in a room of his own, away from the family, where he had a collection of books, magazines and newspapers ... ) It was in this private library that his eleventh child developed a desire for knowledge about world affairs. Objecting to his wife's decision to name the boy Moses, Fa Garvey requested that he be called simply Marcus Garvey Jr., but, "eventually a compr'omise was reached and the child was baptized as Marcus Mosiah Garvey."4 It was Fa Garvey who sought to instill within Mosiah at an early age a sense of strength and fear­ lessness. These convictions were displayed by this bold black intellectual while he and his son were engaged in the practice of his trade, stonemasonry. There was a day that Mosiah

l 2 recalled very vividlya He was helping his father build a vault for a planter's son who had died of pneumonia in England. When it was lunchtime, Pa proceeded up the ladder, and immediately pulled it up, leaving Mosiah in the un­ finished vault. When Mosiah shouted, 'Pa, Pal I am down here,' and got no answer, he decided that this was another test. He tried to stay awake, but his legs shook and he imagined he saw the dead man peeping down at him, so he prayed for sleep, which came as he was tired and hungry. When Pa woke Mosiah up later he told him in a rough voice, 'BoY-, this is a lesson to teach you never to be afraid.') The impact of a polemical father who prided himself in his self-teachings and Maroon heritage would soon be manifested in the career of his son. It was later in young Garvey's life that inherited characteristics from his father would be ex- hibited in his endeavours as a world-renowned black leader. It is well known that there is a dual force involved in every child's life which manifests itself later on in adulthood. A polarizing part of that force in young Garvey's life was Sarah, his mother. "Slim with fine features and large black eyes," Sarah was a direct descendant of unmixed African blood. 6 She was recognized in the village as a gentle person, businesslike, and possessed of a strong religious character. The gentleness of this woman was frequently displayed in her relationships with those who surrounded her.? Once when young Garvey disobeyed his father's requests, he was immediately shielded from chas­ tisement by his mother. On the day of the biannual garden party attended by the local villagers, Mosiah was sent by his father to purchase two cigars and some white rum. After ac­ quiring these goods, "The feeling of stepping out and posing J big made him go round by the banana patch and taste the rum, one sip, then another sip. He attempted to stand up and walk, but his head was swimming so he had to lay dGwn and sleep took charge of him."8 A period of time elapsed before Mosiah was finally discovered by his mother. "She had to get help to put him in bed and lock the door so that his father could not flog him."9 This is one incident which illustrates the flowering of the humanitarian concepts which were to develop as part of Garvey Jr.'s philosophy of aiding others. Not only did young Garvey receive some of his humanitarian char­ acteristics from his mother, but he also gained knowledge of business from her. Fortunately, mother Sarah was part owner, with her brother Benjie, of inherited family property. As a result of Moses working on this land, income was produced for the family whether his father was employed or not. 10 These humanitarian, business, and religious concepts practiced by Sarah were em- bodied within the mind of Garvey and aided in the maturing of his fundamental ideologies. Another black leader who shared similar background with Marcus Garvey was none other than Malcolm x. It is not coincidental that the concepts of these two men correlated so readily in their inspiration of the -Black diaspora. Malcolm Little later changed his name to Malcolm X, after recognizing his true African identity and the falsity of his European given name. Malcolm explaineda "The Muslim's 'X' symbolized the true African family name that he never could know."11 4 Consistent in this belie£, Malcolm rurther clarified by sayinga "For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name or 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal rorebearers."12 One or his immediate rorebearers was the Reverend Earl Little who could be best described as a big six-root-four, very black man with one eye.1J Reverend Little, born in Reynolds, Georgia, migrated to Omaha, Nebraska in the early nineteen hundreds. He fathered eight children from his first and second marriages. Eventually the ramily moved to Lansing, Michigan where Rev. Little introduced his seventh child to the teachings and philosophies of Marcus Mosiah Garvey.14 This seventh child, Malcolm X, was born May 19, 1925. He was or di££erent skintone than his brothers and sisters.15 With red hair and pecan-tan complexion, Malcolm was given special attention by his rather who singled him out to attend with him the meetings or the Garveyist, Universal Negro Improvement Association.16 It is evident that Rev. Little, rearing that Malcolm would one day stray £rom an identification with his people as a result of the favoritism he would experience because or his skintone, sought to inculcate within him Garvey's philosophy of black awareness. As a traveling Baptist minister, Rev. Little exhibited the characteristics of a shouting and root­ stomping Negro preacher. However, the disposition or Malcolm's father was not that or an apathetic Christian preacher. As a matter or fact, this racade was cast aside when he was engaged in matters concerning the wel£are of his black people. 17 5 Malcolm describes the transformation in his father and his associates at the U.N.I.A. meetings thusa "I noticed how different they all acted, although sometimes they were the same people who jumped and shouted in church. But in these meetings both they and my father were more intense, more intelligent and down to earth."18

An extremely bold and fearless man, Rev. Little was open with his Garveyite teachings. As we know, the concepts of black consciousness and fearlessness developed by the ancient Maroons were the heritage of Marcus Garvey, Sr. This heritage was perpetuated by Mosiah, his son, and passed onto the Rev. Little, who in turn bestowed this wealth of awareness upon Malcolm x. Proof of the courage that Rev. Little possessed can be found in the words of Malcolm x. These words reflect the conflict between Rev. Little and the Ku Klux Klan because of his open support of Garveyite ideologies. Malcolm recalled the following tense situationa "I remember being suddenly snatched awake into a frightening confusion of pistol shots and shouting and smoke and flames. My father had shouted and shot at the two white men who had set the fire and were running away."· 19 In his career as a black leader, Malcolm X himself shared this concept of meeting violence with violence as a method of resolving the senseless attacks made upon his people by the oppressors. Furthermore, Malcolm clarified this segment of his philosophy by stating that freedom must be obtained, "by any means necessary."20 The woman that bore this magnificent black leader of 6 the twentieth century was Louise Little. As a result of her mother being raped by a white man, Louise was conceived and possessed the appearance of a white woman. An educated woman Louise immigrated from Grenada to Philadelphia where she met and married Earl Little. 21 Having faith in her family and her husband, Louise supported Rev. Little in his endeavors. However, there were controversies over certain domestic issues, such as the family diet. Mrs. Little did not eat pork or rabbit which were both delicacies for her husband. This is shown when Malcolm says, "She was usually either arguing with or not speaking to my father One cause of friction was that she had strong ideas about what she wouldn't eat - and didn't want us to eat - including pork and rabbit, both of which my father loved dearly ... 22 Not only did Louise conflict with Rev. Little concerning nutrition, but also concerning the manner in which Malcolm was to be treated. She sought no favoritism over the other children for Malcolm as Rev. Little did. For reasons dealing with the manner in which she was conceived, Louise chastised Malcolm more frequent­ ly than she did the other children. Deploring the circumstances of her birth, Mrs. Little sometimes took her frustrations out on Malcolm, whose features resembled that of a Caucasian. 2J Louise embodied a strength which enabled her to with­ stand pressures from outside and inside the family. Recalling his mother's words concerning an incident in Omaha, Nebraska, which surely depicts her fortitude, Malcolm wrotea When my mother was pregnant with me, she told me later, a party of hooded Ku Klux Klan riders galloped up to 7 our home . • • one night. Surrounding the house, brandishing their shotguns and rifles, they shouted for my father to come out. My mother went to the front door and opened it. Standing where they could see her pregnant condition, she told them that she was alone with her three small children, and that my father was away, preaching in Milwaukee. ·rhe Klansmen shouted threats and warnings at her that "we had better get out of town because 'the good Christian white people' were not going to stand for my father's 'spreading trouble' among the 'good' Negroes of Omaha with the 'back to Africa' preachings of Marcus Garvey."24 Such an image or strength had a great impact upon Malcolm, which was evident when later in life he, himself, would stand strong against that very same racist organization. At the early age of six, Malcolm experienced the death of his father, who was killed by the Ku Klux Klan. Even before this dreadful occurrence, Louise foresaw her husband's enda her efforts to save him were to no avail. Concerning this gift of intuition, Malcolm writes, "She had always had a stnmg intui­ tion of things about to happen. And most of her children are the same way, I think. When something is about to happen, I feel something, sense something. I have never known something to happen that has caught me completely offguard - except one."25 This exception undoubtedly refers to his disenchant­ ment with the Honorable Elijah Muhammad in 1964. The strength which Malcolm observed in his mother finally crumbled due to internal and external elements which physically divided the family. These forces eventually resulted in a nervous breakdown which was the primary cause for her being admitted to a sanatarium. Malcolm, however drew courage from his mother's experience which fortified him in his life as a hustler and ultimately led him to his destiny as 8 a renowned black leader. It is a fact that environment plays a great part in the

