REFLECTION IN ACTION: AN ENQUIRY INTO HOW CEOs LEARN TO LEAD AND LEAm TO LEARN
Jiil Birch
A thesis submitted in conforrnity with the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts Department of Aduit Education, Community Development and Counseling Psychology Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto
O Copyright by Ji11 Birch (2000) National Library Bibliothèque nationale m*m of Ca~da du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellington OttawaON K1AON4 Otbwa ON KfA ON4 Canada Canada
The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence dowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sel1 reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cetie thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/6lm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.
The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts kom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT
REFLECTION IN ACTION: AN ENQUIRY INTO HOW CEOs LEARN TO LEAD AND LEARN TO LEARN
A thrsis submitted in conformity with the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts Department of Adult Education, Comrnunity Development and Counseling Psychology Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto
Jill Birch
Mile much research has focused on the functions, types. and models of enhip. few studies have explored the role that reflection plays in the professional and personal development of Chief Executive Officers. The purpose of this qualitative study was to determine if CEOs used reflection and if so. when. how and why it was used. This is a study about the how leaders lem to leam and how they leam to lead.
Through a two phase interview process. the major themes identified were: development of self-knowledge as an impetus to take action: hmessing cumulative knowledge to enhance decision-making; development of reflective systems; and the roles played by tacit knowledge, confidence and fear.
The findings provide interesting insight into CE0 leaming, growth and development. The study seeks to identiQ methods and stmtegies by which CEOs may merpropel themselves and their organizations into the great oppomuiities that await the reflective mind. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Much of my work in the not-for-profit sector has been blessed by working with ChieÎExecurive Oficen; i have been fortunate to witness the exhilaration of making a difference, the crafi of sustaining loyalty, the loneliness of the top position and the incredible responsibility that day in and day out, continues to inspire me to lrad, in rny own small way, with the courage and dignity 1 have so often wimessed. From the moment I cornrnenced studies at OISE in 1995,I knew that my research would set me on a course ro examine the ways that CEOs develop their leadership skills and learning abilities. I have been supported in so many ways by so many people and to these people, 1 owe so much:
Drs. Ann Armstrong and Barbara Burnaby, my thesis supervisors. who inspired and encouraged me to go deeper and farther in my research than 1 ever thought 1 could. They taught me to trust the qualitative process and to trust myself: a phone call. a conference call, or an e-mail away, I always knew that 1 could reach out any tirne for their guidance, advice and support. Dr. Marilyn Laiken, my fiend and advisor in the OISE Masters Program! who always made time for me and provided academic guidance as I worked through my Iiteratue review and developed my thesis proposal. Dr. Marian Pitters, who originally encouraged me to enter the OISE program, and was always a sounding board, supporter and academic parnier. reviewing earlier drafts of my thesis. The eight Chief Executive Officers who were so generous with their time and keely shared their reflections, experience and leaniing. Without their suppon, this thesis would not have been possible. Carol Birch, who shared my joumey, painstakingiy read my drafis and provided her mal editorial excellence and counsel.
III Supporthg my studies, al1 of those CEOs who encouraged me and made it possible with a special thanks to John Gustavson, President & CE0 of the Canadian Marketing Association and Diane Brisebois, President & CE0 of Retail Council of Canada. With thanks for their early encouragement and ability to keep me Iaughing: Patrick Pardoe, John Torella, Doug Jordan, Linda bfomson, Peter Fleming, John Williams. Ingrid Nomsh, Cori~eKovalsky, Rose Challenger, Jack Shand and my team at the Canadian Marketing Association. For rny farnily, who have provided me with more support and encouragement than any daughter, sister, aunt, niece or cousin could have ever hoped for. Finally, for my son Clayton, who wise before his years, always undentood how important this work was to me and has heard more about qualitative research. reflection and the learning methods of Chief Executive Officers than any 13 year old would ever want to know .. .yod re the best.
Toronto, September, 2000. Table Of Contents
LIST OF TABLES 3
LIST OF FIGURES 3
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 BACKGROUND AND FOCUS OF THE STUDY 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 1.3 STATEMENT OF TKE PROBLEM 1.4 OVERVEW OF THE THESIS
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE iN LEADERSHIP 2.2 DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP 2.3 FUNCTIONS, TYPES AM3 MODELS 2.3.1. Functions of Leaders 2.32 Types of Leaders 7.3.3. Models of Leadership 2.4. PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 2.4.1. Persona1 Development 2.4.2. Competencies 2.1.3. Mastery 2.5. REFLECTION 5.1. Understanding the Role Penonality Plays in Leadership 2.52 SüMMARY OF AREAS EXPLORED IN PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT 2.6 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 2.6.1. Competencies 2.6.2. Mastery 2.6.3. Organizational Developrnent 2.7. SUMMARY OF AREAS FOR EXPLORATION IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 2.8 CONCLUSIONS EMERGING FROM THE LITERATURE
3.0. REVIEW OF LITERATURE IN REFLECTION 3.1 Definition of Reflection 3.2 Fonns of Reflection 3.3 Relevance of Reflection 3 -4 Refl ection in Personal and Professional Development 3.4.1 Leamhg 3 -4.2 Problem Solving 3 -4.3 Self-Developrnent 3.5 SUMMARY OF AMAS FOR EXPLORATION IN REFLECTION AND LEADERSHIP
CEUPT.ER 3: DESIGN AND LMETHODOLOGY
4.1 OVERVEW, NATURE OF INQüIRY 4.2 STUDY DESIGN 4.3 PARTICIPANT SELECTION 4.4 PARTICIPANT PROFILES 4.5 h'TERVEW PROCESS 4.6 DATA ANALYSIS 4.7 RELIABILITY AND VALJDIN 4.8 LIMITATIONS 4.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS PERTAIMNG TO INDIVIDUAL FIRST INTERVIEWS
5.0 INTRODUCTION 5.1 OVERVIEW OF INDNIDUAL FNDiNGS 5.2 Anne's Leadership 5.3 Bill's Leadership 5.4 Elizabeth's Leadenhip 5.5 Michael's Leadership 5.6 Paul's Leadership 5.7 Sonia's Leadenhip 5.8 Tom's Leadenhip 5.9 Valerie's Leadership 5.10 SWMARY OF VERTICAL ANALYSIS OF FIRST STAGE NTERVIEWS 5. L O. 1 Evolution of First Stage Emergent Theory 5.10.2 Category 1 : Evolution 510.3 Category 2: Reflection 5.10.4 Category 3: Leadenhip 5.1 0.5 Category 4: Professionai and Personai Development
5. f 1 SUMMARY: EMERGENT THEORY EXûM FIRST STAGE INTERVIEWS CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS OF THE F'INDINGS PERTmGTO THEMES ERERGING FROM SECOND NTERVLEWS 149
6.0 INTRODUCTION 6. 1 Themes Reuiforced by Second Stage Interviews 6. 2 Self-Knowledge 6.3 Cumulative Leaming 6.3.1 Understandhg What Works and What Doesn't 6.4 Personaiized Re fiective Merhocis 6.5 Summary of Reinforcing Themes 6.6 New Themes Emerging fiom Second Stage Interviews 6.7 Tacit Knowledge and the Role of Instinct and Intuition 6.8 Fear and Confidence 6.9 SUMMARY OF NEW TKEMES
CHAPTER 6: RESPONSE TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS 184
7.0 INTRODUCTION 184 7.1 RESEARCH QüESTION ONE - The role of reflection and its triggen as part of a CEO's professiond and persond developrnent 185 7.2 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO - Contributions that reflection has made to CEOs leadership abilities 190 7.3 RESEARCH QUESTION THREE - Conclusions that cmbe dnwn to support future professional and development interventions 202
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AiYD RECOMMENDATIONS 212 8.0 SUMMARY 212 8.1. Do CEOs reflect as part of their professional and personal development? 312 8.2 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 214 8.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 2 17 8.4 REFLECTTONS 219
APPENDICES
A: Participant Consent B: Fim Individual interview Questions C: Second Individual InteMew Questions D: Thrmatic Organization of Code Categories
List of Tables
TabIe 1 OveMew of Leadership Functions 13 Table 2 Functional Approaches Used by CEOs in Leading Their Organizations 15 Table 3 Leadership Types 18 TabIe 4 Relationship between Decision Styles and MBTT Preferences 19 Table 5 Themes in Leadership Models 3 1 Table 6 Leadership ModeIs 22 Table 7 Leadership Personal and Professional Developrnent 26 Table 8 PearmanTsAdaptation of the Johari Window 34 Table 9 The Ways CEOs Lead 37 Table 10 Fonns of Reflection 44 TabIe 1 I Tailor-Made Reflective Experience 46 Table 12 Participant Profiles 60 Table 13 g~£3ucket"Categories - Fint Round of CE0 Inte~ews 69 Table 13 Impact of Critical Incidents in CEOsTYouth and/or as a Young Adult 130 Table 15 Male and Femaie CEOs' Views of uidependence and Interdependence 132 Table 16 Patterns of Reflective Behaviour in CEOs 135 Table 17 Segmentation of Critical Incidents 138 Table 18 Preferred Type of Professional and Personal Development 146 Table 19 Instances of Instinct and Intuition as Part of the Reflective Process 171 Table 20 Role of Reflection in CEOs Personai & Professional Development 188 Table 2 1 How CEOs Have Changed 193 Table 22 How CEOs Learn to Lead 197 Table 2 1 lmpact of Interviews on CE0 Reflection Table 23 Female Perceptions of Female and Male Leadership 204 Table 24 CE0 Effectiveness and Refl ective Capability - Penonal Development 206 Table 25 CE0 Effectiveness and Reflective Capability - Professional Development 208 Table 26 impact of Interviews on CE0 Reflection 225 List of Figures
Figure 1 Study Design Figure 2 Data Analysis Process Figure 3 Emergent Theory - Fint Stage Interviews Figure 4 Critical Incidents and Re flective Behaviour Figure 5 Emergent Theory - Second Stage Interviews CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Focus of the Study
One of the toughest jobs today belongs to Chief Executive Oficers. At first blush, it may appear they have an easy time of it. They are ofien blessed with a rich share of human and financial resources as well as the latest in new technologies. But a closer look reveals they are at the mercy of the media, govemment, shareholden and Boards of Directors. CEOs exist in a world where they are deluged with information and viewpoints that they mut carefully sift through and synthesize in order to facilitate processes, add value and drive profitability. They are the public face and role mode1 for their organization. The expectation of optimum performance is constant and the price to be paid for poor results is, more often than not, temination. How are CEOs performing under this pressure? A general conclusion is that significant problems exist in execution. Lang cites eight studies that indicate strategic planning exercises have produced "uneven performance" (Lang, 1995. p. 46-8). CEOs may have a great strategy, but failure to implement it well has proved to be their nemesis. In relaying the top ten pitfalls, Lang States that many reside at the top with the CEO. These include not devoting enough time to the problem, failing to review strategic plans with department and divisional heads and the consistent rejection of a formai planning mechanism by making intuitive decisions that conflict with formai plans (Ibid., p. 49). The media has drawn similar conclusions to those of the acadernic cornmunity. In a recent issue of Fortune Magazine. the lead article, "Why do CEOs Fail?" found that poor execution was the primas, cause (Fortune Magazine, June, 1999, p.p. 68-82). In the face of this less than stellar performance, a simple question needs to be asked: "How cari CEOs be helped to do a better job?" It was while reading the work of Mintzberg, that 1 began to ponder this question in greater depth and as a resdt my thesis topic began to crystallize. Mintzberg srates that leaders are "strongly oriented to action and dislike reflective activities" (Mintlberg, 1998, p. 4). Given that there is no school for CEOs per se, that they are among the most '%me poor" people in the work world and that they must leam in fiont of ail their employees everyday, Mintzberg's comment stnick with me with great force. If CEOs do not, can not or will not reflect, it may affect their professional and persona1 development and hence, their ability to successfuIly lead an organization. Since commencing my studies at OISE in 1995,I have been intrigued by the work of CEOs. Fortunately, my work in the for-profit and not-for-profit sectors provided an oppomuiin; ;o work with many CEOe across Canada. I began to focus intentiy on the qualities, characteristics and functions of leaders. My observations were enriched by a literature review in preparation for this thesis. When 1 began the review, 1 thought I had a fairly good idea about what makes a CE0 '~ick".Mer dl, I had worked with hundreds of them, good and bad, frorn ail kinds of companies across many sectors. What I learned was how much I did not know! The review provided me with a significant oppomuiity to improve my knowledge of the facts and theones as well as to become aware of the myriad of studies available on leadership.
1.2 Purpose of the Study The goal of this thesis is to lem more about how CEOs learn to lead and specificaily, to examine what role, if any, reflection plays in their professional and penond development. In leaming about methods that have both succeeded and failed, as well as the frequency with which these methods are used, it is hoped that a rnodest contribution can be made to the study of leadership developrnent. The implications of the research could also point to possible interventions that may support the development of future leaders.
The purpose of this thesis is to examine questions in four areas: 1. Do CEOs reflect as a part of their professional and personal development? 2. If CEOs do reflect what contribution has reflection made to their leadership abilities? 3 If CEOs do not reflect, what other methods, if any, do they employ to irnprove themsdves? 4. How, or does, reflection factor into a CEO's ability to make decisions? 5. Based on the outcome of the research, what conclusions cm be drawn towards shaping future professional and development interventions to support CEOs?
The objectives of the thesis are to: Explore linkages between personal and professional development; IdentiQ and examine events or circumstances that may trigger reflection; Leam ifrhere is any correiarion between a CEOs' perception of effectiveness and his or her ability to reflect; Discover what methods CEOs believe are most beneficial to their leadership development and; Examine differences in the reflective styles between male and female CEOs.
1.3 Statement of the Problem The Iiterature points to four major reasons why a study of CEOS' use of reflection is timely and important:
1. A Lack of Research in the Study of CE09sProfessional Development The lack of research in this area is illustrated by Hogan, Curphy and Hogan's anaiysis of the content of leadership literature which is surnmarized into five categories: (Hogan, Curphy & Hogan. 1994, p. 483) Actual performance of a leader's team and organizationai unit; Subordinates', peen' or supervisors' ratings used to evaluate leaden; Evaluation of leadership potential of strangers on the basis of their performance in interviews, assessrnent centres or leaderiess group discussions; Self rathgs of leadership to evaluate criteria; and Effectiveness defined by persons who have derailed.
The stakes for professional development have never been higher. As organizations either perform poorly or fail altogether, there is a great need to: a) lem if CEOs recognize that there may be a coaelation between their performance and corporate failures; b) discover what, if anything, leaders are doing to improve their skills; and C) examine which methods, if any, they are choosing to improve their leadership.
