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Home , Achaemenes, Achaemenes (satrap), Cambyses II, Cyrus the Great, Fars (territory), Old Persian

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Ancient_Persia_FC.indd 1 3/13/17 2:18 PM 2 r THEAREAWHERE the lived was , or , a in the south of present-day . From Fars, the Persians built an empire (orange on the map) that stretched east to the borders of and west to the . The language of modern Iran is called Persian, or Farsi. The name Iran comes from the word , which is the name of the group from which the Persians descended.

Thousands of years ago, the land now The First World Empire occupied by the countries of Iran, , and was home to many dif- ferent groups of people. The Sumerians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians ruled the area in turn. Around 3,300 years ago, a new group arrived. They were called , and they came from central ,

l LEGENDHASIT a small nation. r MUCHOF IRANIS that the parents The line of a plateau – a high of II were a Persian kings that flat area. It is Persian nobleman descended from encircled by the and the daughter Cyrus is called of a king of the the Achaemenid in the north and . So when . A dynasty the Hindu Cyrus conquered is a series of Mountains in the the Medes, he rulers from the east. Deserts actually defeated same family. cover much of the his own grand- plateau. Some fer- father. On his tile valleys exist in Persian side, Fars and provinces Cyrus traced his farther east. ancestry back to (ak-uh-MEEN-eez). According to leg- Why does the end, Achaemenes year 585 BCE had formed come before scattered groups 584 BCE? of Persians into

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north of the , an area that 612 BCE, the Medes had conquered the today is divided between Russia and Assyrians and become the dominant group . The Aryans were made up of in the area. But the Medes didn’t rule for many tribes. One tribe, the Medes, set- long. Around 550 BCE, they were defeated tled in what is now northern and western by Cyrus II, king of Persia. From this tri- Iran; their land was called . Another umph, Cyrus went on to build the largest tribe, the Persians, made their home empire the ancient world had ever seen. farther south, in an area called Fars. By He became known as .

d THEANCIENT monuments. But Persians didn’t most of our knowl- write much about edge of ancient themselves. Some Persia comes from of what we know the of about them comes , particularly from sculptures (left). and inscriptions on This Greek writer lived around the 5th century BCE and is sometimes called the first historian. Greeks and Persians were enemies for many centuries, and this may have affected some of the things Herodotus wrote about ancient Persia.

Ancient_Persia_2-3.indd 3 3/13/17 2:27 PM 4 Kings of the Persian Empire From 550 BCE until 465 BCE, four kings built the Persian Empire. They r CYRUSTHE GREAT was a fair ruler. also defended it against He allowed each rebellions by people they group that he had conquered. But the conquered to keep , an area inder, Cyrus vowed Cyrus allowed its own language, that lay between to allow people the captive to last two kings reached customs, and present-day Babylonians had return to Palestine, too far and failed to religion. The Cyrus , Iraq, and enslaved to return which was also Cylinder records the . In to their homelands. under his rule. accomplish their goals. his conquest of the text on the cyl- True to his word,

WHEN CYRUSDIEDOF died under myste- battle wounds rious circumstanc- in 530 BCE, his es along the way. son Cambyses II The leader of the (cam-BY-seez) rebellion was killed became king. In by seven nobles. 525 BCE, Cambyses One of them was easily conquered Darius (da-RYE- (where he us). He became is shown below, king in 522 BCE. under umbrella). Darius was from In 522 BCE, he left another branch of Egypt to return to the Achaemenid Persia to stop a family. rebellion, but he

Ancient_Persia_4-5.indd 4 3/13/17 2:30 PM 5 Darius conquered , an area north of , but he failed to take over the Greek mainland. In 490 What does a marathon race have to do with the ? BCE, a large force of Persians attacked a smaller Greek force at Marathon. The Persians were defeated. Darius u DARIUSWAS not subdue the retreated to Persia, determined to . At the where he died in extend the empire same time, Persian 486 BCE. into . He got scouts mapped the as far as southern coasts of Greece Russia but could and southern Italy.