development of the mind. The environments of both Marcus Garve~ and Malcolm X displayed certain common characteristics that can­ not be overlooked. One of the characteristics was the relation- ships these two experienced with white children at an early age. Unaware of the standard behavior among blacks and whites during their times, Marcus and Malcolm assumed that these friendships would continue through puberty into adulthood. However, these two young men were to discover that a race distinction existed at the level of puberty. In the case of Garvey, it was not until the age of fourteen that he recognized the differentia­ tion of social life among blacks and Caucasians within his community. Garvey himself verifies this when writing about a childhood romancea "At fourteen my little white playmate and I parted. Her parents thought the time had come to separate us and draw the color line."26 As he grew to maturity, he realized the opportunities bestowed upon his white counter­ parts as opposed to the injustices done to his own black people. Malcolm, in his years of puberty, discerned the same situation in his own environment. Unlike Garvey's environ­ ment, in the u.s. it was uncommon for blacks to be treated favorably as Malcolm was. Seldom did blacks enjoy the oppor­ tunity of being educated in a fully facilitated academic in­ stitution as Malcolm was. After the breaking up of his family by the state, and as a result of a fair complexion, Malcolm 9 was readily adopted by white guardians. This placed him in a position to reap the educational advantages that were commonly bestowed upon white students in his environment. Determined to out do his white counterparts, Malcolm once had an aspiration of becoming an attorney. But he soon found out that such goals were not likely to be obtained by blacks. Malcolm, in later years, pointed this out by recall­ ing an instructor's reactions to the suggestion that he might one day be a lawyera

-Mr· Ostrowski looked surprised, I remember, and leaned back in his chair and clasped his hands behind his head. He kind of half-smiled and said "Malcolm, one of life's first needs is for us to be realistic. Don't mis­ understand me now. We all here like you, you know that. But you've got to be realistic about being a nigger. A lawyer--that's no realistic goal for a nigger."27 Discouraged from higher educational attainments, Malcolm decided to travel to the east coast of the u.s. In his frequent travels between Boston and Harlem, Malcolm observed the internal division among blacks that allowed the surrounding whites to prey upon them at will. During this time, observing the opportunities present, Malcolm also applied his hustling abilities to take advantage of his divided people. It was not until incarceration befell him that he received enlightenment concerning the lack of unity among his people and his part in the freedom struggle of colored people worldwide. Marcus Garvey's role as a freedom fighter began at an early age of seventeen -when he decided that it was necessary to find favorable grounds for the practice of his trade, 10 printing. His choice was an urban area, Kingston, the capital city of Jamaica. It was here that Mosiah not only found em- - ployment but also attained an opportunity to enhance his public speaking abilities. Another desire which became a reality for Garvey was to travel throughout the Caribbean, South and Central America and Europe. But, through his travels, just as in Jamaica, Garvey was outraged at the inhumane con­ ditions imposed upon blacks, and saw an insistent need to present himself as the Moses of the oppressed black race. Through his spiritual intuition, which projected him as a race leader, he saw the need for a physical centre of activity to disseminate his ideas. This centre was Harlem, known then and today as the Mecca of the black world. Before one can understand the variety of black cultures which existed in Harlem during the days of Marcus and Malcolm, one must understand the origin of this black community, located in the densely populated borough of Manhattan, in New York. The father of Black Harlem was Phillip A. Payton, Jr., a black realtor, who in 1904 observed an opportunity for blacks to gain ownership of real estate in the previously all white Dutch Harlem.JO This ingenious entrepreneur created an aware­ ness of real estate among blacks with the formation of a land speculation corporation known as the Afro-American Realty Company.Jl Were it not for the activities of Phillip A. Payton Jr., the pioneer of Black Harlem, Marcus and Malcolm might have found difficulties in promulgating their ideologies of 11 international black consciousness. It was during the era of Phillip Payton's Afro-American Realty Company that blacks worldwide began an exodus to Harlem in search of investment advantages. 28 However, these advantages became disadvantages as overcrowding developed and the area began to depreciate because of municipal, state, and federal government neglect. It was here that blacks from all walks of life were able to witness the inegalitarianism of a supposedly democratic system. 29 Still blacks had not yet rid themselves of the internal division brought about by cultural, national and ideological differences. It was not until the coming of young Marcus Mosiah Garvey and the U.N.I.A. in 1916 that the main­ stream of Black Harlem was exposed to an ideology of unity and self-awareness. It is felt by myself and others that strugglers for the black cause, well known in their own right, aided in the formation of the humanitarian thoughts of Marcus Garvey and Malcolm x. Some, whose concepts were indispensable in the shaping of these philosophies were their spouses, admired associates, and respected critics. During a time of repression of black political, social, and human rights, a comrade of Garvey boldly proclaimed the followinga Some are whispering that we are dangerous. We don't care if we are. If to speak our thoughts freely and fearlessly -- if to advocate the equal rights of all citizens -- if to denounce oppression and wrong -- if to teach the class to which we belong their rights and privileges, as well as their duties and responsi­ bilities, if to do these is to be dangerous, then we wish to be Qas) dangerous as we can be, and no power 12 can arrest our action in this direction.J2 These words of dissent were expressed in the Jamaica Advocate, a newspaper published from 1894 to 1905 by Dr. Robert Love. FOOTNOTES

lEdmund David Cronon, (ed.), Marcus Garveya Great Lives Observed (Englewood Cliffs& Prentice Hall, l97J), p. 1. 2John Henrik Clarke, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa (New Yorka Random House·, 1974), pp. 29-JO. Jrbid., P• JO.