2. The Need to Explore the Relationship Between Performance and Professional Development The fact that there is no "school" for CEOs and that they must *lem on the job" in the Company of employees and peers forms a third crucial element (Farkas & Wetlaufer, 1996, p. 1 12). A nurnber of studies indicate that CEOs are not performing optimally and that corporations are failing at disturbing rates. Hogan. for exarnple, draws a parallel between leader incornpetence and the fact that the failure rate of corporations in America stands at 50% (Hogan, Curphy & Hogan, 1994, p. 495). Farkas and Wetlaufer conducted a study that demonstrates that between 35% and 50% of al1 CEOs are replaced within five years (Farkas & Wetlaufer, 1996, p. 1 15). There is a need to better understand what correlation, if any, exists between supenor performance and professional development.
3. Organizational Relevance The pervasive power and influence that CEOs wield wvithin their organizations is significant. Mintzberg States there are two components of this power: "First, the key purpose of the leader role is to effect an integration benveen individual needs and organizational goals.. .Second.. .foxmal authority vests the manager with great potential power; leadership activity determines how much of it will be realized (Mintzberg, 1973, p. 63). The decisions that CEOs make on a daily basis have profound effects on people, products and profits. A greater understanding is required, therefore, as to how decisions are made and the impact they have on the organization.
4. Global Relevance The extraordinary social and economic responsibilities in the hands of CEOs is formidable. Their decisions result in both short and long terni consequences that can have positive, neutral or negative effects for thousands of social causes, millions of jobs and billions of dollars around the world. From the point of view of CEOs' contributions towards innovation, progress, philanthropy and environrnentalisrn, the necessity to have top perfomee making high quality decisions cannot be underestimated.
1.4 Overview of the Thesis This thesis is about the learning joumey of eight of Canada3 top business leaders. !t rie!-:es into strengths, :veahesses, challenges and ûppsminitics that taçh of these Chief Executive Officers have faced throughout their careers and how they have worked to professionally and personally improve themselves. It captures their fears and triumphs and is as much an exploration of styie, experience and competency as it is an intensely personal, descriptive research study. Using qualitative research with a grounded theory approach. this thesis will trace the impact and significance of life defming moments of four male and four fernale CEOs in the context of the role that reflection plays in their personal and professiond development. The heart of the research findings lies within forty-three "cnticai incidents" shared by participants. Examining the thoughts, feelings and emotions of CEOs before, during and foilowing the incidents will shed Merlight on how they leam to lem and how they leam to lead. Responses to questions regarding growth. decision- making, tearn building. visioning and problem-solving will provide context as well as additional insights into their development processes. The study will begin by tracing the development of each of the eight CEOs using a vertical data analysis consisting of four major themes: evolution, reflection, leadership and professiond and penonal development. It will then move into a horizontai examination providing further clarity on these existing themes and introducing IWO new ones: tacit knowledge, in the tom of instinct and intuition, and the role of confidence and fear. The research findings will then be applied to three central questions concerning the role of reflection and triggen for reflection; contributions that reflection has made to CEOs leadership abilities and possible development interventions that may be of assistance to penonal and professional developrnent. In addition to these responses. discussion on differences between male and fernale methods of leaming to Iead will be explored. CHAPTER 2 2.1 Review of Relevant Literahire in Leadership Laying the foundation for this thesis, a literature review was conducted that consisted of 18 books, articles and presentations studying CEOs and their work. To further complemrnt the review, several theses have been examined that specifically penaùi to the major elements to be studied in the research including interviews of eminent persons, reflection, knowledge construction as well as the relationship between personality types and strategic planning (O' Donovan-Polten, 1994: Lang, 1995; Andrusyszyn, 1996). Four major areas emerged in the Iiterature review relevant to this study including evolving definitions of leadership: 1. Role; 2. Type; 3. Functions of CEOs;and 4. Themes in personal and professional development. While the review was by no means exhaustive, (it is estimated that over 7,000 books exist on the subject of leadership aione) scant information was found regarding how CEOs actually develop their leadership skills. I concluded that it is highly likely that this type of information may be found anecdotdly in the spate of recent CE0 biographies and autobiographies. For the purposes of this review, these books have not been included. Interestingly, the literature that did focus on this topic came from newer authors' al1 published in 1998 (Cashman? Pearman and Comor particularly). The information was largely prescriptive in nature. insisting that CEOs should reflect. These books contained check lists, self-assessrnent tests and exercises designed to stimulate reflection. This does suggest that there is a growing realization that more research is required in rhis area.
2.2 Definitions of Leadership In defining the work of the contemporary CEO, three broad areas undescore the need for Merstudy on their proclivity towards reflection: the importance of looking back into the past to chart a course for the hture; the importance of understanding broader contexts, patterns and trends within day-to-day operations and fmally, the need for self-awareness in tems of appropnate behaviour and leadership styles. In the first case, the literature descnbed leaders as guardians of their organizations' future; like an artistic work in progress, it is vital that CEOs continually re-define and re-uivigorate the mission. values and vision of their Company. Mau DePree surnmarizes die responsibiiity that CEOs face when he says, "Leadership cornes with a lot of debts to the future" (DePree, 1989, p. 13). In order for CEOs to excel in guarding their organizations' future they must have a firm grasp of the past (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 95). In this context, it would appear that reflective capabilities represent an important ski11 to propel an organization fonvard. Second, as leaders vision ahead, they mut be grounded concurrently in what Senge describes as the "cunent reality" (Senge, 1990, p, 342). The tension that exists between the goals of the hitue in contrast to what Cashman descnbes as an "endless chah of present moments" represents one of the most dificult balancing acts for the CE0 (Cashman, 1998, p. 90). The importance of establishing conten is a vital ski11 For the leader in synthesizing his or her past expenence with present moments and the Future. Heifetz and Laurie describe this ski11 as "getting out on the balcony" to determine larger and broader themes, pattems and trends (quoted in Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 145). It would appear that reflection cm play a role in supponing the CE0 in "conte'tr sening". A third component is that leaders mut vdue people. Peman suggests that "leadership is the process used by anyone, regardless of rank, to create meaningful collaboration among individuais for a common purpose" (Pearman, 1998. p. 1 8). Their role in working with people has transfonned CEOs from controllers to facilitaton and away from the more traditional roles of planning, organizing, CO-ordinatingand controlling (Mintzberg, 1998, p.2). This increased emphasis on developing relationships suggests the need for CEOs to become more self-aware of their "type". the effects they have on othen' performance and the need to meld leadership styles to the appropriate setting or circumstance. Reflection could be one mechanism that would be helpful in achieving this awareness. 23 Functions, Types, and Models There is a paucity of material in the literature conceming functions, types and models of leadership. Tables 1,2,3,4 and 5 represent a synthesis of the research from the literature. It becarne clear as the review progressed that many authors have developed their own systems of classification in these areas: in some cases. they are proprietary and uséd for consuitinp purposes. 'Vhiie tris classifkations arc: heipfui in understanding the integral roles and responsibilities of CEOs, more work is required to assist leaders in understanding how to use and integrate them. 1 have yet to see a leader that embraces one system of fictions. types. or models. Rather, CEOs appear to do either one of two things: adhere to their own preferred style or "cherry pick" the most appropriate elements of many systems. Often, the hybnd created from many models becomes the leader's persona1 "system". A Further observation is that function, type and mode1 are inextricably co~ectedand each influence the other in forming CEOs' preferences. This connection is borne out by Lang who states that individual &es of reference play an important role in mental consmicts with which perceptions and judgements occur (Lang, 1995, p. 130). The question remains, however, what methods do CEOs use to build their personai style of leadership? Do they glean information From colleagues, read articles. attend leadership prograrns, reflect, or draw upon a combination of al1 four?
2.3.1 Functions of Leaders There are two major themes apparent in discussions about the function of the leader (See Table 1). The first is a literal function concerned with acnial work performed. This type of work is evidenced in Kottefs goal oriented approach and Mintzberg's scientific analysis in which he concludes that the key functions are interpersonal. informational and decisionai. The second theme is more ediereal, focusing upon functions that may be chosen as a result of a leader's style or preference. Research conducted by Farkas and Wetlaufer, Koner and Senge depict these choices. Table 1: Overview of Leadership Functions
Strategic what needs to be done Organize Designer Informational Creating networks of people ito accomplish an agenda Co-ordinate Teacher Decisionai Expertise Ensuring those people actuaily do the job Each leader accomplish es this in his or her own way Change
In particular, the integrative approach of Farkas and Wetlaufer is worthy of a closer examination vis-à-vis preference and its influence on hinction (See Table 2). The authors provide a usefid discussion of functions by identiQing five different functional approaches that CEOs can use in leading their organization. They define an "approachot by exarnining four factors: corporate policy (strategic planning etc.); the kind of people and behaviours the CE0 values; personal and delegated decisions and how the CE0 spends his or her day (Farkas & Wetlaufer, 1996, p. 11 5). The y believe that "Job 1" of the CE0 is to decide how they can add vahe and this determines the areas of corporate policy that receive the moa attention. It is important to note, however, that the authors indicate that the approach chosen depends on the tvpe of Company and climate. Farkas and Wetlaufer's description is beneficial in understanding the different ways in which leaders approach their organizations. If the "E? I. Strategic -collection, cultivation, data analysis Approach -mate, test, design, impIementation of long tem strategy -day to day -activities reIated to as ce^-tain organization9spoint of departure -devote 80% of time to eGernai world (customers, cornpetitors) -value employees they cm delegate to 2. Human Xssets -believe people closest to business unit should -22% of CEOS Approach make decisions -CE0imparts values, behaviours, attitudes by managing growth and development of these individuals -goal to create universe of satellite CEOs -people at every level make decisions -value long tem employee "company way" not mavericks 3. Expertise -selecting, discrirninating with in corporation of -las than 1 5% of CEOs Approach expertise that will be the source of cornpetition -major@ of time:cultivation and continual improvement of expertise -focus on designing prograrns, systems, procedures -seek those with lack of bias and willingness to be indoctnnated 4. Box Approach -create, communicate and mon itor explicit set of -30% of CEOs -ensure uniform, predictable behaviours and experiences -consistent risk fiee approaches; -spend days attending to exceptions -develop detailed, prescriptive policies, procedures and rewards for desired behaviour -vaiue seniority, rarely hire top levei fiom outside 5. Change -create continual re-invention - 15% of CEOs Approach -in contrast to strategy approach, these CEOs focus not on specific points of arriva1 but process of getting there -not interested in control systems, planning cycles - 75% of time making speeches. meetings to motivate rnembers to embrace gestaIt of change: value aggressive independent people; seniority matters little I Adapted from Farkas and Wetlaufer's study reponed in Harvard Business Review, June 1996 With the abundance of information on the functions of leaders and managers, it seems settled amongst scholars and consultants dike that "leaders are people who do the Bght thing, while manages are people who do things right" (Bennis, 1995, p. 38). Bennis has identified a primary challenge for CEOs: What is the ri@ thing? The thesis will explore three functional issues by posing the following questions to CEOs in the fust 1. What functions do CEOs select as prionties? 2. How do their values, preferences, style and frame of reference factor into their functional selections? 3. What efforts, if any, do CEOs make to achieve balance among functions? 2.3.2 Types of Leaders When reviewing types of CEOs, a plethora of research exists that examines functional. psychologicd and change typing categones (See Table 3). From Hogan. Curphy and HoganTsdescription of type emanating from the chosen profession of an individual, to the extensive research available on the iMyers Briggs Type Indictor. there are numerous implications regarding leadership and type. Four important factors to consider are: the fit between the leader and the organization; how a leader's type may affect their ability to cope with change; the imponance of self-awareness and rype development as well as the impact that type has in decision making. In examining fit, Hogan, Curphy and Hogan note that realistic and conventional types tend to be task onented and authoritative; participatory management is seen as a weakness by these types. They note further that social and enterpnsing types respond to process, interaction and participation, and resent task-oriented work. They indicatr that a major gap exists within the artist category because, generally. little is known about how to manage creativity (Hogan. Curphy & Hogan, 1994, p. 498). One could conclude fkom this research that type and fit are intemiruied: an engineer may not be the best choice to lead a cultural organization and a creative type would likely be a poor choice to lead a high tech h. Co~orcontends that type has a direct bearing on a leader's ability to cope with change. He articulates the challenges that CEOs face in periods of '-fust"and "second" order change. First order change is incremental in nature with reflective involvement more or less already taking place. Second order change (sometimes referred to as "discontinuous" change) is non-linear in nature and reflects movement that is fundarnentally different from anything seen before within the existing framework (Connoi, 1998, p. 145). Comor notes how a mature leader must be prepared to ride the higher waves of second order change if they are to thnve in the next millenim. The challenge with riding these waves, however, is that leaders are not as well prepared to do so as they should be. As evidenced by Farkas and Wetlaufer, the fact that almost 45% of CEOs chose a conservative approach underscores Co~or'sbelief in the need for more innovative and risk taking approaches. Moving from a change perspective. Peannan's book. "Hard Wired Leadership" combines Jungian psychology with Myers Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI) (See Table 3). He states that "Leaders need to become aware of their habits, lem how to behave differently when appropriate. and become more aware of how to make more conscious choices in responding to others" (Pearman, 1998. p. 5). Pearman defines five cultural values (autonomy, beneficence, hmavoidance. justice and truth) and then ranks these values against types including: chmgers; directors: analyzers; mategists; harmonizers; pragmatists; drivers; inspectos; futurists; envisionen; routers: coaches and catalysts. His research sheds light on why CEOs may have trouble cornmunicating, delegating or visioning and is an excellent guide for leaders seeking a deeper understanding of their own motivations or those of others. The challenge with Pearman's research is that, for the busy CE0 who is likely looking for boaom Iine advice or *'stories from the trenches", it may appear too ethereal. This is dominate because Peman's book has the potential to change leaders' perceptions. Table 3: Leadership Types Investigative Artistic Social I Sensation I Entemrisim I Intuition I Conventional I, Con,- - ..tinuous I Pragmatists Drivers Inspectors 1 - Futurists Envisioners Routers Coaches Catalysts The potential of reflection with regard to type is highlighted in Lang's "Straregic PIanning and Personaliy Type: Toward Constrtrctive and Conringen[ Use of Difference". There are three areas of interest in his research: 1. Awareness and development of type; 2. Impact of type on the decision making processes; and 3. Accessing behaviours that may not be a type preference. Lang cites Lewin's conclusion that the best way to move people forward is to engage them in their own enquiries into their own lives (Lang, 1995, p. 39). Lang believes that "good leaden have to be able to access behaviours needed in the situation" (Lang, 1995. p. 309). A method to develop this self-awareness is to use Lewin's four step, spiral model of action research which includes planning, acting, observing and reflecting (Lang, 1995, p. 39). On the issue of type development, he believes that a lifelong process of increasing consciousness, differentiation and direction of one's processes is necessary for personal and professional development. Referring to the MBTl manual, Lang points to four mtegies for fostering type development: 1. Learn to identify functions and attitudes; 2. Understand dynamics of type; 3. Use processes appropriately; and 4. Overcome type falsification. Table 4 illustrates Lang's use of the MBTI, extrapolating specific decision-making styles that rnay emerge as a resuit of type. He concludes that: individuals prefer decision making processes and organizations compatible to their own decision styles; no decision style is inherently superior (nonetheless, in management, 5T' appears to be *'privileged" over others); and different types and styles are needed for an effective organization (Lang, 1995, p. 129). Table 4: Relationship Between Decision Styles and MBTI Rreferences 1 1 analysis; step by step approach to 1 realistic"? 