u DARIUSSPENT rial carved into a and calls himself a year stopping cliff at Behistun “,” revolts in differ- (BAY-his-TOON). a title adopted ent parts of the In the inscription, by later rulers of empire. He then Darius states his Persia. had a large memo- right to the throne

r THE PERSIANS borrowed from the people they con- quered. The sea- u DARIUSWAS empire. With these Persians lost sev- faring Phoenicians succeeded by his men and a naval eral battles and provided Persian son Xerxes (ZURK- fleet of hundreds had to retreat to kings with ships seez), above. of ships, he invad- their homeland to use for trad- Advisers persuaded ed Greece. The without having ing. Imitating Xerxes to avenge Persians defeated subdued the the , the his father’s defeat the Greeks at Greeks. Xerxes Persians replaced in Greece, and in Thermopylae, was assassinated a barter system 480 BCE, Xerxes put and Xerxes then in 465 BCE. He was with , mak- together an army marched to Athens the first Persian ing long-distance of hundreds of and burned down emperor who had trade easier. Coins thousands of men the city. However, failed to expand pictured the king from all over the after that, the the empire. and spread his image through- out the empire. r THE PERSIAN neither the civilian Trade required rulers divided nor the military record keeping, their empire into leader could wield How did the so the Persians 20 satrapies, or too much power. troops of Darius hired Babylonian provinces. The king Under Cyrus, and Xerxes “walk scribes. The appointed a gover- each satrapy sent on water”? scribes kept nor called a gifts to the king. accounts in to rule each one. Darius made the their language, A separate military arrangement more Akkadian, which commander for formal by estab- became an official each satrapy also lishing a system language of the reported directly to of taxation for empire. the king. This way, the satrapies.

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l INNOBLEFAMILIES, to read and l BOTHMENAND Persian army mothers cared for write, while girls women wore long large, men were their sons until the learned to spin robes gathered at encouraged to age of five; then the thread, weave the waist. Noble marry young, boys were placed in cloth, and play men dominated have more than their fathers’ care. an instrument. Persian society, one wife, and Boys learned to ride Children were but some wealthy have many chil- horses and to shoot taught to always women owned dren. Families with a bow and the truth. property and trav- were rewarded arrow. Some sons Lying was the eled far to manage for having sons. of nobles learned greatest shame. it. To keep the and glass from Egypt, and spices and gold dust Persian Society from India. There was a Persian society was strictly him. Below nobles on the small lower middle class of divided. At the top was an social scale were mer- skilled workers – bakers, all-powerful king. Below chants, who traded purple butchers, carpenters, and the king were a few thou- dyes and textiles from artisans. At the bottom of sand wealthy nobles. Even , perfumes from society were millions of nobles had to lie facedown Arabia (present-day Saudi poor people. These farm- in the presence of the king Arabia and lands north), hands, herders, servants, and avoid eye contact with timber from Crete, grains and laborers worked hard

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u THEHOMESOFTHE the homes of the read, but they poor were built of rich were made enjoyed stories sun-dried bricks of or and poems recited made from mud bricks baked in from memory. and straw, and ovens. There were Music was an they did not have beds, chairs, and important part of much furniture. tables, and some the culture, and Families sat and homes were built harps, flutes, slept on rugs around a courtyard and tambourines that covered the with pools. Many were popular floor. In contrast, Persians couldn’t instruments.

l BARLEYWASONE u EARLY PERSIANS the but made barely enough of the main crops prayed to many state religion, but to keep themselves alive. that Persian farm- nature gods. other religions still ers grew. It was Sometime between existed. Most Persians lived in ground into flour the 9th and 6th cen- preached that life the country. The king to make flatbread. turies BCE, a prophet was a struggle owned all the land, but Other major crops named Zarathustra between good and were , (Zoroaster in Greek) evil, and each per- he granted large estates beans, peas, let- introduced the idea son could choose to nobles, who had to tuce, figs, , of worshipping between the two. supply the king with sesame seeds one god, Ahura Some people follow (for oil), cotton, Mazda (above Zoroaster today, men and weapons for and flax. Herders right). The religion particularly in India his army. raised cattle, grew in popularity. and Iran. sheep, and . King Darius made

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With the taxes they and . They brought Royal Roads, collected from people workers, craftspeople, and they ruled, the Persian materials from all over the kings financed mas- empire to build their royal Canals, and sive building projects. palaces. The palaces were dec- These projects includ- orated with brightly colored Palaces ed palaces, royal roads, tiles and gem-studded reliefs.