4 I b"d~ . ' P• 29. .5rbid. , P· Jl. 6rbid •• P• JO. 7rbid. , P· JO • Brbid. , P· Jl. 9rbid., P· J2. l 0rbid., P· JO • ll.Malcolm X, 'rhe Autobiography of Malcolm X, Alex Haley, ed., (New Yorka Grove Press, 196.5), p. 199. 12rbid., P• 199· lJrbid., P• l. l4rbid., PP• 2-J. 1.5rbid., P• 2. 16rbid., P· 6. 17rbid .• PP• .5-6. l8rbid., P· 6. l9rbid., P• J. 20warner Bros. Record, "MalcoJ.m X," Warner Bros. Communications Co., Marvin Worth Productions, 1972, side 2. 2looalcolm X, Autobiography, p. 2. 22rbid. , p. 7. 2Jrbid., PP· 7-8. 24rbid., p. 1.

lJ 14 25Ibid., p. 9. 26cronon, Marcus Garvey, p. 21. 27Malco1m X, Autobiography, p. J6. 28Ibid., P• 1)1. 29Ibid., PP• 1J5-1J6. JOGi1bert Osofsky, Har1ema The Making of a Ghetto, (New Yorka Harper and Row, 1968), p. 95· J1Ibid., p. 96. J2c1arke, Vision of Africa, p. J2. \

CHAPTER TWO

PEER INFLUENCE

Malcolm Little, in 1948 while being held at Concord Prison, received a letter from his brother Philbert. This letter introduced him to the Nation of Islam led by the Honorable Elijah Muhammad. 1 Born in Sandersville, Georgia in 1897 as Elijah Poole, Mr. Muhammad migrated to Detroit and was introduced to the religion of Islam by the mysterious door-to­ door silk salesman W.D. Fard in 19Jl.2 In Detroit, W.D. Fard, known also as Master Fard, or the Mahdi, secretly recruited ministers for the Nation of Islam and opened both the first university and temple of the Nation of Islam in America.J Although he had received only four years of formal education, Elijah Poole was chosen as supreme minister from among his better educated and more articulate colleagues. 4 During his service to the Mahdi he was given the name Karriem which was eventually changed to Muhammad.5 However, jealousy on the part of his colleagues and threats on his life caused him to flee to several cities in each of which he sowed the seeds of Islam by establishing various temples. These cities included Chicago (temple #2, which eventually became the headquarters of the Nation of Islam in America), Milwaukee (temple #J), and Washington, D.c., (temple #4) •6 Still, it was not until the conversion of Malcolm X to Islam that temple #7 in Harlem, the Black Mecca of the West, was established, a direct result of 15 16 Malcolm's dynamic teaching and unceasing toil in the cause of Islam. 7 While in prison, Malcolm was struck by a fundamental message of the Hon. Elijah Muhammada "The White man is the Devil." After recognizing the validity of this statement from his own personal experience, Malcolm fell upon his knees and pledged to Allah that he would "tell the black man the true teachings of Islam and the White man the truth about his crimes."8 To the Islamic world, "Allah" is the name of God, who, it is alleged, in 19Jl appeared to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad in the person of Master w.n. Fard.9 A little more than a decade later, after years of intense study with the Mahdi, the Honorable Elijah Muhammad in turn passed on these same teachings to Malcolm x. A symbolic but essential aspect of these teachings was the explanation of the origin of the White race, a race allegedly created by an extremely evil geneticist, Yakub, who had been ostracized by his own people, the Heavenly Black Nation of Allah& "In the days of Yakub's grafting of the present White race, a new and unlike race among the black nation for 600 years, his law was that they should not allow the birth of a black baby in their family . .,lO Elijah further explained the intentions of Yakub by statinga "His aim was to kill and destroy the black nation" with the help of certain handpicked ministers, doctors, nurses, and a cremator.11 Each of these outcast professionals who followed Yakub were assigned roles in this grotesque experiment with human life which dealt with grafting a race of White devils 17 over a period of time from the original black race. Thus it was Yakub gave the following instructions to the doctora Let all the people come to you who want to marry, and if there come to you two real black ones, take a needle and get a little of their blood and go into your room and pretend to be examining it to see whether their blood would mix, then come and tell them that they will each have to find another mate, because their blood does not mix.l2 It was the nurses' task to kill black babies by pricking their brains with a sharp needle as soon as born. However, if the nurse was unable to complete the task, it was the cremator who performed the acts of infanticide.1J In the case of the ministers, Yakub demanded that the doctors give them a certifi­ cate warning them against performing weddings which would be contrary to his policy of blacks not marrying blacks.14 Thus we can clearly observe the premise for the anti­ integrationist social philosophy propagated by Elijah, the prophet and Malcolm, the disciple. Although Malcolm and Elijah were proponents of the anti-integrationist philosophy, it should be pointed out that this concept was initiated by the European, the supposed product of Yakub. As we all know, the black man in the United States has performed an important role in building this society but has never been truly accepted as an equal member of the social structure. It is likely that this inegalitarianism added fuel to the separatist struggles of both prophet and disciple. Another important area of thought of Elijah Muhammad which was reflected in Malcolm was his philosophy on economics. The Lamb, as Muhammad was also known, saw the need to strongly 18 emphasize the idea of blacks patronizing and supporting their own communities and working toward land in the southeastern United States for an industrial and agrarian nation of their own. This idea was perpetuated by Malcolm who illustrated the concept by describing the results of Blacks allowing outside business to financially milk their communities and funnel the money into White concerns. Both prophet and disciple shared a fervent desire to rid their people of this crippling practice and witnessed their ideas brought to fruition by the estab­ lishment of catering services, restaurants with the Kosher foods and famous bean pie, tailoring businesses, dairy handling companies and financial ventures involving self-employed indi­ viduals. In addition, Elijah instilled within the members of the Nation of Islam the desire to contribute financially to the welfare of the Nation and thus to the advancement of each and every one involved. Clearly, it is evident from the above that the Lamb's thoughts on religion, economics and American society were the motivating forces for Malcolm's political ideas even following his ideological break with his mentor and the formation of his own Muslim Mosque, Inc. In 1956, a young black woman from Detroit attending nursing school in New York was to make a decision that would radically affect her life when she joined Temple #7 in Harlem. This tall brown-skinned woman, Betty X, had been an education major at Tuskeegee Institute in Alabama and eventually acquired the position of lecturer in hygiene and medical facts for the Muslim women and girls of the Nation of Islam. 15 19 Two years later this daughter of the Nation was to become the wife of minister Malik El Shabazz, better known as Malcolm .x., the founder of Temple #7. Malcolm's chosen wife was to bear him four daughters, whom he named after four great colored leaders of history. Malcolm named his first born Attilah, after Attilah the Hun who sacked Rome, his second Qubalah, after Qubalah Khan, the third Ilyasah (Arabic for Elijah) and the last Amilah. 16 Malcolm explains that in his lifetime there were only four women whom he ever trusted and of these it was Betty who greatly enlightened him to the capabilities and psyche of a woman. Just as Sister Betty's life was radically changed by Malcolm and the Nation, so Malcolm's life was to change, as Malcolm himself explains in his autobiography; "I guess by now I will say I love Betty. She's the only woman I ever even thought about loving ... l7 Still, there were other forces abroad that had an indirect effect on Malcolm's life. From the continent of Africa came many voices that were instrumental in molding Malcolm's concepts on the international level. 'I hree of these voices that called out for self-determination were ~atrice Lumumba of the Belgian Congo, known today as Zaire; Sekou