1 reach conclusion Intuition-Thinking Look to possibilities, symbolic "logicai and meaning, patterns and relationships: ingenious" apply impersonai cause-effect analysis Sensing-Feeling Interested in the present and "sy mpathetic and information gathered fiom the senses; favour people oriented data: / fnendlyo- 1 1 approach more creative and warm; 1 1 attention to values Intuition-Feeling Trust power of feeling to make value "enthusiastic and 1 1 judgements; focus attention on what 1 insightful" 1 could be and on new projects; people orientation: strong I I cornmunicator I I I 1 I 1 Adaptedfiom Lang, 1995. p. I 14 A fin& area in which Lang makes interesting observations relates to the role that tye plays in leader and organizational development. He believes that successfbi leaders have to be able to access behaviours needed in specific situations and that type awareness, type flexibility and capacity to entertain two opposing thoughts are important elements of CE0 success (Lang, 1995, p. 309). In addition, he States that "managers cm have strong preferences and underdeveloped alternative styles but leaders cannot &ord that luxuy" (Lang, 1995, p. 309). It will be interesting to see if my research sheds any Merlight on this statement; based on my experience, CEOs exhibit some of the strongest preferences 1 have encountered. Another interesting observation is his discussion of "stuck types" (Lang, 1995, p. 290). Individuais expenencing leadership and management dificulties ofien possess what is termed a "stuck typez; they rigidly demmstratz key cliaractcristics of thcir type without cornpensating abiiity. Tnese CEOs who demonstrate a lack of self awareness may have "interpersonal dificulties although outstanding intellect and technical capabilities" (Ibid.). Lang draws a parallel between "typeflexing" (defined as ease and capability of accessing lesser preferences and enacting associated behaviours. on your otvn or with assistance) and situational Iradership. The role of the leader regarding type is crucial in two areas: first their own self- awareness and second, how, or if. the CE0 determines that type and type flexibility are recognized within their organization. The thesis will examine two "type" issues in the context of reflection: 1. What is the interplay between type and approach (e.g. does a leaders' proclivity for a certain type dictate the approach that the leader will take?) 2. Can leaders change and/or compensate for their particular type preference? 2.3.3 Models of Leadership The study of models is equally compelling in understanding the professional and personal development needs of leaders. Nine models rmerged from the literature that shed light on a range of differing "operating" systems available to CEOs (See Table 6). Few authors compared their own espoused mode1 with others, but it is clear that Senge's presence can be felt in much of the work. As alluded to earlier, CEOs likely "cherry pick" elements fiom each mode1 that seem usehl at the time. This challenge is borne out by iMintzberg's analysis of various schools of leadership analysis, discussed below. For this reason, it would be difficult to discern ~vhichmodels actually work best when a combination of elements are likely at work. In anaiyzïng the nine models, three themes are evident in their design (See Table 5): Table 5: Themes in Leadership Models Cyclical, holistic, long term, strong 1 Senge, Howard, Kouzes and Posner, Pearman Linear in nature; assumes degrees ofp Magnusen, Lang, maturation; important for CE0 to Hersey and choose/integrate appropriate behaviour Blanchard to stage and phase of personai, employee and organizational development Process Preference for "one school" of McS hane, leadership at a tirne; potential for 1 Mintzberg Pintegration; CE0 must determine potential and appropriateness of multi- use Visionary models represent one of the most holistic systems where leaders cmbuild a platform for integrated, process onented development as illustrated by Senge's model of five disciplines. He States that "those who excel in the five disciplines will be naniral leaders" (Senge, 1990, p. 358). Another holistic model. developed by Anne Howard. consists of a five-part analogy depicting human body parts as representative of various leadenhip quaiities, characteristics and strengùls. Howard believes that "leaders have not mastered hi&-involvement leadership" and over-evaiuation, misunderstandings and faulty implementation in too many cases are the product of an unbalanced leadership model (Howard, 1994, p. 27). She believes that modeling the behaviour, higher levels of management expertise, being female and ski11 training will assist leaders to become more attuned to the holistic needs of their organization. Sirnilar in spirit to Howard's model is Kouzes and Posner's 'V.I.P." model. representing vision. involvement and persistence (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 7). Five persona1 vision statrments have been designed dong with requisite action items that leaders can use to develop a well-rounded organization. The authors also investigated transformational and transactional leadership models (defined by McShane below) and while they both associated them with effectiveness. they assert that '-transformational leadership factors, particularly charkma and individualized consideration, were more highly related than transactionai leadership factors to satisfaction and effectiveness'' (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 280). Much discussion occurs in the literanire regarding the differences between new wave, ?ransformational leader and the traditional an sac ri on al leader. The transfomational leader creates a strategic vision, communkates the vision, models the vision and builds cornmitment toward the vision (McShane, 1997, p. 2 18). Pearman uses Jungian psychology in his mode1 development. He discusses four models that leaders should refiect upon: he concludes the way leaders mn their lives, so they nin their organizations (Pearman. 1998, p. 21 5). These theories are: Psychodynamic: We are what we are by virtue of the interplay of experience and unconscious energy; Dispositional: We are what we are as a result of various rneasurable traits and imate qualities. disû-ibuted over generations; Behavioural: Ouadaptation to our environment made us the way we are and this adaptation is motivated by factors that either reinforce our behaviour or cause feu; and Phenomenal: Every iife is unique. al1 circumstances Vary. and nothing happens until we make it so. From these holistic models, Magnusen's more practical model represents a melding of organizationai stages and leadership talents. He developed four roles including producer (P or p), adminisnator (A or a), entrepreneur (E or e) and integrator (1 or i). Magnusen capitalizes the f~stletter of each of these roles to ernphasize when it is dominant and places it in lower case denoting when it is not as vital. He contends that a young firm needs a leader that has "PaEi". while at a later stage this same organization will require "pAEi". For a Company in its prime, "PAEi", is preferred. Magnusen believes that to remain nimble, leaders should attempt to be an expert in all phases, but he acknowledges that "few executives play ail PAEI roles equdly well. In order to svike a balance of skills?therefore? a CE0 who is an EI, might select a CO0 who is a PA (Magusen? 1995, p. 6). Lang's adaptation of Barr and Barr's four stage model of leadership is useful in relating stages of leadership behaviour with modaiities of power. The four stages of growth (dependency, autonomy, cornpetition and rnanirity) distinguish how CEOs cm use reflection to enhance their leadership abilities. A Stage II leader, for example, favoun their own preferences and does not exploit type differences. Typically, they are dominating and controlling and give the impression of changing while remaining the sarne. A Stage IV leader, however. acknowledges type differences and works openly and constnictively with differences; this leader allows top management to play out their differences (Lang, L 995, p. 3 10). Cornplementing Lang's four stages is the Situational Model which contains an "X & Y' avis describing relationships and task behaviours (Pearman. 1998, p. 4). Designed by Heney and Blanchard. this model involves directing, coaching. supponing and delegating (LlcShane. 1998, p. 2 17). Depending on what stage an rmployee's career is at determines where they are situated on each mis. iMore task behaviours and fewer relationship behaviours are required for the new employee while fewer task behaviours and more relationship behaviours are needed for the more mature and experienced ernployee. While this is a tvidely used model according to the literanire, Pearman cautions that? "As valuable as this model is.. .it does not address the qualities that mut be present for any of these tasks or relationship behaviours to work" (Pearman. 1998. p. 4). Using a more traditional approach. bfcShane cites five specific theoretical models that leaders can use: trait theoiy (identifiable personalities. values and other characteristics) behavioral theo- (effective leaders engage in certain behaviours), contingency theory (appropriate leadership depends on the situation). transformarional theoty (form, communicate. enact and build as well as cornmitment to a strategic vision of the hime) and romance theory (followers want to believe that they are led by great leaders) (McShane, 1997. p. 220). Mintzberg's "Schools" of leadership are illustrative of the interpersonal behaviour specifically between the "leaderst' and the '-led" (Mintzberg, 1973, p. 17). While he believes that great progress has been made. he contends that excessive attention has been given to autocratie and participative styles to the detriment of studies in interpersonal behaviours. In the '-Leader Power Schooly, he concludes that informa1 social forces of bureaucracy tend to dorninate individual action. Drawing from Neustadt's midy of Amencan presidents, he also says that effective potver is largely dependent on the sqle of the individual and how he or she approaches their job (Mintzberg, 1973. p. 18). In the "Behaviour School", the snidy of job content, he notes that no central theme or common thread of conclusions have emerged, although many worthwhile studies have been done (Ibid., p. 19). In the final school, "Work Activity" (the study of work activities of managers are analyzed systematically) he says there are linkages that can be drawn fiom studies in this area and in most cases there are explicit atternpts to build on fmdings. With al1 of the rnodels available to leaders, the study of adoption, of lack of adoption, of models will be valuable in the thesis study. Some of the areas for exploration in the interview process are: 1. What are the guiding principles that CEOs use to lead their organizations? 2. How do they determine these guiding principles? 3. Do CEOs consciously choose a specific model? What cntena is used to select a model or its parts? 4. Are there circumstances that have led to the abandonment of a model? If so, was a new model embraced? 2.1 Penonal and Professional Development After reviewing the definitions, hnctions. types and models of leadership, two themes emerged: persona1 and professional development (See Table 7). It should be noted that the initial outline for this research was to have consisted of four themes, internal. external, personal and professional. However, in analyzing the literanire, there was not enough material evident regarding the "extemal" world of the CE0 to make al1 of the categones feasible. Therefore, the thematic areas have been rec~~guredro take in as much of the information as possible in a more streamlined manner. It would appear that themes regarding the external role of the CE0 (e.g. public face? fomiing of partnerships etc.) are more likely to be found in biographical accounts rather than in SCho lady works. The two major themes that have been identified are "penonalooand "professional" development that contribute to enhanced performance. Within these major themes. sub-themes have been identified to dari@ the types of development that are necessary for a leader and possible methods that rnay help leaders to reach their potential. Table 7: Leadership Persona1 and Professional Development iMajor Categories and Sub-Themes Theme 1: Theme 2: Personal Development Professional Development Sub-Themes Sub-Themes 1. Competencies 1. Competencies 2. Penonai Mastery 2. Professional iMastery 3. Personal Reflection 3. Organizational 4. Penonality Traits Development 2.41 Persona1 Development 2.4.2 Competencies The literature suggests that CE0 cornpetencies should include: modeling the behaviour they wish others to emulate, developing an understanding of self and defining reality. Most authors agree with Kouzes and Posner that "modeling the way" is an essential competence. Leaders need to energetically mirror back to the institution how it best thinks of itself (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 19 1). Two caurions in modeling the behaviour have implications for the thesis research: the fim is DePree's admonition that leaders need to be in touch with what they are convinced needs to be done before "example setting" occurs; the second is Senge's warning that leaders should beware of the trap of automatic leaming. He uses the analogy of how eventually after leaming to use a car, our driving becomes automatic and we lose consciousness of the action itself. Interestingly, the term "auto pilot" is used in many organizations to indicate when people are not "thinking" but rnerely Idoing''. Relating to the need to develop an understanding of self, Senge advocates that CEOs develop the competency of mental rehearsal in everything they do. The need for mental rehearsal becomes evident in light of Argyris' work in "skilled incornpetenceo. (producing what is not intended and doing so repeatedly even though no one is forcing an individual to do so) (Argyris, 1992. p. 10 1). Argyris aates: "To overcome skilled incornpetence, people have to learn new skills, to ask the question behind the question" (Argyris, 1992, p. 105) His contention that "reflection is action" could become the mantra of the 2 1'' CenwCE0 who is prone to the quick action Mintzberg describes. Tmst of the imer self is a competence hi~dightedby studies conducted by Cashman, Pearman and Senge as well as Kouzes and Posner. The literature demonstrates that experienced leaders rely on intuition in the fom of huches and pattern recognition. The authors suggested that while CEOs tmst their i~er-selves,they are &en lacking in ability to integrale intuition with rationality. This neglected dimension of personel gcwth cm cause problems when CEOs fail to close the loops and recognize the links between their actions and extemai forces (Pearman, 1998, p. 19 1). The CE0 who is deficient in this area is doomed to repeat the same incorrect behaviours or as Bennis comrnents, "ofien people in the top positions are doing the wrong things well" (Bennis, 1995, p. 36). The CEO's ability to "define reality" rests in a combination of both personal and professional skills. DePree believes that CEOs should influence people to view reality at four distinct levels: events, patterns of behaviour, systematic structures and through a purpose story. His contention is that most leaders currently focus on events and patiems of behaviour and this also has been borne out by Cashman and Pearman. Focusing on isolated and individual incidents is a marked disability for leaders in that they become almost entirely reactive. At best, they are responsive but they are rarely generative (DePree, 1996, p. 3 8). 2.4.3 Mastery Several areas in the literature are wonhy of attention in persona1 mastery including the importance of a holistic view of self, the need to harness change and the concept of balance. Surprisingly, the literature did not emphasize very well the strict self-discipline required to capitalize on the benefits of persona1 mastery. There was much information on whut tu do, but little in terms of when or how open one should use it. Cashman represented the mon progressive. addressing the "when??and "hoG' by indicating that when "activity decreases, order increases and that in action rnastery, 75% is preparation and 25% is performance (Cashman. 1998, p. 1 56). Senge is philosophicai when he says that for leaders to hlly develop, a lifetime of work is required. He believes that leaders should continuousIy clarify what is important and continuaily leam how to see current reality more clearly. Zaleznik discusses the practices that are most conducive to developing one's personal mastery as being: (Zdemik, 1998, p. 19 1). 