Ancient_Persia_8-9.indd 8 3/13/17 2:33 PM 9 l TOMAINTAINCON- trol throughout their vast lands, the Persian kings needed to move troops and send messages rapidly. So they built a system of royal roads. The roads also encouraged trade between different parts of the empire. Most of the royal roads have dis- appeared, but we know about two of them – from to , u WHEN DARIUS and from Susa to became king, he . The latter began building was 1,600 miles a new capital long, 20 feet wide, at Persepolis and made of hard- (pur-SEP-uh-lis). packed gravel. Xerxes and his Stations every few son Artaxerxes miles had stables continued the con- for donkeys and struction of this fresh horses for new city. royal messengers. All along the roads u CYRUSTHE GREAT were places for located his capital travelers to eat at and sleep. An ordi- (puh-SAR-guh- nary traveler could dee), where he make the trip from built two palaces. Susa to Sardis in The buildings 90 days, but royal had huge halls messengers, riding supported by col- in relays and stop- umns and were ping for nothing, decorated with could make it monumental reliefs u DARIUSBUILT timber from , in 15 days. (figures carved another palace at gold from Sardis, into a flat surface). Susa. Like other and silver and The Persian kings Persian palaces, ebony from Egypt. were crowned at it was a blend of Stonecutters came Pasargadae. A styles and building from , gold- tomb there (above) techniques from all smiths from Media is believed to be over the empire. and Egypt, and that of Cyrus. Materials included woodworkers from Sardis.

r THE PERSIANS the Arabian Sea. through part of a built large canals. The was Greek peninsula. Darius had a canal 125 miles long According to built that joined and was used for Herodotus, two the Mediterranean more than 1,000 warships, side by Sea with the Red years. Xerxes, in side, could pass Sea, shortening planning his inva- through the canal travel from the sion of Greece, at the same time. Mediterranean to had a canal dug

Ancient_Persia_8-9.indd 9 3/13/17 2:34 PM Ancient_Persia_10-11.indd 10 3/13/17 2:34 PM arius’s palace STAIRWAY TO at Persepolis was built on top THE KING of a plateau. DTwo stairways led to it, and they were wide enough for 10 soldiers on horseback to ride side by side. The , or audience hall, was big enough to hold 10,000 people. Pillars 60 feet high supported the gold-rimmed roof, and the palace complex included an elaborate water-pump- ing system.

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u THE PERSIANS However, while Persepolis shows decorated many Assyrian reliefs many delegations Art of Ancient Persia of their monu- showed mainly (selected groups) mental buildings scenes of war and bringing gifts to The art of ancient Persia was a with stone relief hunting, Persian the king. Each del- sculptures. reliefs often rep- egation wears the mixture of artistic traditions. They borrowed resented proces- customary clothing The Persians borrowed from the this idea from sions to the royal of its region. various peoples they conquered. the Assyrians. court. This relief at They combined Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian styles with their own to create some- thing that was uniquely Persian.

l THETOPSOF columns were often decorated l FROMTHE BABYLONIANS, THE PERSIANS with animal learned to decorate with glazed bricks. figures. These figures from Susa are made of bricks that were formed in molds, paint- ed, and baked in a kiln (oven).

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PERSIANNOBLESLOVED earrings had to adorn themselves elaborate designs. with gold. Bracelets Rings and clothing u WEALTHY someone poured a and armlets were ornaments com- Persians dined beverage into the often decorated pleted the well- from plates and large opening at with animal heads dressed Persian’s drank from vessels the top. The drink- where they joined, costume. made of gold and er would catch the and necklaces and silver. This distinc- liquid in his mouth tive horn-shaped as it poured out drinking cup is of a small hole at called a rhyton. It the front of the has two openings. animal. As the drinker held the cup in the air,

l THEREAREFEW remaining ancient Persian carpets. The oldest is in a museum in Russia. It is thought to be 2,500 years old. However, since Persian rug makers continued to use the same techniques and designs for hun- dreds of years after the end of the empire, rugs made in the 15th and 16th centu- ries are believed to be very much like those made in ancient Persia. u SOME PERSIAN lines long. The Fine carpets are tales were passed Persian poet still made in 12 down by word of recorded rug-making cen- mouth and later it late in the 11th ters scattered written down. century CE. Its sto- around Iran. Each The , ries of kings, gods, center has its own or Book of Kings, and demons orig- distinctive designs. is an epic poem inated in ancient about 100,000 Persia.