Toure of Guinea and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Malcolm A felt that without the radical endeavors of sons of the African continent such as these, for Afro-Americans to be recognized they would have to link their struggle with that of their motherland, Africa.18 Therefore, Malcolm saw a need to enlighten blacks in America to the problems of brother 20 insurgents in Africa which were also Afro-American problems. Patrice Lumumba stressed the indispensable need for Africans worldwide to recognize the importance of the libera­ tion of their homeland. Born on July 2, 1925 in Onalua, Kasai, Lumumba, while a third-class clerk at the District Revenue Office, wrote for two socially-conscious periodicalsa La Croix du Congo and La Voix du Congolese, which expressed the ideas of native Congolese.19 In later years, as the leader of the M.N.C. (Mouvement Nationale Congolaise) his speeches were to show concern with the liberation struggles of people worldwide. Addressing a seminar organized by the Congress for the Freedom of Culture and the University of Ibadan in March of 1959, Lumumba stated, "It is through these person to person contacts, through meetings of this sort, that African leaders can get to know each other and draw closer together in order to create that union that is indispensable for the consolidation of African Unity.a 20 He fUrther went on to assert "the aspirations of colonized and enslaved peoples are everywhere the same, their lot too is the same ... 21 Here we can see that both insurgents, born the same year and living in the same era, but inhabiting two different hemispheres, utilized similar philosophies to eradicate identical problems which blacks experienced worldwide. Malcolm, discussing the moral strength and incorruptible nature of Lumumba at an Organization of Afro-American Unity meeting in 1964, drew upon the words of this great African leader to illustrate the impossibility of remuneration for Africans for atrocities 21 wrought upon them by the colonizers. Malcolm quotes Lumumba's words to the King of Belgium& "You may let us free, you may have given us our independence, but we can never forget these scars."22 A second African leader who influenced Malcolm X was Kwame Nkrumah. Born to the senior wife of a goldsmith in the southwestern corner of Ghana in September 1909, Kwame Nkrumah later realized his dream of higher education with the attain­ ment of a degree in economics and sociology from Pennsylvania's Lincoln University in 1939, a Master of Arts degree in education from the University of Pennsylvania, and an honorary doctorate. Aware of Nkrumah's abilities, the United Gold Coast Commission, an organization of African chiefs, asked him to return home in 1947 so that he could contribute to the anti-colonialists' struggle. 2J Participating in Ghana's struggle for self-determina­ tion as one of the six leaders of the U.G.c.c., Nkrumah was falsely arrested with the five others of the u.G.c.c. leader­ ship by the British colonial authorities as a communist con­ spirator.24 Following his release from incarceration, Nkrumah initiated a political party known as the Convention People's Party in June of 1949. One of the main functions of the C.P.P. was "to serve as the vigorous conscious political vanguard for removing all forms of oppression and for the establishment of a democratic society."2.5 It was this political organ which was responsible for Ghana's independence from Great Britain on March 6, 19.57. 26 Later, in 1964, Malcolm 22 showed his identification with a cornerstone philosophy of Dr. Nkrumah by quoting it at an O.A.A.U. meetinga "Seek ye first the political kingdom and all other things will be added unto it."27 A friend to both Kwame Nkrumah and Malcolm X and one who shared their struggle in eradicating western hegemony from the African continent was the charismatic Sekou Toure. Born January 9, 1922 in the village of Faranah on the Niger, he was the son of a peasant-farmer. Sekou, a devout Moslem, obtained his education from Ecole Coranique, French Guinea, primary schools, and Ecole Professionelle Georges Poiret, Conakry. His political thoughts were influenced by the ideas of Marxism. 28 Although he divorced himself from the French Communist Party in 1957, Sekou Toure was awarded the Lenin Peach Prize in 1960. Following his break, Sekou strengthened ties with the dominant, domestic political organization, the Democratic Party of Guinea. It was this political organiza­ tion led by Sekou which opposed De Gaulle's policies of political freedom with economic interdependence. 29 Hence, in 1958, France was forced to sever the bonds of colonial domina- tion with Guinea. Expressing the avenue of political endeavor desired for his country, Toure stateda "Our way is a non­ capitalist way. It will remain so because this way is the only one which safeguards the interests of the community while freeing every individual from the injustice which characterizes all relations of exploitation of man by man ... JO Just as with Nkrumah, Malcolm was to meet with Sekou Toure and express 2J solidarity with him in the struggle by Africans world-wide for self-determination. It was through Malcolm's meetings wi·th African leaders such as Sekou Toure that he was able to gain valuable insight indispensable in the formation and operation of the Organization of Afro-American Unity. At least once in a lifetime, every orthodox Muslim is encouraged to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. This pilgrimage is known as the Hajj.Jl In Arabic, the word Hajj is defined as "setting out toward a definite objective" which is to fulfill certain rites including the circling of the Ka'ba or Sacred House situated in the Holy City of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. In his efforts to embark upon a pilgrimage to Mecca, Malcolm found out that no Muslim converted in America could have a visa for the Hajj pilgrimage without the signed approval of Dr. Mahmoud Shawarbi. Receiving this information from the Saudi ambassador to the United States, Malcolm established contact with Dr. Shawarbi. It seems evident from the follow- ing extract from Malcolm's autobiography that the Saudi con­ sulate had informed Dr. Shawarbi of the would-be pilgrim's desire to join the Hajja "When I telephoned Dr. Shawarbi, he registered astonishment, 'I was just going to get in touch with you' he said, 'by all means come right over.'"J2 It was in New York City in the early sixties that Malcolm X formally met the eminent and learned Muslim, Dr. Mahmoud Youssef Shawarbi. A University of Cairo graduate, University of London, Ph.D., lecturer on Islam, United Nations advisor, and full professor at Cairo University, Dr. Sharwarbi 24 was to be instrumental in bringing about radical change in Malcolm's strongly felt ideas about Caucasians.JJ The seed­ ling of this change in his philosophy pertaining to race can be seen in his own words after his meeting with Dr. Shawarbia ·"He dropped on me something whose logic never would get out of my head. He said, 'No man has believed perfectly until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself.'"J4 Blossoming from Malcolm's relationship with Dr. Shawarbi was a meeting with Dr. Omar Azzam and eventually Omar's father Dr. Abdir-Rahman Azzam, special advisor to King Faisal of Saudi Arabia. Dr. Omar Azzam, a Swiss trained engineer and city planner, along with his father Dr. Abdir-Rahman Azzam, was to introduce Malcolm to the epitome of Muslim hospitality.J5 Malcolm experienced amazement when he realized that these two men, who would be called White in America, were so radically different from their American counterparts.J6 Not only were the attitudes of father and son concerned with gracious and mag­ nanimous hospitality, but also their actions, as can be wit­ nessed in Dr. Abdir-Rahman Azzam's invitation to Malcolm to stay at his private suite at the Jedda Palace Hotel.J7 Accept­ ing this invitation, Malcolm then began re-evaluating his philosophy concerning Whites. He writes of a special day during his stay in the ancient Red Sea city of Jeddaa "that morning was when I first began to perceive that 'dhite man' as commonly used, means complexion only secondarily; primarily it described attitudes and actions. In America, '~hite man' meant specific attitudes and actions toward the Black man, and 25 toward all other non-white men."JS The final step before Malcolm was able to fully par­ ticipate in the Hajj involved an appearance before the Hajj Committee headed by a judge, His Holiness Sheik Muhammad Harkon. A kind and impressive man, His Holiness responded to Malcolm by giving him two books on Islam personally sealed and autographed. After being recorded in the Holy Register of true Muslims, Malcolm became an official member of the Majj and as a result the words El Hajj were added to his name Malik El Shabazz.J9 In parting, Sheik Harkon expressed these words to Malcolma "I hope you will become a great preacher of Islam in America."4° For many there is no doubt that Malcolm, throughout the latter part of his life, fulfilled this hope.