1. Develop a systematic world view; 2. Learn how to reflect on tacit assurnptions; 3. Express your vision and listen to others; and 4. Encourage joint inquiry into different people's views of curent redity. Cashrnan believes that change is one of the most significant teachers for leaders because it challenges current reality by ailowing new reality to rush in. To assist leaders in being more consciously receptive to change, he has developed seven principles for CEOs to lead in the flow of change based on his work with numerous CEOs: (Cashrnan, Be open to learning; Practice present-moment awareness; Integrate immediate focus and broad awareness: Tmst yourselc Develop resiliency through mental-emotionai stretching; Practice the change mastexy shifts; -fiom probiem focus to oppomity focus -fiom shon term focus to long term focus -from circumstance focus to purpose focus Take the leap. 2.5 Reflection Many of the newer books and articles reviewed were designed to provoke reflection. Ail made similar points; leaders mut be purposehl in planning their reflection. Many authors used anecdotes as a way to illustrate what can happen if CEOs do not use reflective activities as a part of their daily routines. In some cases?the authon encouraged the reader to write al1 over the text, to flip back and forth between chapters and included numerous reflective exercises. The areas for discussion in reflection are: analysis of the past to vision ahead for the funire, leaming disabilities and the notion that CEOs may have a preference for action over reflection. Cashman's "Leadershipfiom Within?' is a wake-up cd1 reminding CEOs that their ability to grow as a leader is directly linked with their ability to grow as a person (Cashman, 1998, p. 15). Kouzes and Posner encourage this gowth by asking leaders to build a Yifeline exercise" where the past is marked out in peaks (great moments) and valleys ltough timesl. The leader is asked to consider the circumstances around there occurrences. In doing so, they beiieve that leaders will be better equipped to determine what they want (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 100). Cashrnan recornmends that leaders use reflective jomals as tools to better undentand events and what went right or wrong. Senge's discussion of learning disabilities underscores the importance of reflection. These disabilities include: I am my position; the enemy is "out there"; the illusion of taking charge. fixation on events, parable of the boiled frog, the delusion of leaming from experience (e-g. the consequences of our decision rnay not be known for years); and the myth of the management tearn (Senge. 1990. p. 107). His parable of the boiled frog describes what cm happen to unsuspecting CEOs who do not use reflective skills. He relates that if a frog is in a pot of water and the heat is gradually tumed up. it will never notice and eventually die. Put a frog in boiling water right from the start and it will fight for its life. But. as Senge indicates, most decisions are not felt immediately. The water temperature could be increasing daily without the CE0 even knowing it. A major revelation for the purposes of the thesis occuned during the review of Minnberg's timeless work " What ~bfanagersDo " where he indicates that his research results found that leaders are strongly onented to action and dislike reflection (Mintzberg, 1998, p. 4). He says that, "a manager's effectiveness is significantly influenced by their insight into their own work" (Ibid., p. 23). Kouzes and Posner enrich this discussion, indicating that the self-confidence required to lead cornes Crom leaming about ounelves as we build on meng@ over weaknesses. While they acknowledge that formal training and education cm help, they indicate that "ultimately leadership development is self- developrnent. Engineers have their cornputers. Accountants have their calculaton. Leaders have themselves" (Kouzes & Posner, 1957, p. 288). The need for a reflective, long term view is discussed by Kouzes and Posner who use the Vista Test to illustrate that the farther a CE0 gazes into past, the more it elongates their view of the fiiture. They also use a jigsaw puzzle analogy to illustrate the importance of looking back and then fonvard claiming it is easier to put a puzzle together if you can see the box cover (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 95). The literature urges leaders to refiect in their personal development. It may well be that reflection is the toughest part of a CEOs job. It is in reflection where past mistakes are exarnined, misdeeds analyzed and embarrassing moments re-lived. Stated in this context, who can blame a CE0 for not wanting to visit these unhappy mernories? However, as will later be demonstrated, reflection requires purpose. rather than hapless navel gazing. Used in this marner, perhaps it will be slightly more palatable for CEOs in their quest for higher achievement. 2.51 Understnnding the Role Personality Plays in Leaders No review of literanire on leadership would be complete without a discussion of the role that personality plays in forming leaders. Many authors attempt to answer two questions: "Do charismatic leaders fare bener than others? and "Are leaders born or made?" The research of Hogan. Curphy and Hogan indicates that there is a relationship between personality and leadership. They believe that personality traits are best predicted in concert with managerial advancement. A desire for advancement indicates energy? high activity level, readiness to make decisions, resistance to stress, tolerance for uncertainty, inner work standards, and a range of interests (Hogan, Curphy & Hogan, 1994, p. 498). They also studied charismatic leadership, discovenng three themes that are consistent tvîth those organizations that employ this type of leader: (Ibid.) 1. nie leader has a vision that othen find compelling; 2. He or she is able to recruit people to share that vision; these people resemble a tearn; and 3. By virtue of the relationship they share with team members, leaders are able to persuade them to work for and support vision. To mersupport this analysis. the authors cite a study demonstrating that flight crews who made the least mistakes had captains that were tvann and perfomed well under pressure. Conversely, more crew errors were made when captains were arrogant, hostile! boastful, egotistical, aggressive, and dictatorial (Ibid.). Interestingly, Farkas and Wetlaufer's findings disagree with Hoganos,Curphy's and Hogan's research. Their research indicates that it is not a matter of personal style, but what works best for the Company that leaders rnust take into account when they assume management roles. Senge wades into the arpment with his belief that chwisrnatic leaders mlnsgc almost exclusively at the level of events rather than frorn a lofry purpose and mission. He believes they rnove from crisis to crisis and breed cynicism within organizations. He casts his negative vote by clairning they are "visionary cnsis managers" (Senge, 1990, p. 340). He also contends that the hierarchicd leadership style represents a nonsysternatic and individual paradigm consisting of a hero and great people nsing to a cnsis. He asserts that this mode1 is based on assumptions of people's powerlessness, their lack of vision and inability to rnaster forces of change (Ibid., p. 356). Kouzes and Posner side with Drucker, citing his research fiom the acclaimed "Pracrice of'Managemenio'. Drucker said that leaders are bom; his position remains unchanged to this day. Kouzes and Posner relate Druckerts belief that "leadership requires aptitude and men [and women] who are good chef engineers or general managers are rare enough even without an aptitude for leadership. Leadership also requires basic attitudes. And nothing is as difficult to define. nothing as difficult to change, as basic attitudes.. .*(Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 297). 2.5.2 Summary of Areas for Exploration in Personal Deveiopment There is a wealth of information regarding personal development of leaders. As part of the thesis research, it is important to gain a greater understanding of what CEOs do to enhance their performance, examine perceptions regarding self-knowledge and gain an understanding of what leming, if any?took place during significant life-defining events. The major areas, therefore, that will be examined are: 1. What competencies do CEOs view as most important for leadership and what methods are used to develop them? 2. How do CEOs pesonally develop themselves? What methods have they found work best? . 3. What role do critical incidents play and what did the CE0 lem fiom the incident? Did the incident change his or her behaviour? How and why? 4. What role does personality and preference play in the CEOs ability to lead? 2.6 Professional Development 2.6.1 Cornpetencies In synthesizing the professional competencies required arnong leaders. Pearman's list is useful in prioritizing themes. He details communications, decisiveness, relationship development, industry knowledge and cognitive complexity as key areas (Pearman, 1998, p. 205). In addition, the ability to adapt and cope with change and to protect and numire the vision of the organization is also mentioned as a defining competency for CEOs. Based on the density of information within the literature, severai key competencies in professional development are worthy of attention including: communications, decision- making, relationship building and visioning. These competencies represent what many authors defined as the "new?' work of the contemporary CEO; the literature suggests that CEOs who are not proficient in these areas will not only fail to grow. but could lose their positions. Kouzes and Posner, Bennis and Mintzberg believe that leaders are like mediums and are charuiels of expression. Kouzes and Posner believe that "you have to teach others your vision" by enlisting the use of images and word picnues. CEOs should use examples that speak to traditional values, appeal to cornmon beliefs, use repetition and shifi terminology from '*IV to "we". Speaking with passion, emotion and persona1 conviction are aiso hallmarks of solid communication skills. Bennis says that creative use of metaphors or models to make the vision clear to others is essentid to the leader's success (Bennis. 1995, p. 35). Mintzberg States that managing insightfûlly depends on direct experience and penonal knowledge from intimate contact with the people within the organization (Mintzberg, 1998, p. 85). The leader needs to find systematic ways to share pnviteged uifomation and must become his or her own director of central intelli,=ence (Ibid., p. 13). Peman makes an essential point in the need for leaders to understand overt and covert communication as illustrated in his adaptation of the Johari window (See Table 8) (Pearman, 1998, p. 140). This adaptation ties in quite neatly with Senge's discussion of mental models and the need for leaders and subordinates to be leery of the unexposed "lefi hand column" (defined as what individuals choose to censor) (Argyns? 1992, p. 107). Table 8: Pearman's Adaptation of The Johari Window Things We Know Things I Know/ Together You Do Not Know -Perceptions we share Personal History about my intluenced by behaviour behaviour/mutually (self-presentation) undentood 1 -Unshared perception Unconscious material 1 (blind spots) (area of discovery) Things you know/ Things Neither of us Knows 1: Do Not know rlduptedj5om Pearman. "Hard IVired Leadership", p. 241. Decision Making While communications facilitate effective leadership, CEOs must be able to translate their dialogue into decision-making and problem solving. As leaders, CEOs are responsible for every decision and action of every member of their organization including decisions and actions that they are not even aware of (Hogan. Curphy & Hogan. 1994. p. 498). Peman contends that the traditional. linear, problem-solving process has been replaced by a new, circular mode1 for decision-making where the problem is surrounded by interdependent systems. He believes problems need context resulting from the dynarnics around them and cautions leaders to listen carefûlly to perceptions within the organization to devise solutions. To circumnavigate Senge's adage that "yesterday's solutions are tomorrow's problems" he offers the "Five Step Systems Thinking Paradigm": (Pearman. 1998, p. 85). 1. Use facts, trends, and hypothesis to defme the problem; 3. Listen for differences and maximize perceptions; 3. Avoid wasted energy by being den to biases; 4. Refiame general solutions fiom a systems view; and 5. Develop a problem management process. iMintzberg approaches decision-making differently than Pearman, indicating that lack of delegation is a major problem. He claims that CEOs do not write anything dom and '*us the strategic data bank is not Ui a cornputer memory but in the minds of managent' (Mintzberg, 1998, p. 4). Because the data bank is in thek head, leaders are not as effective as they could be because it is difficult for them to delegate. Many End it easier to make decisions and act on information in isolation. This is problematic; taking into account Peamian's model, decisions taken will not be necessdy in the best interests of those who they most affect. In the end, they may work against the organization. Relationship Building Relationship building is the rock upon which the CE0 builds the vision and collaboration of the employees. DePree States "we must trust one another to be accountable for our own assipments" (DePree, 1098, p. !! 5). This sentiment is echoed in the rnajority of the literature and is best surnmarized by Kouzes and Posner who state that it is vital to give people important work to do on criticd issues. to give them discretion and autonomy over their tasks and resources. They also believe that visibility and recognition for their efforts are vital (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 240). Tied to building relationships is the notion of empowerment, which underlies much of the work that occurs between progressive leaders and their employees. Senge emphasizes that when rems are tnily leaming, not only are they producing extraordinary results but also individual members grow more rapidly dian could have occurred othenvise (Senge. 1990. p. 1 1). Claiming that no one is an expert at everythmg, DePree says that sharing ownenhip of problerns allows employees "in effect, to take possession of the situationy (DePree, 1998, p. 1 15). Acknowledging that trust, independence and discipline are required of CEOs who empower their employees. his view is that empowerment is a way to attain more than just the realization of goals; it is about reaching potential. Visioning To begin reaiizing this potential, CEOs need superlative visioning skills to guard long and short-tem corporate interests. DePree and Bennis agree that the only kind of leadership worth following is based on vision. Kouzes and Posner believe the four attributes of a powerful vision are a fùture orientation. developing a compelling image to see the future, devising an ideal with a sense of the possible and finally, crafting a unique vision that instills pride in its being different (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 110). Not only mua CEOs be custodians of the vision, but they mut also be vigilant in avoiding pitfdls includïng : 1. Detecting enaopy within the organization; 3. Failure to confiont problems and conflict; 3. The need to heed Pascale's waniing that Wothing fails like success"; 4. Avoidance of high-risk propositions; and 5 Success that can lead to exaggeration of confidence, complacency. dogma and ritual. If these pitfalls fail to convince CEOs of the danger of misguided actions. Magnusen also describes the Wallenda Factor, where a tightrope walker fell to his death hecause he concenuated more on falling than he did on walking the tight rope. (Adapted fiom DePree and Magnusen) 2.6.2 Mastery Kouzes, Posner. and DePree believe that the job of a CE0 is a "callingt. and that the leader is the "evangelist of the dream" (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 143). Four areas of professional mastery will be discussed: the need for adaptability, ability to drive incremental change throughout the organization, creating and disbanding paradigms and learning to lead. A leader's ability to simultaneously while successfully holding the vision. rngaging employees. ensuring strategic objectives are met as well as posting a profit increase rests in their mastery of performance. This mastery is illustrated by Mintzberg as two disparate faces that a CE0 must wear: the "insightful faceo', which represents cornmitment and integration and the "cerebral face". which focuses on words. numben. rationality. calculation. and the components of the portfolio (Mintzberg, 1998, p. 3 1). Kouzes and Posner believe that most effective companies have three qualities: clarity, consensus and intensity about organizational values (Kouzes & Posner. 1987?p. 13 1). They cite the work of Heifetz and Laurie who encourage CEOs to become more adaptive by challenging them to "get out on the balcony". The benefit fiom the view above is that leaders will be able to see the surn of the parts. They descnbe these "parts" as identiQing adaptive challenges, regulating distress, maintainhg disciplined attention. giving back to people and protecting voices of leadership tiom below (Ibid., p. 175). In an analysis of sixteen CEOs, (See Table 9), Farkas and Wetlaufer explore component of adaptive leadership in custornized attitudes. activities and behavioun. They believe that CEOs must size up the industry, de fiethe culture of the organization and develop long term goals to tailor and formulate an approach that is best suited to the situation. The research of Farkas and Wetlaufer indicates the presence of five adaptive approaches with singular flo ws: Table 9: The Ways Chief Executive Ofilcers Lead ',Qume;---~ :y$,* --*'-i?+ -92- . . :-::. .. .*.yw& - 2-~-.-- -., ;~-Approac~~p'I - ...R I ,.h~L--&g.::~ --$d* - - *- - .* L *,,-. ' ;'$g&*@+S Strategy -80% of time spent is extemal People -impart values, behaviours, attitudes; manage growth of individuals Expertise -champion a singular, proprietcuy expertise to focus the organization Controls -set of des, systems, procedures and values that control behaviour Change -radical change, transforming bureaucracy, embrace new and different things .