Ancient_Persia_12-13.indd 13 3/13/17 2:37 PM 14 Invasion of the Greeks After the Persians failed to conquer the Greek mainland in 479 BCE, the Persian Empire and its Achaemenid leaders began a slow decline. The kings who followed Xerxes were weak rulers. At the same time, the Greek city-states grew stronger after Philip II of organized them into the Hellenic League. He named himself and his descendants leaders of the league. Philip was murdered in 336 BCE. Two years later, his son Alexander, later called , invaded Persia.

AFTERTHE PERSIANS l ALEXANDERWAS army defeated lost to the Greeks tutored by the the Persians at in 331 BCE, Darius Greek philosopher Issus. During III escaped with Aristotle, who the battle, the his bodyguards. taught that Greeks Greeks captured Meanwhile, had a right to rule the wife, chil- Alexander burned over all barbar- dren, and mother Persepolis as ians (anyone not of the Persian revenge for the Greek). Alexander king, Darius III. burning of Athens wanted to avenge Alexander then by Xerxes some the earlier Persian marched his 150 years earlier. invasions of army to Egypt Darius III was Greece led by and defeated the stabbed by one of Darius and Xerxes. Persian troops his and left After crossing there. to die in the des- into Asia, his ert. The Persian Empire and the r BYALLACCOUNTS, king of all Asia. Achaemenid Darius III (right) While Alexander dynasty had was a mild-man- was in Egypt, come to an end. nered ruler who Darius III raised wanted the best for another army. his country. After When Alexander his family was cap- returned to tured at Issus, he Persia in 331 BCE, wrote to Alexander, the Greeks and asking that his Persians again did family be released. battle – and again, Alexander sent the Persians lost. a haughty reply, claiming to be the

r ALEXANDERLED back. Reaching waged a series which included his troops as far (the cap- of wars over who the Persian heart- east as India, ital of Babylonia) would take control land, was ruled where he defeat- in 323 BCE, he died of Alexander’s by Seleucus I. The ed a large Indian unexpectedly, pos- empire. Finally, Seleucid dynasty army (right). sibly from malaria, they divided up spread Greek However, at his at the age of 32. the lands into culture through- soldiers’ insis- For 40 years after three large king- out Persia. tence, he turned that, his generals doms. The largest,

Ancient_Persia_14-15.indd 14 3/13/17 2:38 PM invented the , d IN 224 CE, THE Sasanian dynasty. a three-sided brick Parthians were The Sasanians hall with a high conquered by a wanted to restore curved ceiling leader from the old the glory of the old (shown here). Persian heartland Persian Empire. The open end of of Fars. This lead- They often waged an iwan faced a er claimed to be war with Rome and shaded courtyard. descended from a Byzantium (pres- The iwan brought nobleman named ent-day Istanbul), cooling air into the . Thus, the and they restored house during hot dynasty he found- Zoroastrianism as u SKILLED PARTHIAN Persian summers. ed is called the the state religion. archers could shoot The Parthians Sasanian kings arrows over their u BY 141 BCE, satrapy of . traded as liked to be por- shoulders while the Seleucid rule The Parthians as China. They trayed hunting, as riding away from in Persia had been tried to reduce also periodically on this silver plate. the enemy. Today, replaced by the the influence of battled with the a Parthian shot (or Parthians, nomad- the Greeks. They Roman Empire “parting shot”) is a ic tribesmen who experimented in the west. sharp remark made had taken over with new kinds while walking away the of buildings and from an argument.

Ancient_Persia_14-15.indd 15 3/13/17 2:38 PM 16 The Legacy of Ancient Persia In the 7th century CE, replaced Zoroastrianism in Arabia, the prophet as the religion of Persia. Muhammad started a new However, while religion, called Islam. changed Persia, contact The religion spread rap- with Persian culture had an idly throughout western effect on Islam, which was Asia. Around 642 CE, enriched by and Islamic defeated the poetry. Ancient Persia left a Sasanians and took con- legacy for the whole world trol of Persia. Soon Islam to enjoy.