u~hile it was Malcolm's philosophy which was most effective in the northern areas of the United States, it was Martin Luther King's ideologies which held the greatest sway among the people of the South. Born January 15, 1929 on Auburn Avenue in the heart of Atlanta, Georgia, Martin, the son of a minister, enjoyed a comfortable childhood. 41 At the age of fifteen Martin enrolled as a freshman at Morehouse College. While there, he won second place in the Webb orator­ ical contest.42 Then, at eighteen years of age, Martin was ordained a Baptist minister and a year later graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree. 4J A scholarship took Martin to Crozer Theological Seminary where he obtained a Bachelor of Divinity degree and, in addition to being class valedictorian, won an 26 award for outstanding scholarship and a fellowship of $1,200.44 At Boston University, Martin wrote his doctoral dissertation comparing Paul Tillich's conception of God with that of Henry Nelson Weiman, a proponent of an empirical, naturalistic theology. 45 In 1953 young Martin married Coretta Scott, who had attended Antioch College in Ohio on a special scholarship and also studied at a conservatory of music. 46 Soon after, the young couple settled in Montgomery, Alabama, where Martin became involved in protest against Montgomery's segregation laws. 47 Due to the actions taken December 1, 1955 by a Black seamstress, Mrs. Rosa Parks, who was prosecuted for not giving up her bus seat to a white passenger, a special organization was formed with Martin Luther King selected as its president. The name of this organization was the Montgomery Improvement Association and its main concern was the formulation of a strategy for the boycotting of Montgomery's public transit. 4~ With the success of the boycott, Martin found himself in the position of leader and a proponent of the integration move­ ment predicated on the philosophy of non-violence. 49 Con­ comitant with this, came an opp0rtunity to coordinate a non­ violent, integrationist move in the southern region of the United States of America. This regional organization for which he was chosen president was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference created by key Black activists from the South, such as C.K. Steele of Tallahassee, Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham, and Matthew McCollum of Orangeburg.5° 27 It is my contention that the relationship between the ideas of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X can be expressed in the following personal quotationa "Malcolm felt that with the attainment of human rights, civil rights would ensue, whereas Martin felt that with civil rights through assimila­ tion, human rights would ensue." Malcolm noted that until Afro-Americans observed the need to take their problems to the United Nations, instead of utilizing non-violent social protest and appeals to u.s. courts, there could be no complete civil rights for Blacks.51 Recognizing the shortsightedness of the integrationist movement that was supposedly supported by the sanction of the judicial system, Malcolm saw a need to raise the cultural, economic, political, and social level of his people utilizing the philosophy of self-help techniques. He expressed the need for these techniques in Black communi­ ties for the attainment of short-range goals leading ulti­ mately to a separate Black nation in harmony with the African and other nations of the world. Malcolm's perception of the violence that greeted Martin's peaceful protest strengthened him in his own doctrine of defense against violence and the attainment of political and economic viability. FOOTNOTES

lMalcolm X, Autobiography, p. 159. 2Ibid., PP• 204-206. Jibid., P• 208. 4Ibid., P• 209. 5Ibid. 6Ibid. 7Ibid., p. 215. Swarner Bros. Record, "Malcolm x,u Side Two. 9ooalcolm X, Autobiography, p. 206. lOElijah Muhammad, Message to the Black Man (Chicagoa Muhammad's Temple #2, 1965), p. 16. llibid. 12Ibid., p. 114. lJibid., p. 115. 14Ibid., p. 114. 15Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 226-227. 16Ibid., p. 232. 17Ibid. 18nouglas International Recording Corp., Malcolm X •ralks to Young People, Side 2. 19G. Heinz and H. Donnay, Lumumbaa The Last Fifty Days, Trans. Jane Clark Seitz (New York, Grove Press, 1969), PP· 193-194. 20Ibid., p. 162 21Ibid. 22Malcolm X, By AnY Means Necessary, George Breitman, ed., (New Yorka Pathfinder Press, Inc. 1970), p. 46. 2JKwame Nkrumah, The Struggle Continues, (Londona Panafbooks, 197J), p. J5. 28 29 24Basil Davidson, Black Star (Londona Allan Lane Publishers, 197J), p. 64. 25rbid.. p. 101. 26Kwame Nkrumah, The Autobiography of Dwame Nkrumah (Londona Thomas, Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1957), p. 283. 27Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, p. 88. 28sidney Taylor (ed.), The New Africans (New Yorka G.P. Putnam and Sons, 1967), p. 194. 29Taylor, The New Africans, p. 194. JOLadipo Adamolekun, Sekov Toure's Guinea, (London a Methuen and Co., Ltd.,) 1976. JlMalcolm X, Autobiography, P• Jl8. J2rbid •• P• ]20. JJrbid •• P• 319. J4rbid. J5rbid., P• JJJ. J6rbid., P• JJ2. J7rbid. J8rbid •• P· JJJ. J9rbid., P• JJ5. 4orbid. 4lwilliam Robert Miller, Martin Luther King (New Yorka Talley, 1968), p.6. 42rbid .• P• 110. 4Jrbid., PP• 14-15. 44rbid .• PP• 16-22. 45rbid., P• 24. 46rbid., P· 26. 47rbid., P• JO • 48rbid .• P• J8. JO 49rbid., P· 56. 50rbid. , p. 58. 5lnouglas Records, "Malcolm X Talks to Young People", Side 2. CHAPTER THREE

PUBLICATIONS

Quite often it is said that the pen is mightier than the sword; this was illustrated by Malcolm and Marcus by the incorporation of the written medium in their struggles. Garvey's main publication was the Negro World founded in 1918 while Muhammad Speaks was founded by Malcolm X, in 1954. These were news organs that not only disseminated the thoughts of their founders but also raised the social consciousness level of the readers within the many nations of the world. The Negro World, also known as the Voice of the Awakened Negro, covered contemporary events world-wide. However its main concern was to broaden the Black man's knowledge in all areas of human development. For example, this medium carried advertisements soliciting investors for economic ventures controlled by Blacks. These enterprises ranged from the formation of the Black Star, an international shipping concern, to the purchase of land for the construction of a uni­ versity. Involved in politics to a certain degree, the Negro World at times carried ads for political candidates and even included editorial endorsement. More importantly this official organ of the U.N.I.A. expressed concern for the divided Black family and sought to mend and strengthen the bond not only between individuals within families but between Blacks world­ wide. On its woman's page, this paper included articles such 31 J2 as "How to be a Good Husband" as a means of unifying the structure of the Black American family. Although the Negro World was most widely read, Garvey published other papers such as the Black Man (daily, Jamaica), the Negro Times (daily, New York) , a monthly Black Man put out in London, and the New Jamaican (daily, Jamaica) . 1 "Dedicated to Freedom, Justice and Equality for the so-called Negro. The Earth belongs to Allah." These words printed on the front of the Muhammad Speaks greeted its readers

regularly on a biweekly basis. 'l1his paper provided information which kept Afro-Americans aware of international affairs affect· ing Africans World-wide. Its readers also gained knowledge of national and local events. Descriptive articles found in early editions of Muhammad Speaks includea "Problems of the Black Man in Africa, Asia, America, the Same" (Dec., 1961); "Followers of Garvey Embracing Muhammad" {July, 1960); "Independence Awakens Jamaica" {April, 1962) ; "Dr. Hastings Banda of Nyasaland at New York Town Hall" (July, 1960); "Sudanese named to World Bank" (April, 1962); "Northern Nigeria makes Strides under Premier Ahmadu Bello" (Dec., 1961) a "Great Black Men in History" {Dec. , 1961) ; "Nigeria to get own Air Force soon" {Dec., 1961) ; "Educate Your Own Children Now" (Dec., 1961); "South Africa Supported by u.s. Big Business" (Dec. , 1961) . 'rhese are prime examples of the tools used by Malcolm in his literary efforts to make Blacks world-wide more aware of their surroundings. FOOTNOTES lcronon, Marcus Garvey, p. 19.