-ldupredfrornFarkus and Wetlc~ufer,"The Ways Chief E~emriveOfleers L ead", p. If 4. In addition to adaptability, CEOs must be masers of incremental improvement. Kouzes and Posner believe successfd leaders actively use small wins and *%it singles not home runs". Noticing and celebrating movement in the nght direction is vital and they illustrate this by citing IBM where the first question asked is. "what have you changed??' (Kouzes & Posner, 1987, p. 222). DePree agrees with this view stating that leaders are obligated to provide and maintain continuous momentum. He also believes that incrernental wins should be focussed on the right things, citing Drucker who says, "efficiency is doing the right thing, but effectiveness is doing the thing nght" (DePree, 1998, p. 17). He believes that the challenge of job pressures, however, drives leaders to take on too much, encourage interruption, respond quickly, seek tangible rewards and avoid the abstract. Kotter disagrees with the Iiterature above, using Procter and Gamble to exemplify the values of shunning the incremental and going for the leap (Kotter, 1990, Part of defining a "win" cornes fiom the organization's existing paradigm; the CEOs role in re-shaping the frameworks and operating principles of their organizations represents a ski11 of paramount importance. Cornor calk this the "rnechanics of realignment" and indicates that CEOs mut recobdze shifts and quickly identiQ factors to adjust (Comor, 1998, p. 5). Ln order to accomplish this, he believes leaders mus move 60m an event to a process mentality. The focus should shifi fiom "what will occur to how it \dl occur??.The need for this shift in professional mastery is also articulated by Senge who asks, "How many CEOs can give a 15 minute speech that lays out a compelling explmation of systematic causes of an important issue, determine specific changes, fomalize decisions to proceed and execute changes to achieve full intenf' (Senge, 1990, p. 127). A final and crucial area of rnastery lies in the CE03 ability to leam to Iead. Kouzes and Posner suggest that there are three ways to leam to lead: through trial and error. people and education (Kouzes & Posnrr: 1987, p. 286). -4 Honeywell s~~dy indicated that training must occur "at or near the time of significant change in assignment", suggesting that training will be more effective if coupied with job experiences. The authors agree that there is no surrogate for tnd and error, in that challenge is crucial to leamhg and career enhancement. Pearman aiso agrees that overall quality of work improves when you give people a chance to fail. He daims the two fiest teachers are trial and error. Leaders must be given broader and broader responsibility and an expanded base of experience. Volunteenng for touph assignments and the need to reflect on leaming fiom crial and error appears to be the method of choice. The influence of special people such as bosses, mentors, and peers also plays a role, though not as significant (Ibid., p. 286). Mintzberg would agree with Kouzes and Posner that ski11 development, through practice, plus feedback, is vital dong with real or simulated situations (Mintzberg, 1998. p. 25). The role of education and training, while helpful, is not viewed as being intrinsic to the success of a CE0 . 2.63 O tganizational Development in analyzing their persona1 best, leaders use words that si@@ intensity, inspiration and energy like "challenging", "rewarding" and '-exciting" (Kouzes & Posner. p. 14 1). These positive and proactive descriptors portray the kind of vitality that CEOs need to bring intemally to theK organizational development. Senge was one of the earliest champions believing that a leader's worth shouid be measured by their contribution to other's mental models (Senge, 1990, p. 190). He believes that leaders need to build an oreanizationC where it is safe for people to create visions, commit to the truth? challenge the aanis quo, reinforce importance of personal growth, and deliver practices most conducive to developing one's personal mastery (Ibid., p. 2 12). Kotter also believes this measurement is essential and has developed a model for CEOs to enhance organizationai development called, "Creating a Culture of Leadership" (Kotter, 1990, p. 104). This model consist of four parts, encouraging leaders to invest early in the lives and careers of their employees through: 1. Early nsks and leaming from it is important; 2. Lateral career moves, early promotions; 3. Speciai assignments: and 4. Nenvork of relationships. The imporiance of leaders taking charge of their own professional and personal development is just as vital as their contribution to that of employees' growth. The modeled behaviour sends important signals throughout the workplace, raising the bar for teams and encouraging al1 individuals to become leaders. Their quest for leadership will come through self-discovery and with this cornes the confidence to lead. Kouzes and Posner identify three moral goals of leadership: 1. Releasing hurnan potential; 2. Balancing needs of individual and community: and 3. Defending fundamental values of community (Kouzes & Posner, 1987. p. 59). Instilling in individuals a sense of initiative and responsibility is a key function for the CEO, but to accomplish this, leaders must have the confidence of their employees. Kouzes and Posner state that leaders are considered honest by followers if they do what they Say they are going to do and that they are consistent in word and deed (Ibid., p. 18). Employees evaluated the top qualities of leaders as honest, competent, fonvard Iooking, inspiring. The research of Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan also found that, for leaders, credibility and mistworthiness might be the single most important factor in subordinates' judgements. Their research concluded that meleadership only occurs when others willingly adopt the goals of the group as their own; leadership equates to building cohesive and goal oriented teams whose perception of leadership is that it is persuasive, rather dian dominating. Leaders must forge powerfd linkages with their people by "know[ing] your followes and speak[ing] their language" (Ibid., p. 10). Leaders must also be a bridge between employees' personal and professional lives. DePree makes the point that "there is an exasperating discontinuity between how we see ounelves as persons and how we see ourselves as workers" (DePree, 1998, p. 56). This comment rnirrors Pearman's discussion of collaboration regardless of rank, and signals a growing trend that as organizations become flatter, chains of command are no longer appropriate, traditional perceptions are no longer appropriate. In addition to making connections, Senge warns that CEOs should heware of disconnects between percond and shzed l:isions, musr emoll people in the shared vision. A similar passion is evident in DePree's mode1 of NO types of relationships with employees. The first is a contractual relationship and is required to deal with change, conflict and to reach potential; the second is covenantal, focusing on relationships that induce freedom, not paralysis (Ibid., p. 58). With al1 of the good work underway in organizational development, there are very real challenges. While Cashman cites increasing evidence of "blocked organizations", Kotter States that most U.S.corporations are overmanaged and underled (Cashman, 1998. p. 95). They need what he calls "leader-managerso'(Kotter. 1990, p. 105). Bennis belirves that situations conspire to tum leaders into bureaucrats and that these routines stall change. His advice to leaders: it is easier to ask forgiveness than seek permission. To make the case for new methods of organizational development. Harariosthree premises refute traditional hierarchical assurnptions. He says leaders should never: 1. Suppose that profitability issues are divorced fiom people issues; 2. Equate "strong" leadership with rigid hierarchy (a "take no prisonen" approach); and 3. Assume that involving people in decision making is good as long as it doesn't interfere with the business (Harari,1996, p. 42). Harari's research indicates that the new Ieadership style has nothing to do with being "nice" and everything to do with "viewing people as an absolutely essential part of corporate growth and investing in them so they can take personal responsibility for *uowing a business". He concludes that "open, approachable friendly CEOs see no contradiction between their personal styles and the deadly seriousness with which they approach their company's performance"; their definitions of 'TOU& are benchmark sening visions, uncomprornising standards, and market leading goals" (Ibid). 2.7 Summary of Areas for Exploration in Professional Development Professional development begins with a strong competency base, keen sense of self and broad appreciation of hedth and well-being of the organization. Several pivotal areas emerge in from the literature that suggests the manner in which CEOs approach problems and make decisions can ofien be as important as the action that is taken. In addition, given the velocity of change that CEOs now face in moving their organizations forward, the rnethods by which change is harnessed form an interesting second area of exploration. In enhancing their performance abilities, it will aiso be of vital importance to gain an understanding of the ways in which CEOs consciously improve themselves. Finally, it the literature also ernphasized that ream work and trust make significant contributions to the success of any leader; how CEOs work to develop relationships and motivate their senior management tearns will also, therefore, becorne an important area for study. The major clements of professional deveiopment to be explored in the thesis are: 1. What methods do CEOs use to fomuiate decisions and solve problems? What are the outcornes? 2. How do CEOs adapt to change and how have they capitalized on change to move their Company fonvard? 3. How do CEOs lem to Iead? What do they do to improve their leadership skills? 4. How do they perceive themselves and how do they feel that ernployees perceive hem? 2.8 Conclusions Emerging from the Literature Review In reviewing the literature on the work and role of CEOs, it is clear that the nature of a leader's work is changing. Several thernes emerged in the literature that highlighted the significance of these changes. Potential Weaknesses of CEOs exposed: LeanÜng to leam and leaniing to Iead are two abilities that may be at nsk because of time pressures and perhaps underdeveloped use of reflective skills. Evolution of the Role: The role of Chief Executive Officer has taken a number of drarnatic shifts in the 1st decade including a movement fiom event to process management; development of a circula., rather than linear style of decision; a need to develop skills that capitalize on chanse and finally, the evolution ficm "contro!!eit rc "facilitator". The CE0 is becoming more a partner than dominator in decision making and working with people. Adaptation to Change: CEOs need to develop ways to harness "second order change" (defmed also as discontinuous change) to anain maximum performance. Self-Knowledge: The issue of whether CEOs should reflect upon what "type?' of CE0 they are surfaced as an important issue in the literature as authors believed that in understanding their approach to leadership, they would gain a better understanding of those around them. In addition, developing awareness of self now appears to be an important competency for leaders to hamess. It may be viewed, however, by CEOs as a "soft" ski11 and, therefore, an "unnecessary" one. Orgnnizational and Individual Mnturity: More research is required to understand the maturational stages and phases that both CEOs and organizations experience; how these nages and phases intenect appears to be unknown but regarded as important. Role of Past Experience: Some literature suggests that leaders need to look back into the past to focus on the future. Role of Refiection: There is some speculation in the literature that reflection will assist CEOs in making souder and less reactive decisions. Execution: Decision making has become far more process driven and may be an area where CEOs are not as progressive as they shouid be. The Big Picture: Leaders will need to consider contexnidizing their work by "getting out on the balcony" in order to determine patterns. themes and trends. 3. Literature on Reflection In 1998, I participated in an on-line course that focussed on reflection and adult leming. In reviewing the literanire from this course in the context of the professional and personal development of leaders, a number of connections could be established between this literature and my area of thesis study. The work of Hannay, Grimmen, Huberman, Weiss, Costa and Kemmis forrns the foundation of discussion in reflection. The areas to be examimd here are the definitions m.d fcrms of reflec~icn,relemnce of reflection to the proposed study. and findly, methods by which leaders might Mer develop themselves using reflection. 3.1 Definition of Reflection In 1933, John Dewey characterized reflection as a "specialized form of thinking which stems from doubt and perplexity felt in a directly experienced situation and leads to purposeful inquiry and problem resolution" (quoted in Grimrnett. 1998, p.6). The need to intently consider problems and circumstances is Merdefined by Schon who developed his own cyclical conception of reflection represented by "appreciation, action. and reappreciation'' (Ibid., p. 3 1). This cycle underscores the importance of "refrarning", an element that engages practitioners in i'conversation" with problematic situations. Schon contends that the manner in which a problem is conceptualized affects the solutions developed. This contention is ably bom out by Lang's thesis on personality and type and strategic planning when he States, "more variance in outcornes is explained by environmental factors than by personality characteristh'' (Lang, 1995, p. 129). Weiss and Louden also make an interesthg observation regarding the language that qualifies the meanhg of reflection. The authos state that "forms" and "interest" are the two chief components of reflection: "formst' relate to the characteristics of the act of reflection (e.g. introspectionothinking, feeling, planning); "interest" refen to the goal or end-in-view of an act of reflection (e.g. deeper, clearer personai understanding, solving a professional problem) (Weiss, 1989, p. 7). As it relates to CEOs, Weiss's and Louden's components convey a sense of "high utility" as well as an oppominity to transform the "end products" of reflection into "tangible" benefits (e.g. a solution to a problem, an epiphany in a marketing strategy). The need for reflection to produce results would seem to be an important consideration in motivating a busy CE0 to consider it as a developmental tool. 3.2 Forms of Reflection Forms of reflection (See Table 10) can provide flexibility by ailowing CEOs to custom design reflective processes using methods that best suits their needs. Mezirow categorizes the four types of reflection as follows: Table 10: Forms of Reflection :Po tentialt.Uses, for Introspection Strategic planning, "perspective joumals and visioning rtransformation" constmct exercises psychology Rehearsal that serves to raise tacit Invoives concrete Preparation for knowledge into conscious 1 particulas of press conferences, awareness (a process that 1 events; major speeches is more narrative rather 1 reconstmcting the etc. than cognitive) 1 meaning of - experience Inquiry Action research Self reflective Analysis of 1 spirals of cycles of implications of I1 planning, acting, research, observing and marketing data etc. Spontaneity Crisis action; quick reflex player, "feel" for management and 1 the music launching out I I 1 ddaptedfiom Wiess & Louden 1989, p. 8-9: Grimmett. 1988, p. 8 An intensely personal experience, reflection also offers leaders the ability to fashion an approach based on their long and shoa term needs, level of experience and stage of development. The adaptability of reflection is borne out in Huberman's three areas of enquiry: circumstantial (what stage a person is at); the personality of die individual involved (introverted or extroverted etc.) and professional choices (reflecting on the reflective style that may be most appropriate) (Huberman, 1993, p. 194). Andnisyszn also cites the attmctiveness of choosing tools that mon suit an individual such as independent journals, leaming partnerships, rneditation, interactive journals and reflective case studies (hdmsyszn, 1996, p. 150). Depending on the time available, the Bexibility af5orded by reflective contexts provides the leader with either a split second window with which to reflect or a more long terni approach. If CEOs find they have no time at the present, they can consider the need to reflect later. The literature does, however, caution against getting trapped in one style. In work conducted by Lasley, three areas of reflection trace the growth and development of individuals. In translating this to CEOs, it could be smised that new leaders might choose a "technical" orientation with a "survival focus" allowing them to leam new tasks, roles and responsibilities. Those CEOs with more experience may move to a "conceptual" orientation with a "ta& focus" that challenges them to cope with multiple demands and confims the validity of previous experience with current challenges. Finally, seasoned leaders may gravitate to the "dialectical" orientation with an "impact focus" that emphasizes process and substantive intemal and extemal dialogue. Table 1 1 illustrates these possibilities by adapting Lasley's major categories: Tabie 11: The Tailor-made Reflective Experience Task Focus -concemed with "making -coping with multiple -emphasis on process and i t" demands outcomes -want to gain confidence -knowing how to suMve -expect excellence of and focus on technical -perfonns reality check themselves issues between reality and theory -engagement in dialectical -sunival mode -substantive intemal and extemal dialogue 9Adapted fiom Lasley, 1992. p. A+ Of fUther interest in the ability ro adapt reflective styles is the work of Habermad "knowledge-constitutive interests" (Weiss & Louden, 1989, p. 14). Habermas theorizes that there are three traditions of reflective inquiry: the ernpincal-analytic. hermeneutic- historical and critical sciences. He associates each area with a particular type of cognitive interest: empirical-analytic is associated with technical control by discovering de-like regularities in an objective world; hermeneutic-historical sciences with practicai control through understanding and communications. and critical sciences with emancipation through critical reflection on the conditions of social life (Ibid.). There are interesting implications in Habermas's theory in terms of how a CE0 may apply his or her reflective expenence to the area of enquiry: for example. the hermeneutic-historical perspective may be used in reflecting on better ways to work with people; empincal- anaiytic methods to better understand the deeper implications of a business strategy; and the critical sciences to gain a firmer grounding in the "bigger" picture. 