THE MOSQUEOF Imam was built Persian Style in (now in Iran) during the rule of Abbas (1588–1629), a leader of the Safavid dynasty. Built over a period of 18 years, the mosque shows how Persian archi- tecture and design were incorporated into Islamic wor- ship. Mosques (Islamic places of worship) often have an iwan. During the earlier Sasanian period, the Persians had discovered how to make domes. They used these rounded structures to cover their most important build- ings, such as palaces. Today, many monuments and mosques all over the world have domes.

Ancient_Persia_16-17.indd 16 3/13/17 2:40 PM 17 l THE THOUSAND l and One Nights (or (c. 1048–1131 The Arabian Nights) CE) was a Persian is a story collection poet, mathemati- that includes the cian, and astrono- tale of Aladdin and mer. He was part the lamp. of a movement The stories come to change the from Egypt, Iraq, calendar to a India, and other 365-day year. He places. The earliest is best known for ones – perhaps having written a first written down book of poetry, in the 10th century The Rubáiyát, CE – are Persian which people still tales with an Indian read today. influence.

Azadi Square, , Iran

u FROM 642 CE, A revolution in Persia was 1979 brought in ruled by: Arabs Islamic religious (642–1055), leaders, called Seljuk Turks ayatollahs. Today (1055–1157), the government Mongols (1219– in the heart of the early 1500s), and ancient Persian Safavids (1510– Empire is the Taj Mahal, India 1722). Then Islamic Republic came Nadir Shah of Iran. The area (1736–1747), the was named Iran Qajar dynasty in 1935, in rec- (1796–1921), and ognition of the the Pahlavi dynas- Aryans, the original ty (1925–1979). Persians.

r THEANCIENT Persians loved to fill their with fragrant flowers they found growing in Badshahi Mosque, the wild. One spe- cies the Persians was later taken to cultivated was Europe, and from the damask rose. there to North This type of rose America.

l ENGLISHBORROWS from many languages. More than 150 English words have Persian roots, including lemon, orange, sherbet, , magic, and . Blue Mosque,

Ancient_Persia_16-17.indd 17 3/13/17 2:41 PM 18 Activities

WRITE AN EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH Imagine you are Cyrus the Great. In an effort to help your son Cambyses II rule as you have, you decide to explain your method of ruling to him. Think about the ways Cyrus the Great ruled his empire. For example, how did he treat people the Babylonians had enslaved? Using details from this magazine, write a paragraph explaining Cyrus’s methods of ruling. Include a description of how his methods helped him gain the respect of those he conquered. Research to find information that adds to what you have read in this magazine.

MAKE A TABLE The Kings Who Built the Persian Empire Creating a table can be helpful in keeping track of facts and details. KING Make a table similar to this one about

the early Persian kings. Use the infor- PERIOD OF RULE mation you learned in this magazine to complete the table with facts about the four kings who built the ancient ACCOMPLISHMENTS Persian Empire.

Ancient_Persia_18-19.indd 18 3/13/17 2:42 PM 19 MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES

Mesopotamia Indian Empires Ever wonder when the first written India’s geography, with its steep moun- Pyramids, , mummies, and records appeared, when the wheel was tain ranges and long distances, made gods: This once-powerful civilization invented, or where our modern count- it difficult for any one ruler to unite the left behind breathtaking monuments ing system came from? Believe it or country. But in 320 BCE, Chandragupta and priceless treasures. Discover the not, these and many other innovations Maurya founded India’s first true people and practices that make Ancient – like glass, farming, complex legal empire, the Maurya Empire. Learn Egypt so alluring to the historians who systems, and basic astronomy – came about the rise and spread of have uncovered the mysteries of this from one civilization, the very first: and Hinduism, the reign of Ashoka, and long-ago civilization. . the emergence of the .

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

HSS 6.4 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of . 6.4.5 Outline the founding, expan- sion, and political organization of the Persian Empire. LEARN Historical and Social Sciences MORE Analysis Skills: ONLINE! Research, Evidence, and Point of View 2. Students distinguish fact from opin- ion in historical narratives and stories. • As shown in their sculptures, the Persians depicted themselves as noble. This matches their idea of themselves as the masters of a vast empire and a great civilization. • Historians don’t know exactly when Zarathustra lived, but most agree • The Persians got ships from the that he was a priest in the ancient Phoenicians and the idea of coins Persian religion. As a young man, he from the Lydians. What else did these had a mystical vision of two influential cultures contribute to (“wise lord”), who told him to preach ancient commerce? the truth.