JJ CHAPTER FOUR

ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE

Observing the nominal concern for unity among his people, Garvey recognized the need to eradicate their in­ security and implement methods to enhance their education. One method for providing education and bringing security to confused individuals is the formation of organizations. I n the year 1914, Garvey sought to offer this security and education in economics, politics, and cultural identity to his people with the formation of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (U.N.I.A.) •1 Followlng his travels in England he returned to Kingston, Jamaica, to establish this organization August 1, 1914. 'l'he preamble to the manifesto of this association read& "In view of the universal disunity existing among the people of the Negro or African race, and the apparent danger which must follow the continu­ ance of such a spirit, it has been deemed fit and opport une to found a society with a universal programme, for the purpose of drawing the peoples of the race together, hence the organi­ zation above named." 2 After laying the foundation for this vehicle which was to propagate his ideas to Africans of all walks of life, he then had to find an environment most conducive to the promul­ gation of his philosophy of unification. In 1916, he found the environment which would serve as a central point for activities of the organization. Realizing the variey of J4 3.5 Africans that resided there, and the international role of this metropolis, he relocated the headquarters of the U.N.I.A. to 1J.5th Street, New York City (Harlem), the Black Mecca of the western hemisphere.J The primary objective of the U.N.I.A. was the redemption of Africa for Africans. 4 The momentum of this repatriation drive was sparked by and centered arounda African heritage; the international African Liberation Flag (red, green and black); the publications Negro World, Negro Times, and Black Man; construction of universities for higher learning. in the motherland;.5 the Black Cross Nurses, the Black Legion (all African militia which was to safeguard Africans all over the world) ; 6 and economic ventures such as the Black Star Line. Garvey set out to show everyone the economic prowess blacks can wield when motivated to marshal their resources for cooperative efforts. This enterprise started in April, 1919 when he called a mass meeting at U.N.I.A. headquarters to inaugurate the Black Star Line, "to lift the American Negro, the African Negro, the West Indian, South and Central American and Canadian Negroes to a higher plane of economic independence ... ? The Black Star Line would be a public corporation, financed with a $2 million stock offering, Garvey said, as he described the Liberty Loan selling plan whereby all blacks would be able to purchase ownership shares in this grand endeavor by making installment payments according to their ability to pay. 8 36 Phase one of the Black Star Line consisted of pur- chasing an oceanliner. f his was accomplished on October 19, 1919 when they bought the S.S. Yartmouth for ~168,500. 9 This ship was rechristened the s.s. Frederick Douglas and set sail on the Central American trade route on November 2Jrd of the same year. Captain Joshua Cockburn, an experienced naval officer with impressive credentials, commanded the Fredrick Douglas. They delivered cargo and passengers to ports in Cuba, Jamaica and Panama. Captain Cockburn cabled Garvey from Cuba describing the voyage as sucessful after dis­ charging all of his cargo despite some malcontent crew members Cockburn described as "nasty plotters" who had attempted to sabotage the effort.10 Nevertheless, they completed the maiden voyage and returned to New York on January lJ, 1920 after making public relations and fund raising stops along the way . 11 'r he second Black Star Line ship, the S. S. Shadyside was a 444-ton passenger liner. The third vessel, known as the S.S. Maceo was named after Antonio Maceo (ld4d­ l896), the Cuban general of African descent who led the island country in its fight for independence from the Spanish. 12 Within one year's time the Black Star Line had launched three oceangoing passenger/cargo ships, thus illustrating one enterprise Garvey introduced to the black diaspora. Initially the Black Star Line was sucessful, but eventually the enter­ prise failed due to incompetent management. Nevertheless, the ranks of the U.N.I.A. grew to a capacity second to no other Black organization during its time as the movement to repatriate J7 Africa (especially Liberia) with expatriate Africans reached its threshold. After his breakaway from Elijah Muhammed in 1964 Malcolm X founded the Muslim Mosque Incorporated.!) This new organization was to share the same philosophies of the Nation o f I s 1 am b u t was t o expand ~n. t o th e arena o f pol't' ~ ~cs. l4 An essential part of the philosophy of the Muslim Mosque Incorporated was the inclusion of all Black men of all faiths for the initiation of a united political front in the u.s. 15 Soon after the formation of the Muslim Mosque Incorporated, Malcolm went on his Hajj to the holy city of Mecca in March, 1964. Following this religious event he was able to visit several African countries and meet with their leaders who perceived him as a representative of those Afro-Americans cognizant of the importance of the Pan-Africanist struggle. Some of these influential and concerned leaders included President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, President Julius K. Nyerere of Tanzania, President Nramoi Azikiwe of Nigeria, President Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, President Sekou Toure of Guinea, Prime Minister Dr. Milton Obote of Uganda, Mr. Huang Hua, Chinese Ambassador to Ghana, His Excellency Mr. Armando Entraglo Gonzalez, the Cuban Ambassador to Ghana, and Prince Faisal of Saudi Arabia.16 During his travels abroad, Malcolm acquired knowledge and support for future endeavors as can be witnessed by the words of certain Nigerian officialsa "In your land, how many Black people think about it that South and Central and North J8 America contain over eighty million people of African descent? The world's course will change the day the African-heritage peoples come together as brothers."17 It was further stated by these officials that "behind the diplomatic front of every African U.N. official was recognition of the White man's gigantic duplicity and conspiracy to keep the world's peoples of African heritage separated -- both physically and ideologi­ cally-- from each other."18 During this dramatic time in Malcolm's life he was recognized as a true leader of Afro­ Americans, giving validity to the emotional statement of a Sudanese high officials "You champion the American Black people! "19 Thesisa The Nation of Islama highly religious; non­ political. Antithesisa the Muslim Mosque Incorporated; religious; including all Black men of all faiths; moving towards politics. Synthesisa the Organization of Afro­ American Unitya non-religious; completely political. The foregoing points out the movement of Malcolm's ideological involvement within the Black Nationalist endeavor. From the Nation of Islam, Malcolm gained moral maturity and respect for his fellow human beings. In the development of the Muslim Mosque Incorporated, the idea of moral maturity was maintained by Malcolm, yet involvement in the political struggle was a main cornerstone. However, in the O.A.A.U., emphasis was placed on politics; Blacks from all walks of life, even without religious faith, were asked to involve themselves. After re- turning from his travels to Africa and the Middle East, in J9 June 1964, Malcolm founded the Organization of Afro-American Unity. 20 Just as Harlem, New York, had been the headquarters for the U.N.I.A. and the Muslim Mosque, Inc., so it was the headquarters for the O.A.A.U. Not only was the O.A.A.U. politically concerned with Afro-Americans in orth America but also in Central and South America as can be witnessed by the exchange between Malcolm and Che Guevera involving an invitation to Che to address Harlemites and his responsive expression of solidarity. 21 The O.A.A.U.'s objective was to aid in the attainment of human rights for Afro-Americans by political means. 22 The organization's stated procedures used in gaining these rights included encouragement of broader and selective read­ ing habits among Blacks, registration of voters as independents, selectivity in choice of candidates, willingness to work with organizations concerned with attainment of human rights for Blacks, and the protection of all Blacks registering or casting the ballot. 2J FOOTNOTES

lcronon, Marcus Garvey, P· 17. 2Ibid., P• 24. 3Ibid., P• 4. 4 . d Ib~ ., P• 76. 5Ibid., P• 63. 6Edmund David Cronon, Black Mosesa The Stor of Marcus Garve and the Universal Ne ro Im rovement Association Madison W~scons~na Un~vers~ty of W~scons~ Press, 19 9 , p. 164. 7Robert A. Hill (ed.), The Marcus Garve and Universal Ne~ro Impeachment Association Papers Berkeley, Californiaa U n~versity of California Press, 1983), p. 413. aIbid. , p. 4 54. 9Ibid., P· 304. lOibid., P• 158. llibid., P• 206. 12Ibid., P• 463. 13Archie Epps, (ed.), The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard (New Yorka William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1969), p. 33· 14Ibid.