3.3 Relevance of Reflection There are four reasons why a study of reflection and CE0 developrnent is relevant. Perhaps most significantly, there appears to be a number of important benefits available to those that reflect. Schon believes, for example. that his conceptions of reflection as "reorganization" or ireconstmction" of experience will Iead to: 1. A new understanding of the actual situation: 2. Appreciation of the self as teacher; and 3. New understandings of taken for granted assurnptions. Second, the literature suggests that there are few methods that CEOs have at their disposa1 for self-hprovement. Kouzes and Posner discovered in their research that there are three ways CEOs learn: through education. peers and nenvorking, and trial and error. Given these few choices and that most authors concur that trial and enor is the most important leaming that a CE0 can expenence, it is important to understand the degree that CEOs reflect on the trial and error they expenence. A third point suggested by the theses studied indicates that reflection is a means to encourage holistic learning that is multi-dimensional, integrated and rneaningful (Andrusyszyn, 1996, p. 144). Fourth, Andnisyszyn's contention that reflection would rernain cursory if unguided and unanended has been reinforced by many of the participants in her study. This would suggest that there is a need to explore the self- discipline necessary to initiate reflection and the degree to which CEOs may. or rnay not have this self-discipline. 3.4 Reflection in Professional and Personal Development 3.41 Learning The issue of transforming information into knowledge is of pammount importance to the development of CEOs. The literature suggests that the CE0 is buried in information; the need to develop methods and process that bnng meaning to the data is a vital task. The benefits, according to Dewey, are worth the work: "operating in the direction of powea to the better living of life is the hallmark of reflection and wisdom is its hit" (Weiss & Louden, 1988, p. 9). Two rnethods of reflection are available to accornplish this transformation: reflection "in action'' and "on action" (Ibid.). As evidenced earlier in the ways people reflect, there are both immediate and long term reflective processes. In the short term, the ability to use reflection *'in action" couid play a vital role in the day to day decisions CEOs make. Reflection "in action", conceived by Michael Polapi, involves: 1. Tacit knowing in action; 2. Intelligent practice as an application of knowledge; 3. Often, it reveals "knowing more than we can say"; and 4. Its properties consist of actions, recognitions, and judgernents carried out spontaneously (Grimmen,1988, p. 10). Individuals often find they are unaware of having learned how to do sornething and find their understanding is intemalized. sometimes called 'ihinking on your feet", "leming by doing" or "tacit knowledge". It would appear that Mintzberg's research may not have taken into account this type of reflection. Clearly, the research indicates that this type of reflection is used as much as reflection "on action". Another concept related to leaming is the "Meno Paradox" that describes the need for individuals to "launch out'?. This phenornenon is descnbed as "not understanding what is needed to leam and yet only able to begin the process by acting as if it is undernood" (Grimmen, 1988, p. 8). Launching out is a "necessary precursor7' to knowing that something exists and to knowing how sornething functions. The ability to undemand and use this type of learning would be most usehl to CEOs who rncounter many different pmblerns and situations every day. As leaders reflect and harness their expenences, in some cases, they are "automatically" responding to new expenences (as descnbed by Senge) about which they know little and how they approach new situations. Of fierrelevance to CEOs is Schon's description of the "double burden" of launching out: at one and the same time, individuals must lem to execute practices and to recognize when their execution is at a level of cornpetence (Grirnmett, 1988, p. 9). The ability to reflect "on action" is a more studied and formalized approach of the introspective and enquiring phases of refiection. Reflecting "on action" provides an oppomuiity to: 1. Ask "ought" and "should" in the investigation of alternate perspectives; 2. Focus on real problems and concems so that altemate courses of action cm be generated; 3. Change the nature of the problem, by naming and refkming it; and 4. Make corrections that are process oriented (given trends in leadership literature, a most appealing quality) (Hannay, 1994, p. 22) Finally, Harvey, Hunt and Schroder's four conceptual levels of adult thinking are useful in considering the stages of learning required to hlly develop reflective skills. These stages are: 1. Unilateral dependence; 2. Negative independence: 5. Conditional dependence and mutuality; and 4. Interdependence. 3.42 Problem solving Problem solving and decision making may not have been what Dewey had in mind when he identified one of the CEOsogreatest paradoxes: "they cannot know without acting and cannot act without knowing"(Grimmett, 1988, p. 11). This insight represents a second transformation that reflection can perfom: rnoving fiom chaos to clarity. "The function of reflective thought is, therefore. to transform a situation in which there is experienced obscurity, doubt, conflict, disturbance of some sort, into a situation that is clear. coherent? settled, harmoniou~'~(Ibid.). Reflection cm assist in problem solving by defining the "real" problem, providing incremental capabilities and equipping leaders with a more holistic view of a problem. Schon makes a highly vaiuable contribution to problem solving in his discussion of the difference between "problem solving" and "problem setting" (Grimrnen, p. 9), an important component of CE0 development. It is one thing to be able to solve problems. but as Bennis has suggested earlier, "Are they the right problems?". Schon believes that reframing a problem enables individuals to make use of their existing "repertoire of examples, images, undestandings and actions" ailows them to fully understand what the real problem might be (Ibid.). Drawing fiom his reflective cycle. he says that "the situation taiks back, the practitioner listens. and as he [or she] appreciates what he [or she] hem, he [or she] rehmes the situation once again" (Ibid.). It wouid seem that another difTerence between managers and leaders may be that the former are "problem solvers" while the latter are "problem setters". Another usell contribution is reflection's incremental irnprovement capabilities. Schon states that reflection always leads to a consequence: "Demand for the solution of a perplexity is the steadying and guiding factor in the entire process of reflection" (Ibid. p. 14). Takhg this one step further, transforming a situation involves making inferences; these inferences are drawn from one's past experience and suggestions arise out of the situation as it was experienced. Echoing Kouzes and Posner, Gnmrnett states that "the closer the process of reflection moves towards a resolution of the felt problem, the more critical it becomes to examine past events and expenence" (Ibid.). The concept of incrernental improvement is also borne out in O'Donovan-Poltents thesis using the Kcgan conception of development where she illustrates successive, evolutionary transformations, each enabling the assumption of an incrementally more all- inclusive perspective. Her findings indicate that existing perspectives are subsurned by a "biggerg' one. affording more broader panoramic or holistic views of respective worlds. These broader interests equate to a heightened attentiveness to the wider social implications of an individual's actions and were evidenced in the enlarged perspectives in her qualitative interviews (O'Donovan-Polten, 1994, p. 248). 3.4.3 Self development Knowing "in practicey tends to be increasingly tacit, spontaneous and automatic. The problem with an over-emphasis in this area is the potential for missed oppominities as it becomes difficult to think about actions. Leaders who are on "auto pilot" may find they cannot detect patterns of error and if they do it is dificult to correct them. The result of reflection "in practice" is detrimental to organizations and leaders alike as boredom andor bumout can set in. The evidence suggests that reflection cmcorrect these problems by surfacing and criticizing tacit understandings (referred to earlier by Senge, as "leaming disabilities"). An on-going reiterative process of paradox resolution that entails the integration of ideas can bring with it both independence and interdependence (OtDonovan-Polten, 1994, p.245). This is important to CEOs as they walk that fine line between leading an organization and simultaneously building a strong, tmsting relationship with their senior management team. Reflection is also helpfùl in uncovenng what Costa defines as the misconceptions and misinformation that adults often bring with them to their jobs (Costa, 1977, p. 95). These misconceptions cm act as a starting point for leaniing using action driven reflection to decipher unconscious maps. Costa's assumptions shed light on how leaders may become more self-aware by employing reflective techniques: 1. Knowledge is both a personal and social construction. It is built on current reality. linking pnor e~periences~clarifj6ng concepts and integrating new information. It is a blend of personal meaning making and shared collaborative problem solving 2. Reflective practice is a powerful contributor to growth and requires contextually based, systematic expenmentation. It involves reconstruction of experience. The non- routine nature of work requires cornplex, contextuai decision-making and an inquiry oriented approach to practice. Reframing experience, generating alternatives, inferences based on prior knowledge are essentiai practices; 3. Reciprocal infiuence benveen the culture of the workplace and the thinking and behaviours of its members are important. Cultural noms cmpromote or irnpede generation and difision of new ideas; 4. Feedback spirals provide potent processes of continuous growdi and leaming; and 5. Individuals and organizations are intercomected by invisible webs of energy (Ibid., p. 110-1 12). Costa's theories corne to life in O'Donovan-Polten's research. In reconstnicting one's constructions, she uncovered an interviewee's voyage of self-discovery entailing ongoing introspective dialogues conceming increasing "perspicacious understandings of the sort of truth she has reached at any particular point" (O'Donovan-Polten, 1994, p. 236). There was a proclivity toward reformulating her understanding of the tnith and a desire to incessantly question underlying principles of her made meanings. This rich reflective experience is also evidenced in a discussion she relates where an inteniewee talks about the importance of looking back thmu& a tunnel th~oughwhich he once looked forward: "there are lots of tunnels in life, none of which are one-sided. Different perspectives is a natural part of life" (OtDonovan-Polten, 1994, p. 242). Probably one of the most cornpelling arguments for CEOs to consider evolving their own personal reflective style is made by Hannay and Seller whose "research suggests a change in beliefs follows, not proceeds, a change in behaviour"(Hannay & Seller, 1990, p. 342). There is a "chicken and egg" conundrum that leaders face in their quest for irnmediate resuits: it wouid appear that one of the best chances of creating organizational success is to start with themselves. It will be interesting to study CEOs' ability to become flexible and proactive in response to challenges that are large and small within their organizations. WilI they end up playing the blame garne, linking organizational failures, mistakes and setbacks to other people, the economy or to themselves? Will they be terminated for poor performance only to be hired at the helm of yet another organization in need of enlightened leadership? I can't wait to find out. 3.5 Summary of Areas for Exploration in Reflection and Leadership Questions relating specifically to reflection and its role in Chief Executive Officen' professional and persona1 development have emerged £iom the three major areas identified earlier for examination. These areas and related questions are as follows: Area # 1 - Do CEOs reflect as part of iheir professional and persona1 development? If CEOs do reflect, what triggers them to do so? (Reflective cycles, stages and processes "in reflection" and "on reflection" will be examineci; judgements as to the relative effectiveness of the reflection will emanate fiom the CEO, not his or her subordinates). What various rnethods do CEOs use to improve performance? What role, if any, does 'Pelfdevelopment" have in the growth of a CEO? Area #2 - If CEO's do reflect, what contribution has reflection made to their leadership a bilities? fl How have CEOs and their leadership changed as they have grown in their careen? In what ways do they believe they have enhanced their performance? How do CEOs lem how to lead? How do CEOs learn to lem? Area # 3 - Based on the outcome of the research, what conclusions can be drawn to support future professional and development interventions? Are differences evident in the ways that male and femde leaders reflect? What cm be learned about CE03 effectiveness in light of their ability to reflect? What are the implications of the findings in developing the leaders of tomorrow? CHMTER 3 4.0 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4.1 Overview, Nature of Inquiry In designing the methodology for this qualitative research study a phenomenological approach using grounded theory (Lincoln & Guba 1985: Glaser & Strauss. 1967) was employed (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992' p. 19). This celection wac made for four reasons. First. the ability to examine the "lived expenence" of CEOs that is not only cognitive but also emotional became a portal to more fully examine the "multiple. ofien conflicting meanings and interpretations" of the key incidents in their lives and decisions made in the contes of the research question (Glesne & Peshkin. 1992. p. 19). Second, phenomenology represented an approach that would produce "qualitv. depth and richness" in the research which was essential to determining the role that reflection played in thought and action processes (Marshall & Rossman. 1989. p. 15). Third' the need for a "thick description" (Ibid. p. 19) and the detailed analysis that would follow was required to more fully understand the triggers for reflection. if they existed at all. Fourth and most significantly, a process that would not underestimate the role of intuition: both on the part of the researcher and the interviewee was vital to the research. The "intuitive hunches that begin the process of bounding and fiarning the research. of establishing parameters and developing perspective through the conceptual framework became the underpinnings for emergent theory" (Ibid.. p. 29). From the interviewee's perspective. the interview process provided a thorough exploration of the intuitive aspect of the work of the CE0 (Ibid, p. 29). In shaping the research methodology. 1 became very conscious that 1 was setting out on a "ourney'' and wanted to enjoy the process of emergence and discovery that would unfold through interviewing? aanscribing, analysis and examination. With a phenomenologicd approach. patterns in conception were explored as well as a midy of how people explain themselves to others and what goes on around them (Morgan & Smircich, 1980, p. 494.) Because of my own "conceptual bagage" (Glesne & Peshkin. 1992, p. 104-5). as someone who is working with CEOs, and my use of grounded theory in an earlier research project 1 more easily and quickly embraced this approach. Having for many years closely studied the behaviour of CEOs from a distance. I was elated to finaily have an opportunity for an "insider's look" at the person behind the "office?'