Ancient_Persia_18-19.indd 19 3/13/17 2:42 PM hmhco.com KIDS DISCOVER

EDITOR: Jennifer Dixon FACT-CHECKER: Patricia Fogarty ART DIRECTION: Brobel Design DESIGNERS: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, AUTHOR: Lois Markham, Camille Cauti Ricculli, Jeremy Rech AUTHOR TEAM LEAD: Amy K. Hughes PHOTO RESEARCH: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan PRESIDENT AND CEO: Ted Levine ACTIVITIES WRITER: Marjorie Frank CHAIRMAN AND FOUNDER: Mark Levine PROOFREADER: Paula Glatzer, Patricia Fogarty

GRADE 6 TITLES (rhyton). Bridgeman Images: Look and Learn: p.6 top (palace of Darius at Persepolis); Musée Rolin, Autun, : p.5 middle right (Xerxes). Getty Images: Historical Picture World’s Early People Ancient India Archive: p.6 middle left (Iranian prince); Bettmann: p.17 top center (Omar Khayyam); BornaMir: p.9 middle right (); DEA Picture Library: G. Nimatallah: p.19 Mesopotamia Indian Empires top center (Great Stupa); Art in All of Us: Eric Lafforgue: p.7 middle right (Ahura Mazda); Ancient Egypt Ancient China Kazuyoshi Nomachi: pp.10–11 (Persepolis steps); Print Collector: p.15 bottom center (Sassanian silver-gilt dish); Ugurhan: p.9 top right (Persepolis); Werner Forman: p.13 Archaeology Early Romans top right (armlet). Granger Collection: p.5 center middle (Persian gold ); Sarin Language Roman Empire Images: p.2 bottom left (King Cyrus), p.16 top right (the genie appears to Aladdin). iStock Images: AG-ChapelHill: p.3 bottom left (, Iran); BornaMir: p.12 bottom Ancient Hebrews Christianity and Rome’s Legacies left (Achaemenid soldiers); Fotolinchen: p.7 bottom center (); FrankvandenBergh: Early Greeks Olmec and Maya p.12 bottom right (two-headed ); gaborbasch: p.17 center middle (Badshahi Mosque); kickimages: p.6 center middle (Persian soldier); Nikada: p.17 center middle (Taj Mahal); Greece’s Golden Age Civil Vincent_St_Thomas: p.17 bottom center (Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey). National Ancient Persia Geographic Creative: Tom Lovell: pp.14–15 top (Persepolis in flames), p.14 bottom right (defeat of the Indian army). Shutterstock: Borna_Mirahmadian: p.17 top right (Azadi Square); JJ_SNIPER: p.19 top right (ancient Egyptian statue); M.Khebra: p.17 middle right (damask rose); Nicola Messana Photos: p.15 bottom left (iwan); Renata Sedmakova: p.3 bottom right (Herodotus); steve estvanik: p.13 bottom right (the ON THE COVER: Shah Kaykaus Hawking, oil painting, 19th century, Persian, Mongol Shahnameh); Subbotina Anna: p.17 bottom right (lemons). School: Getty Images: Burstein Collection. ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS: PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Lanmas: p.19 top left (Assyrian Palace); North Wind Picture Acme Design Company: Maps, pp.2–3. Archives: p.18 top (Cyrus II the Great); Prisma Archivo: p.19 bottom (Zarathustra). Art Resource: British Library Board: Robana: pp.16–17 bottom (Isfahan, the Shah Mosque); Kline Illustration: Cartoons, cover; The Year 585 BCE, p.2; Xerxes and The Trustees of the : p.4 top right (); Erich Lessing: p.4 Soldiers, p.5; Canals, p.9. bottom (King Cambyses II), p.9 middle right (winged griffin), p.13 bottom left (Persian rug), p.14 middle left (Alexander mosaic), p.14 center middle (Darius); SEF: p.5 top Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Rob Wood: Behistun, p.5; Greg Harlin: Poor Folk, p.7; right (Darius I the Great), p.12 top left ( bearers); Werner Forman: p.13 top left , pp.8–9.

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