15Malcolm X, AutobiograQh;l, P• 315. 16Ibid., PP• 370, 359, 357. 348. 17Ibid., P• 352. 18Ibid., P• 351. 19Ibid., P• 346. 20Malcolm X, On Afro-American History (New Yorka Merit Publishers, 1967), p.l. 21Ibid. 22Haley, Malcolm X, p. 416. 23Archie Epps, The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard, P• 179· 40 CHAPTER FIVE

APPEAL TO INTERNATIONAL BODIES

As a result of World War One, an organization was initiated to help in alleviating friction between nations. In 1919, under the chairmanship of Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States, the League of Nations was born in Paris, France. 1 Some of its aims had great relevence for Africansa To secure and maintain fair and human conditions of labor for men, women and children, both in their own countries (members of the League) and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary international organizations; undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of territories under their contro1.2 It was to this organization that Garvey appealed in seeking the appropriation of a German colony for the purpose of establish­ ing a homeland for dislocated Africans.J In addition, Garvey presented an alternative petition requesting the formation of a United Commonwealth of Black Nations by bringing together 4 par t s o f Iuwes.J t Afr~ca; . h owever, •;t t oo was ~gnore . d . At the beginning of World War Two, again Garvey appealed to this organization but this time for the protection of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) against the atrocities of the fascist Mussolini of Italy . .5

The League of Nations, being composed of ~uropean and related Western nations, was to refuse aid to this nation of color, thus giving the axis powers a gateway to expansion and access to the abundance of resources found in Africa to run 41 42 their war machine. Although Mosiah's appeal to the League of Nations was not successful, the very fact of his attempt illustrates his dedication to the unification of Africa. In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the united States and Prime Minister viinston Churchill of the united Kingdom met on a vessel in the Atlantic for the purpose of preparing a charter which would serve as a precursor of a new organization that would attempt to secure human rights and maintain peace among all men. This statement was to be called the Atlantic Charter. 6 The organization born from this chapter was the United Nations. It was on New Year's Day, 1942, that representatives of twenty-six nations committed themselves by signing the Declaration by united Nations .7 Four years later, a sub-committee was estaolished to scrutinize discriminatory practices and the denial of human rights wherever they existed.d Following its intense studies and recommendations, one of its final reports submitted in 1960 expressed its "deep concern over the manifestations of anti-semitism and other forms of racial prejudice and religious intolerance which had occurred in various countries late in 1959 and early in 1960." In a 1960 resolution, the General Assembly "condemned these mani­ festations as violations of the United Nations charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon states to take all necessary measures to prevent such acts."9 By 1964, approximately two-thirds of the United Nations members were nations of color. 10 It was to the representatives of these nations of color that Malcolm urged Afro-Americans to 4J take their grievances rather than the oppressive system that allowed only partial rights to its Black citizens. In 1964, in a speech to students at Harvard University, Malcolm further elucidated this trutha Once the so-called Negro in this country forgets the whole civil rights issue and begins to realize that human rights are far more important and broad than civil rights, he won't be going to Washington, D.C. anymore to beg Uncle Sam for civil rights. He will take his plea for human rights to the United Nations. There won't be a violation of civil rights anymore. It will be a violation of human rights. Now at this moment, the governments that are in the United Nations can't step in, can't involve themselves wi t h America's domest ic policy. But the day the black man turns from civil rights to human rights, he will take his case into the halls of the United Nations in the same manner as the people in Angola, whose human rights have been violated by the Portuguese in South Africa. 11 FOO ·rNO'l'ES

lGeorge Scott, rhe Rise and Fall of the Lea5ue of Nations (New York: Macmillan 1-'ublishing Co., 1974), p. 11.

2rbid., 9 • 417. Jclarke, Marcus Garve;y, P· llJ. 4cronon, Marcus Garve;y, P· 14. 5clarke, Marcus Garve;y, P· )64. 6united Nations Office of ~ublic Information, Ever;yman's United Nations (New York, 1968) ' P· 5· 7rbid. , P• 5. 8rbid., P· 12. 9rbid., P• J58. 0 l Ibid. , P· J59· llArchie Epps, 'rhe S2eeches of Malcolm .X. at Harvard, PP· 14)-144.

44 CHAPTER SIX

MARCUS GARVEY'S AND MALCOLM X'S

APPROACH TO PAN-AFRICANISM

The strength of the people lies in their struggle as one body when individual efforts are brought together within that body to benefit the whole. When this theory is applied to Africans you have the birth of Pan-Africanism. The first Pan-African Congress was held in London, England in 1900. Founded by H. Sylvester Williams the objective of the first Pan-African Congress was to denounce colonialism and imperial- ism and the delegates demanded that the European governments grant their colonies self-government as soon as practicable. Efforts to materialize this philosophy were made by the Honorable Marcus Garvey through the machinery of the U.N.I.A. which was concerned with enhancing the condition of Africans worldwide. 'rhe crux of Garvey• s approach to Pan-Africanism was the return of blacks to Africa for the redemption of Africa, following the redemption of African identity by blacks worldwide. Those areas emphasized by Garvey were economics, skills, education and self-awareness, strongly focused on the grassroots to prepare them for the eventuality of repatriation. E. David Cronon noted thata A preparatory paper for the 1958 All-Africa People's Conference at Accra coupled (Marcus Garvey) ••• with DuBois (1868-196J)as an outstanding contribution to the spread of the idea of Pan-Africanism and, as if noting that a major shift in ideology was taking 45 46 place, asserted that 'though Garvey never used the word Pan-Africa he planned and laboured t o establish a Pan-African nation.' "1

Although Garvey never utilized the term ~an-Africanism as other black leaders did, his outstanding concept of repatri­ ation which he titled "Africa for Africans" was and still is

l oo k e d upon as "b e1ng . synonymous. 2 In the 1960's the grito "Africa for the Africans," planted by Garvey in the 1920's was to catch root and b egin to sprout and thus led to the enlightenment of Africans. Prom this enlightenment came the struggle for nlack Nationalism and the support of Africans from every corner of the globe for the

freedom of the nations of Africa. ..d lack l~ationalism, expressed also as Pan-Africanism, was viewed by Malik El Shabazz as an ideological and practical method for uniting nlacks regardless of where they were located. He observed that the motherland possessed dedicated sons who were involved in this awakening such as Nkrumah, 'r oure, Lumumba and Kenyatta. l'herefore, Malik concentrated his efforts on North America with the in- tention of coupling the struggle of Afro-Americans with that of the motherland.

Clarifying his philosophy on nlack ~ ationalism during a speech a t Harvard University, March 18 , 1964, Malcolm said:

" ~ve have as our political philosophy, nlack Nationalism; as our economic philosophy, Hlack I ~ationalism; and as our social philosophy , Black Na t ionalism. w'Je believe that t he religion of Islam combined with .J lack Na t ionalism is all -cha t is needed t o solve the problem t hat exists in t he so-called 47 Negro community."J In this same lecture, Malcolm made his audience aware of the intention of the Afro-American to establish cultural, political and social ties with Africa in the hope of one day returning. Malcolm linked efforts in America to the long-term goal of repatriationa The only real solution to our problem, just as the Honorable Elijah Muhammed has taught us, is to go back to our homeland and to live among our own people and develop it so we'll have an independent nation of our own ..• But that is a long range program. And while our people are getting set to go back home, we have to live here in the meantime. So in the Honorable Elijah Muhammad's long range program, there's also a short-range programz the political philosophy which teaches us that the black man should control the politics of his own community."4 FOOTNOTES

lcronon, Marcus Garvey, p. 146 . 2Ibid., p. 148. JArchie Epps, The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard, p. 140. 4rbid.