.In sumrnary, these methods were selected in order to bener understand individual perceptions and perspectives and to allow me to readily make connections between ideas. themes and issues. The qualitative research consisted of two rounds of qualitative. descriptive in;er&ws with fùur fimaicl and four maie Chier"Esecutive Oficers, These sixteen interviews were semi-struciured with the aim of collecting large amomounts of rich. detailed information. The goal of the interviews was to collect as much information as possible including attitudes. feelings. opinions, philosophies and expenences. The interviews were designed to encourage a fkee flowing and open dialogue ro gain insights into what CEOs have leamed about leading and how they Iearned it. 4.2 Study Design Figure 1: Study Design Selection IdentiQ and approach 4 femaie and 4 male Chief Executive Oficers Review corporate matenals, resumes Receive consent to proceed Data Collection and Analysis - Conduct first interview Part 1 Transcribe interviews Transcription review Analysis of transcnpts to detect patterns. trends. themes, cornparisons and contrasts Development of categories and sub-codes Development of emergent theory Create questions as a basis for second interview to provide greater clarity and depth Data Collection and halysis - Conduct second interview Part 2 Transcribe interviews Transcription review (interview and intenliewee) halysis of transcripts to identify new themes; confim. support analysis fiom first transcnpt; examine content for contradictions Review analysis against existing codes Test theory- against- early "hunches" Analysis of Findings Develop over-arching themes Refme emergent theory Identi- common themes to al1 CEOs Discern différences and similarities between male and female CEOs Implications of the Findings Identib possible interventions to support CEOs in ~rofessiondand C ers on al deveIovrnent a 1 Conclusions and Next steps for developrnent initiatives Recommendations Implications for human resource practitioners and consultants During the literature review. a number of proposed areas of enquiry emerged that shaped the direction of this snidy. These questions, dong with those fomulated in response to enquiries about reflection? served as the basis fiom which specific questions were developed for the qualitative interview. In order to establish themes, similarities and dissimilarities?each CE0 \vas asked six identicai questions in the first interview process (See Appendix B: Fust Individual Interview Queaions) The interview structure was composed of major segments including: Gcncrai idormation (variety and iength of experience. career progression. formai education etc); Most irnportant/least important elements of CEOosjob: Overall leadership philosophy and style: events, expenence leading toward the establishment of this philosophy; Discussion of various methods used to improve leadership: reflection. exarnination of CEOs' fomal education. peers and networking opponunities: Discussion of 2-3 critical incidents and the result of decisions taken: long and short term effects: Discussion of what role. if any, reflection played in the incidents as they were occurring and after they occurred: Exploration of learning that occurred as a result of the incidents: and Open ended discussion of other areas of professional development. Following the first interview. transcripts were analyzed to identifi specific categories and sub-categories that emerged. In addition. several cornmon themes becarne apparent that were shed by the CEOs. In the second interview. each CE0 was asked to comment Merand/or to clmi@ his or her responses to both the categones and shared themes. In each of these cases, questions were formulated to solicit Merresponse as well as to test the validity of the assumption that these in fact were over-arching themes. (See Appendices C: Second Individual Interview Questions). 1.3 Participant Selection The participants were recniited through a professional referral network including personal and professional contacts gained through the Canadian Association of Women Executives and Entrepreneurs. the Canadian Society of Association Executives. the Canadian Association of Broadcasters. the Retail Council of Canada and the retail consulting firm. the JC Williams Group. Participants were selected based on three critena. The first criterion surfaced directly as a result of the literature review where many articles chronicled the devastating impact that badly led companies had on the North Amencan economy. As indicated earlier, the literature indicated that for a variety of reasons, but largely because ofpoor execution. duee of five CEOs lost their job within three years in North Amenca and that the failure rate of organizations was close to 50% (Wetlaufer, 1996. p. 1 15). Because of what was at stake. including the loss of jobs and erosion of competitiveness. 1 believed it would be insightful to contact candidates whose actions and decisions had a significant impact on the Canadian economy. Those CEOs whose decisions and actions not only affected 1000s of employees. but also had far reaching short and long term economic consequences were deemed pnmary candidates for the research. A second issue was that each should represent an important segment of the Canadian econorny. For this reason. representatives were sought and obtained in high technology, automotive. broadcasting, retail, real estate and not-for-profit sectors. Third. gender balance was important to the study in order to determine if any there were differences between the role of reflection in male and female personal and professional development. Four male and four female candidates were chosen based on McCraken's research which indicates that eight candidates represents a sound number in qualitative research studies (McCracken. 1988. P-8)- Once confmed, participants were asked to: 1. Provide a current resume which provided demographic and penonal information including education, career profile, key accomplishments and cornmunity involvement. Where appropriate. annuai reports of the companies were also obrained to provide further background and insights into the challenges and opportunities faced by these individuals. 2. Participate in two taped interviews, the first for 1 !h hours and the second, for 45 minutes. In preparation for the first interview, each participant was asked to consider two or three critical incidents they deemed significant in their evolution as leaders. In preparation for the second interview, participants were asked to review the fim interview transcnpt and be prepared to comment on specific incidents in the transcript for Merciarificarion and smdy Those CEOs who met the critena and had the available time io participate in the study were selected. In each case. the referral from a colieague or peer was essential to gaining access. Two of the eight participants were known to the researcher at the outset C of this study. Each CE0 received and signed a consent letter outlining the purpose of the research and his or her participation as well as a detailed description of the steps that would be taken to provide complete anonymity and confidentiality. Each was also ensured that. at any time. they were able to withdraw from rhe study and that al1 notes. cornputer records and tapes concerning them would be destroyed. 4.4 Participant Profiles The study participants were men and women aged approximately 43-60. Al1 were university educated with two holding graduate degrees. The range of expenence as a CE0 ranged from 2 to 20 years. Five of the CEOs had held a variety of CE0 positions in their career. One CE0 had just obtained her first leadership position two yean ago, while two other male CEOs had been with their organizations for a number of years which led to their successful promotion to this role. Table 11 presents participant demopphic data with pseudonyrns to protect identity. Table 12: Participant Profiles Bill 48 15 years Elizabeth 43 17 years Languages L 1 Michael 58 8 years Bioadcasting University Paul 55 1 7 years Retail Bacheior of Science Sonia 43 7 years Retail Bachelor of 1 Business Arts 4.5 Interview Process The individual interviews were conducted at participants' offices. With pnor consent. each interview was tape recorded. In preparation for the first interview. a senes of suucnired and open ended questions were developed relevant to the research questions outlined in the introduction. Each participant was asked the sarne set of questions. Participants did not receive these questions in advance: however. they were asked pnor to the interview to consider anywhere from IWO to three "cntical incidents'' to share. 1 defined a cntical incident as an event or occurrence that had a profound effect on their leadership development; something that was easily remembered for its powerfbl influence as much as for what they wuld do in the future as what they would nor do. Observations were made by me during the interview and transcribing process and were recorded in a field note joumal. Each participant selected a pseudonyrn, and in the transcripts of the inteniews. their organization?references to colleagues and employees were blinded. Mer transcription, each transcnpt was reviewed for accuracy. Participants were mailed typed copies of their interview and asked to review these for clarity, accuracy or additions. The second stage of the interview process involved an in-depth, personalized set of questions that resulted from the responses to the first interview. These questions allowed a more detailed examination of reflective activities, or lack thereof. in specific incidents referenced during the first interview. In addition, several themes began to emerge that spanned al1 of the interviews. The second interview, therefore, provided an oppomuUty for CEOs to expound on these themes and to test whether or not the theme was, in fact. of central importance to each individual. It also allowed the researcher to discuss the implications of these over-arching rhernes as they reiated ro the professional and personal development of CEOs. A final use of the second interview was to determine if the interview. viewed in and of itself as an intervention. had any effect on the CEOs in their reflection or in building awareness of issues or concems that might not othenvise have surfaced. As a researcher. I found the entire interview process a most humbling one. 1 was truly arnazed that 1 had gained access to this extraordinary group of individuals and honoured that they would provide their time to me. in my pursuit of knowledge to assist and suppon CEOs in the future. During the begiming of the first interview process, 1 was nervous but knew that it was essential to build rapport and tmst as quickly as possible. To ease both intenriewee (and rnyself) 1 employed a "grand touf*question that facilitated rapport building (Glesne & Peshkin. 1992. p. 68). 1 expenenced in real time what was described as the challenges of the "elite interview": phones constantly Niging; paim pilots beeping to indicate that the "next" ever pressing issue was waiting in the wings: stock market indicators diverting attention and the ever pressing knowledge. that largely through the graces of referrals and extremely empathetic executive assistants. 1 had gained en- into the world of these CEOs. From the outset. 1 made every effort to make the CE0 feel cornfortable and in control. Reviewîng the purpose of the interview. the fact that confidentiality was assured and that if 1 asked questions that they did not wish to respond to, they needed only let me know, began to build tmst between us. While doing so, 1 was carefully observing the physical office environment and body language as well as trying to get a *feel" for the tone established by the leader. As the interviews unfolded, I was stnick by the degree of personal detail that CEOs were willing to share with me. 1 encouraged them to use their interviews to explore: 1. Incidents and events of their pas1 that were both harrowing and/or heroic: 2. Issues ofpresent concem in the hope that the interview might provide them with a little time to reflect, and allowing me with the oppominity to witness this reflection first hand: and 3. Fuwe concerns and challenges so that 1could again be exposed to their thought pracesses and rcflective prociiviiies. It was encouraging that, by the second interview, afier having analyzed the first transcnpt and forwarded a copy to participants, the walls between myself and the interviewee began to break doun. The second meetings were much more relaxed and provided an opporninity to continue to build rapport and an opportunity for the CE0 to formally reflect on their previous observations. hother point of interest in the second interview process was the CEO's curiosity about what 1 would ask and how 1 might make comections or point out disconnections that occurred. During many of the meetings. interviewees would say. ''1 was wondering when you were going to get to that". The CEOs fully panicipated in the study to complete the interview schedule, allowing the researcher to finaiize the data collection phase by Febmq 23. 2000. 4.6 Data Analysis Content analysis of the data involved several neps. After each interview. 1 listened to the tape, allowhg me to build on notes fiom the interview. The tapes were then transcnbed. Following the transcnbing, 1 embarked on an andyticd: vertical process to systematically develop themes. codes and what 1 called ''triggeiœwords or phrases. ("Tngger" words were chosen because of the importance the CE0 assigned to them in the interview either through repetition or emphasis: these words were especially evident during critical incidents. The trigger words ofien served as a jump-off point for the formation of questions during the second interviews.) A number of individual themes began to emerge as the first round of transcribing was completed. These themes were used as the foundation for question development for the second interview where typically six or seven key questions were employed. It was also during this phase of transcnpt analysis that codes and themes among the CEOs was compared and contrasted. To suppon this process' 1 relied heavily on the development and use of tables to "give shape to [the] data'. (Glesne & Peshkin. 1992, p. 137): doing so. assisted imrnensely in identieing the key elements of the study. Each CE0 received his/her transcript before the second interview and was asked to give a reaction to it as a aarting point for the next meeting. Generally. they were shocked by their speech patterns and could not believe how disjointed and untocussed they sometimes sounded. Ir was reasswing to tell each of them that al1 participants had this experience and that they were not alone! Following the warm-up question to the second interview. each CE0 responded to three types of questions (See Appendix C): 1. Issues and events raised directly fiom their first interview; 2. Emerging themes that were common to al1 first interviews: and 3. Each CE0 was asked to comment fùrther where connections and linkages were apparent throughout the trmscnpts (e.g. female CEOs discussed challenges they had vis-à-vis male leadership patterns: men were not asked a similar question because this issue did not arise in any of their transcripts). Other than the first question regarding their reaction to the transcnpt. and the last question. exploring the impact of the interviews. each CE0 received a different set of questions that related specifically to incidents they discussed in the first interview. Once the second interview was completed, the researcher reviewed each tape to develop field notes and journal notes. These notes included: Reflections on the interview; a Areas that supported and/or conflicted with the first stage emergent theorv; Body Ianguage of participants; Responses that surprised me; and Questioning that went well and areas for improvement. The final. transcribed interview was analyzed to determine if there was significant uiickness of data to substantiate the emergent themes and theory . Each transcript was combed for themes. codes and trigger words. These items were then combined with the information assembled from the first interview to lay the groundwork for an inductive. horizontal analysis whereby the researcher discovers "concepts and hypotheses through constant comparative analysis'' (Glesne & Peshkin. 1992. p. 19). The goal of the data analysis was to draw from the 'Yhick descriptiorf' in interviews one and two to begin Duilciing the theory of the reflecrive processes of CEOs (Ibid. p. 19). Figure 2: Data Analysis Process - Literature Review Leadership Development Uses of Reflection1 Anne Bill Elizabeth Michael Paul Sonia Tom Va lerie 11nt1 (I~I 11nr1 11nr~ 11nt1 Int I inrl Itml I Anaiysis Anaiysis Anaiysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Themes Themes Themes Themes Themes Themes Themes Themes Codes Codes Codes Codes Codes Codes Codes Codes Triggers Triggers Triggers Triggers Triggers Triggen Triggers Triggen Compare and Contrast Data - Fint Interviews Emergent Theory from vertical data analysis Anne Bill Elizabeth Michaei Paul Sonia Tom Valerie Int 2 1 Inr2 Inr 2 Inr 2 Int 2 Inr 2 IIIt 2 Int 2 Analysis In Analysis In Analysis In Analysis Analysis Analysis In Anaiysis In Analysis In Relation to Reiation to Relation to In Relation In Relation to Relation to Relation to Relation to Emerging Emerging Emerging To Emerging Emerging Emerg ing Emerging Emerging Themes Themes Themes Themes Themes Thernes Themes Themes Compare and Contrast Data - Second Interviews Emergent Theory from horizontal analysis ------l Responses to Research Questions Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations 4.7 Reliability and Validity In conducting "elite interviews'' 1 was soon to discover what Manhall and Rossman warn researchers of: these people are "operating under demanding constraints. are difficult to reach" and that the researcher must "modifi the conventional role of confining herself to ashg questions and recording answers" (Marshall & Rossman. 1989. p. 94). In addition. there was a "considerable variation in the degree of control" that I had during the individual interviews and 1 had to be respecthl of what the CEOs wished ~o ~alkabout md wbat ihcy did not wish ro discuss. In the conduct of this qualitative research study of eipht CEOs. it is important to remember that my research consists of eight persona1 life stones that were "tnie" according to these individuals. As researcher. my role is to understand the impact that reflection has had in their iives and determine if it played a significant role. It is not up to me to "judpe" these people's lives. but to interpret their stories in a way that was helpful in shedding light on the research question. 4.8 Limitations The fact that qualitative research is evolutionary and that for dl of the "scientific sociologist's.. .neat abstractions. concrete human beings rnay not neatly bend before them" was only too tnie of the interviews. But it was most insightfid in giving me latitude that a quantitative intervention device would never permit: it allowed me in most cases to penetrate the outer Iayers of authority. and see the "real" person (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992- p. 6). As any other qualitative researcher, 1 was concemed about biases that 1 may have and the need for detachment and subjectivity. Lincoln and Guba ( 1985) have asserted that qualitative researcher bias may occur during the development of questions and during the interview process. As researcher, I had to be aware that my past work with CEOs could affect rny line of questioning. For this particular study, 1 had to conduct my own reflection to discover how othen reflected. It was imponant therefore. to vet questions with academic advisors to ensure that they were as neutral as possible. In addition to the need for subjectivity was the issue of ambiguity in selection of candidates and questions continued to haunt me. Was 1 interviewhg people who were "representative" of the typical CE0 (if there is such a thing!)