48 CHAPTER SEVEN

CONCLUSION

The cornerstone of Marcus Garvey's and Malcolm X's belief was synonymous because they had both experienced the social problems perpetrated on them due to skin color. One can clearly understand from the information given in this thesis how and why these men blossomed into world renowned Black leaders. Both men could trace their family roots to the Carribean. Malcolm's mother, a strong-willed woman born in Grenada, held fast to her family's dietary customs. She was also determined not to show favoritism toward Malcolm over his siblings, for Malcolm's caucasian features were a con­ stant reminder that she had been conceived after a white man raped her own mother. However, Malcolm's father, a minister and participant in the U.N.I.A. movement, did show favoritism. He was afraid that Malcolm might stray from his African heritage so he often took only Malcolm along to the U. N.I.A. meetings. Thus, Malcolm was exposed at an early age to the views expressed by followers of Garveyism. Garvey's parents were direct descendants of the proud Jamaican Maroons. Garvey became a strong young man back in Jamaica where his father used to test him often with harsh measurements. But the basis of his human rights beliefs came 49 50 from his mother who sheltered young Mosiah from his father's punishments. She also was responsible for the family's self­ owned agricultural business. 'l'he environmental impact on these two was obviously similar. By the time they reached the age of puberty ooth men had recognized the label imposed upon them by the cau­ casian segment of society. Later in their lives as recognized leaders they ooth used Harlem, -che Black Mecca of North America, as headquarters for their respective movements. It was from Harlem that botn men received and disseminated information to their worldwide constituencies. doth men corresponded and established personal contact with other Black Leaders who were some-cimes supportive and sometimes critical, bu-c always shaped the same ultimate aims -- freedom and justice for black people.

~.E.B. DuBois was one who criticized Garvey's me~nods and ideas. DuBois, a pro-integrationist, viewed Garveyism as impractical since he felt Blacks had already been assimilated into American society. 1'he repatriation of Afro-Americans -co Africa would only set the Black man into the unknown due to past uprooting, Dubois reasoned. In many instances such cri-ci­ cism strengthened Garvey, causing him to reconsider and moderate his programs. The contrasting movement during Malcolm's era was led by Martin Luther King Jr. 'rhe Reverend King was also of the integrationist school of thought and his quest was for civil rights. On the other hand, Malcolm's approach focused on .51 separation and appealed for human rights first -- then civil rights. Malcolm felt Blacks should appeal to international agencies like the United Nations for assistance in achieving human rights. Many new Third World countries who were pre­ viously victims of racial and economic oppression had joined the U.N. and he believed they should intervene in Blacks' struggle for human rights in America. Malcolm also forwarded his concerned appeals to the Organization of African Unity. Malcolm's entreaties were at least considered by the international bodies, whereas Garvey's appeals two generations earlier to the League of Nations fell on deaf ears. 'l'his owed much to the reality that many of the League members sponsored oppressive colonial regimes. Therefore, Garvey found himself depending on his own and his followers' creative approach to solving the Black man's problems. The U.N.I.A. promoted Garvey's ideas and was organized into various departments, each of which responsible for address ing one or more particular problems faced by Blacks. Likewise, Malcolm saw the need for organization. His effort began with the Nation of Islam, then evolved to the Organization of Afro­ American Unity, and finally to the Muslim Mosque Inc. Central to both men's organizations were their publications. Without publications they would have had diffulty disseminating their ideas and making their followers aware of ongoing endeavors. For example, the U.N.I.A. published many articles publicizing its economic enterprise known as the Black Star Line. ·rhe 52 U.N.I.A. official organ, Negro World, was supplemented by other weekly and monthly papers translated so Africans and South American Blacks could read them in their own languages. Malcolm started Muhammed Speaks, once the most widely read Black publication in America with subscribers on all economic levels. This weekly newspaper provided world-wide news cover­ age as well as information on religion, health, cooperative economics, science and family life. Muhammed Speaks also included warnings to white oppressive governments that Blacks would fight to protect themselves. Most importantly, both of the publications mentioned always carried a featured article -- usually on the front page -- that encouraged world­ wide African Unity. This concept, also regarded as Pan­ Africanism, was coined in the early part of the 20th century by African leaders. These two Black Leaders participated in the Pan­ Africanism movement and aided the awakening of Africans world­ wide to the realization that their plight was the same although their geographical locations were different. Thus, they encouraged a growing unity among people of African heritage that has affected the reshaping of the world and its government. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources (a) Books Epps, Archie. The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. New York: Wm. Morrow & Co., Inc., 1969. Garvey, Amy Jacques. Garvey and Garveyism. New York: Macmillan, 1970. Garvey, Marcus. Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey. 2 volumes, Edited by Amy Jacques Garvey. New York: Atheneum, 1925. Hill, Robert A., ed. The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers. 2 volumes. Berkeley, Cal.a University of California Press, 198J. Malcolm x. The Autobiography of Malcolm x. Alex Haley (ed.), New York: Grove Press, 1965. Malcolm x. By Any Means Necessary. Edited by George Breitman New York: Pathfinder Books, 1970. Malcolm x. On Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. Muhammed, Elijah. Message to the Black Man. Chicago: Muhammed's Temple #2, 1965. Nkrumah, Kwame. The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah. London: Thomas, Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1957. Nkrumah, Kwame. The Struggle Continues. London: Panefbooks, 197J· (b) Phonographic Records Douglas Recording Corporation. Malcolm X. New York, Douglas International Recording Corporation, Lurie Records Inc., 1972. Warner Brothers. Malcolm X. warner Brothers Communications Co., Marvin Worth Productions, 1972. (c) Public Documents United Nations Office of Public Information, Everyman's United Nations. New York: United Nations, 1968. 5J 54 (d) Articles "An Emperor Passes," New York .rimes (June 1.3, 1940) 25:4.

"Bottle of Gasoline Found on a Dresser in iVIalcolm JC rlome," New York 'l'imes (Feoruary 17, 1965) .34:7.

"Died: Marcus Garvey," Newsweek (June 24, 1940) d:J.

"Marcus Garvey is Improving," New York 'l'imes (.VI ay 25, 1)140) )1:2.

"Marcus Garvey, 60, Negro Ex-Leader, Dies, Hew York 'rimes (June 12, 1940) 25:4.

"Malcolm X Averts ~vri t by Moving Out" f-lew York ·I'imes (.r'eoruary 19, 1965) .31:4. "Malcolm X Flees Firebomb Attack," New York I'imes (February 15, 1965) 1:5.

"Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here," 1-Jew tork 'Limes February 22, 1965) 1:2.

"Malcolm 1 s v'Vidow Aided by .denefi t," New York 'l'imes (August 9, 1965) 28:4.

" ~Vidow of Malcolm X Speaks with Police About His Slaying," New York 'l'imes (March 2, 1965) 19:5.

Secondary Sources

Adamolekun, Ladipo. Sekou ·roure 1 s Guinea. London:

Clarke, John Henrik. Marcus .Jarvey and the Vision of Af'rica. New York: Random House, 1974. Cronon, Edmund David. Black Nioses: l'he Story of Marcus G-arvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. 1Vladisona University of ~ isconsin Press, 1955. Marcus Garvey: Great Lives Observed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 197.3. Davidson, J asil. Black Star. London: Allan Lane Publishers, 197.3· Goldman, Peter Louis. Death and Life of Malcolm X. New York: Harper, 197.3. Heinz, G. and Donnay, H. Lumumba: '.f'he Last Fifty Days. Trans­ lated by Jane Clark Seitz, New York: Grove Press, 1969. .5.5 Lyons, Thomas, T. Black Leadership in American History. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1972. Maglangbayan, Shawna. Garvelf, Lumumba and Malcolma National Separatists. N.Y.a Th~rd World Press, 1972. Martin, Al-Tony. Race First: The Ideological and Organiza­ tional Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Westport, Ct.a Greenwood Press, 1976. McKinley, James. Assassination in America. New York: Harper 1977· Miller, William, Robert. Martin Luther King. New York: Talley, 1968.

Osofsky, Gilbert. Harlem: The I aking of a Ghetto. New Yorka Harper & Row, 1968. Scott, George. The Rise and Fall of the League of Nations. New Yorka Macmillan Publishing Co., 1974. Taylor, Sidney. The New Africans. New York: G.P. Putnam & Sons, 1967.