? Was 1 asking the ri@ questions? (Ibid.). While great care was taken in the selection process by thoroughly explainhg the purpose and significance of the study and determinhg if individuals had the tirne and interest to take part. there was a randomness in the selection. I knew it would be difEcult to convince eight, extremely busy executives to take on "one more" thing and it was with the greatest relief that I actually had eight agree. 1had only one CE0 nim me down because of an impending merper and another finally consented after two monûls of lelephone lag and intemationai uavei. The methodoiogy section of this emergent qualitative çnidy described the study design selection process and interview procedures. Data collection and andysis methods were identified that included the developing of data codes, cornparison of codes. and development of themes. In Chapter 4. findings from the verbatim transcripts are manged by creating eight vertical vignettes of each CE0 to bener understand their evolution. their use of reflection. the way they view themselves as leaders and the types of professional and personai development that they find useful. ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS PERTAINING TO INDIVIDUAL FIRST INTERVIEWS 5.0 Introduction This study explored what role. if any, reflection plaged in the professional and personal development of Chief Esecutive Officers. In the fim stage of the interview process. the CEOs were encouraged to relate their feelings, thoughts and experiences about powerfbl issues and incidents that had occurred in their careers and had a profound effect upon their leadership. The researcher's objective was to gain a better understanding of the thought processes, strategies and techniques employed by CEOs in a number of different and chailenging instances regarding leadership including: making meaning, in fairly short order. of highIhly complex issues and trends: mobilizing and motivating individuals and tearns in an effective manner to obtain organizational goals: delivering strong tangible and intangible results and the degree of risk undenaken to deliver them; and casting off when in uncharted waters to launch bold. new directions. To set the stage for exploration of the overarching horizontal themes. it is helpfûl to first gain an understanding of the CEOs who took part in the research and the vertical themes that emerged fiom their fint interviews. In sketching these vertical "vignettes". it is the researcher's goal to highlight both points of difference as well as similarities that shone through the interviews. Joumal notes. individual transcripts, analysis of content and reflection as well as visual dues becarne the highway markers on the road to developing codes and categories. Particular attention has been paid to the type of information relayed (content), critical incidents chosen (reflection) and evidence of emotion as well as body Ianpge (visual dues). Where issues were common amongst the CEOs interviews, it has been noted. A preliminary analysis led to the establishment of four broad 'buckets?' or categories, to bener organize and examine the vertical data (See Chart 13): Table 13 - "Bucket" Categories - First Round of CE0 Interviews Leunin&«, social status Lessons Iearned Decision- lem 0 Personality Successes & Making Methods of Learning to lead failures Type leaming Ethics Fear Action & Mentors & Wisdom execution networks Instinct Working with Formai and Risk Individuals & informal Experience Teams education Vision & strategy The questions emanating from these four categories are: 1. Evolution: What role does the past play in forming leadership attributes? 2. Reflection: How is reflection used and portrayed in critical incidents and throughout the interviews? 3. Leadership: What cm be leamed about reflection from the CEOS' discussion and perceptions about their own leadership? 4. Professional and Persona1 Development: What do CEOs do to develop themselves and how does it work? 5.2 Anne's Leadership I have an orgunic sense of what S crucial and I know how to move rhree or four îhings fonvard at the same rime. Anne Evolution While many CEOs discussed the impact of family and social status, the most important area to examine in evdution ir the ccxtrhlion of yreuic~swcrk experiences. Anne is unique amongst the other CEOs in that she made the jump from the not-for-profit (NPO) to the for-profit sector. Much of what has occurred since making this shift are new expenences for her. Anne drew upon expenence fiom previous positions as well as her instincts to guide her in this new role. Her appreciation of the past exempiifies the significance of research conducted by Kouzes and Posner who indicate that CEOs who have a strong understanding of past experiences are better able to support their organizations in the future (Kouzes & Posner. 1987. p. 100). In her NP0 work. she had developed both a strong, senice rnentality along with a comprehensive "tool box" of skills including team building techniques and executional expertise. In the roua and turnble world of broadcasting, she describes the positive effects of her career in the public service: "And 1 for sure think that one of the defining things was being in the public service and taking a public service kind of attitude towards the customer". Though her customer semice mentality provided a foundation, Anne outlined that two of her biggest challenges were that she had neither broadcasting or a strong, financial background. What she did capitalize ont however, were her effective leadership skills: ". ..but 1 was capable of putting a good team togedier and capable of doing a critical path and capable of helping the team get fiom the beginning to the end.. .I have a pod sense of how to organize things. and 1think 1have a good sense of who to get working on a team to move forward". In one of her cnticd incidents, Anne traces the tumultuous Iaunching of her organization which she describes as "the fmt business of [her] own". As she was "Iearninp and playing by the des?', her public senrice and leadership skilis were soundly tested in what Grimmen has defined as "launching out?' (Gnrnmett. 1985, p. 8). When several significant roadblocks were thrown up in the launch, she relates: ''So we sort of went into a crisis the day we launched.. .and son of. if you leamed how to survive that. you leamed how to survive everything.. .[we were] learning a lot. never done it before. So it was really trial by fire'-. Yet even in this crisis. her service mentality came through as she ploned a suategy to influence decision makers and opinion leaden: "There were some easier to deal with people. um, less easy to deal with people.. .we went and talked îo the easizr ond Descnbing one of the darker moments in the launch period. she is tenacious and resilient: "We can't blink.. .there was huge staff morale issues.. .kill yourself for six months. You have this grand celebration and four days later you have a wake." (Anne) Her ability to conduct a 360 degree assessrnent of al1 stakeholders while simultaneously rallying her people, made the difference in the successful resolution of the issues sunounding the launch. In the early days. it is not surpnsing that Anne relied on "concepnial and introspective" forms of reflection. Evidence of a progression from conceptual to dialectical reflection cm be traced in an incident where her organization merged with another. With a view to process and outcornes. Anne draws upon her people skills to smooth the transition. Tdlike to be helpful in tems of how you tell the staff and how you deal u-ith people.. .l didn't want to see them Iefi to drift.. .so started going to meetings with the transition team. ..started to see how things were working out.. .I met whole bunches of people". Reflection The role of cumulative knowledge and incremental improvements are two powerfûi forces in Anne's reflection. Her use of introspective (lessons learned) and spontaneous reflection (learning by doing) have aided her to becorne a more masterful and confident leader. Throughout her interviewo she moves between "'then"and "nowo' tracing her growth and the changes she has been through? "I'm a lirtle more cornfortable and 1just assume that's what 1'11 do again.. . 1 mean I've really gown to feel that 1 can do this whereas, when we launched.. .I thin. 1 was jus as amazed as anyone else was". Since moving to broadcasting, she has been immersed in what Christensen calls "disruptive change'' (Christensen' 1999' p. 66). Rapidly changing circumstances are a hallmark of her industry andotherefore. a big part of her leadership challenge: "The tmth is al1 of the benchmarks have shified.. .the whole notion of whar you cm ask for and what -- you can get have changed.. .so we're dealing with a completely different universe.. . . Reflection has played a crucial role in harnessing her cumulative knowledge. Anne has become an expert in "speed learning". Her reflection in action on incident upon incident. and crisis upon crisis, provi~edher wirii a plethora of spontaneous learning opportunities. In discussing the difficulties of the launch, for example, Ann saYs? "1 couldn't have foretold at the time just how complicated the issues were going to get.. .I think everything 1 know about television since then. 1 would have done a lot of things differently ...but you couldn't do those unless you knew". Now she knows. Her quick mastery of one situation serves as the basis for learning required in the next. This pattern of reflective leaming is evident in many of the CE0 interviews in which they build "chains of learning". Each link provides a foundation of expenence for the decisions and actions required in fürure events and build confidence. The positive effects of cumulative learning are evident in .me's growing self-assurance: ". .-1 also know that 1 know how to do these things.. .I feel more positive. 1 think 1 can tackle someùiing this size or biggei.. Anne's reliance on past esperiences holds a central place in her refiective development: ". ..if you have experience that's relevant. cornes from other parts of your life, it helps you overcome some of what you're not.. .". 'Tonfidence" emerged as an important trigger word in Anne's discussion of her leadership: "1 just feel more secure at it and 1 think 1 know some of the things you have to do. And 1 think it's a sense of confidence; if anything, ifsjus confidencey (he). Leadership In discussing the functions of a CEO, it is evident that Anne is most cornforrable in leading and motivating individuals and teams and most uncornforrable in the area of fmance. She believes that leadership is "inspiring a team to think that they can accomplish things, and keeping them on track and rnoving them forward". Anne is a connector in her organization, much like Valerie, serving both internai and extemal customers. Her employees constinite one of her most important "custorner" bases and she works to "build the team.. .[and gain] their loyaltyt'. As a very people-centred CEO, one of Anne's challenges is to maintain loyalty while. at the same tirne. making tough decisions around terminations. It is evident that terminations are dificult for many leaders: dl but two of the CEOs interviewed had a termination figure prominently in at lest one of their critical incidents. In Anne's situation, her concept of loyalty was severely tested as she talked about the decision she made io terminare an empioyee with whom she had been through a lot in the early days of her leadership. Her body language indicated the significance of the event and it appeared she was reliving it as she recalled the incident. Her eyes were downcast and there were many, long pauses as she described a "very, very difficult [decision]. It was a decision 1 had to corne to on my own and it was good for the [organization]' but it was .. enormously difficult to do.. .if she could leave. anyone could leave. While making difficult decisions to protect the organization. Anne cited the need to protect herself on the financial side "and so 1 need to have a strong financial person because of that to give me a lot of security" (Anne). In addition to surrounding herself with competent people. Anne indicated that formal professional development in finance was something that she was examining: Well somebody last year, when he retumed from a finance course at a university that it had been the mon crucial and best rhing that had ever happened to him. and he loved it and it was wondefil and he just raved about it endlessly. And 1 thought. well that's a good thinp. You know 1 think I should take that course. Interestingly, the dilernma of hiring to fil1 the organizurion 's or the CE0 S needs is a common thread in many interviews. CEOs approach this conundmm differently: some are determined to be knowledgeable in dl crucial areas while others are content to hûe the expertise. While Anne thrives on developing people and teams, she describes her work as "very isolated". This cornrnem resonated in al1 intewiews and it is ironic that leaders who vend so much time and effort in building individuals and teams are so lonely in their jobs. Anne relates, "Geec they're dl going out for drinks but they didn't invite me". ..well they won? and I wouldn't if 1 was thern.. .so you're very isolated and finding out a way not to be quite so isolated is incredibly important". Professional and Persona1 Development Anne has found man' ways to drive away isolation through her professional and persona1 development. Two methods she referenced were participating in formal education programs as a speaker or participant and use of action research. Anne's reputation as a strong leader is recognized by her peers who frequently ask her to speak at events: Y've taken a leadership role and when people do panels and articles, and conferences and things. I'm usually one or two or three people they ask and that happened in a very short period of tirne.'. Her confildence shines through when she says. "1 think I am articulate and ifs not dificult for me to nad up and speak to issues which some people don3 like to do". In addition to the professionai development opportunity afforded by public speaking. she is also able to network and connect with other individuals fiom her industry at these events. Though interested in fonnal professional development. Anne cited a number of problenis with current offerings: ''1 mean how do you get to the courses that are good for you?" In discussing an article she had read. she raised a theme common with other CEOs: "this article was about CEOs who don't go to courses. because they don't give them. they never think of developing their own skills.. .and when they do go to a course. they don't want to go to one where they're going to have their underlings at it". This remark highlights challenges for CEOs in their quest for leaming. Agreeing with Anne, the CEOs interviewed discussed challenges ranging fiom a lack of formal education progams, the need for confidentiality in the leaming experience, the distaste of exposing weaknesses to peers, and the fact that CEOs are among the most "'time poor" executives to be found. Faced with these challenges. Anne meets them in a variety of ways, one of which is to quite purposefilly insert herself into leadership roles. The deliberateness of this activity reinforces the practical applications of Lewin's mode1 of action research where Anne can plan, take action, observe and refiect on areas that she would like to improve in (Lang, 1995, p. 39). When she indicated that she was not as familiar with finances as she wodd like to bet for exampleoshe related?"So, 1 think it's an area [fmance] where I've always felt that 1 could do more and I've tried.. .[to] ask myself difficult questions. try to get myself into situations...'' Summary of Anne's Leadership Reflection manifests itself in three ways in Anne's leadership. Fht?her use of technical. introspective and spontaneous reflection are evident in her early days in broadcasting. She was literally "leaming on [her] feet", and while driving the organizarion Îorward- made conscious use of previous learning. Second, Anne used both "reflection in action" and "reflection on action'' as integral parts of her analysis of situations and problems. These reflective styles were particularly evident in the early situation of the organization launch that was then followed by the merger. The seeds of her successfùl handling of the merger appear to have been planted during the crisis of the launch. Finally, the confidence that Anne has developed as she progresses in her role is a result of her conscious effons to enhance her professionai and personal development. Her twiming of leming from enor with her positive outlook probably best sums up the role that reflection has played thus far in her career: "We make bad rnistakes and we get things wrong and we have to remember to learn from them. But 1 do think that 1 feel better about it going forwardt. 5.3 Bill's Leadership ... thot affecred me profoundly. noi so much the &-ticdariries of this event. bu1 rather rhat doing what's right for this organiration is more important rhan the politics of me and my career ... Bill Evolu tion His independent personality and high ethical standards are driving forces in understanding Bill's evoiution as a CEO. At an early age. he sou&r autonomy: "1 had a sipifkant role in establishing the group culture in school. both in high school and in university. So that was kind of a quite exercise of leadership. 1 suppose. my leadership.. .springs from.. .my independence, m y personality type." These early. behind-the-scenes leadership opportunities fbeled Bill's eventual recognition that he was most comfonable in work that provided a large degree of fieedom. He concedes: "Obedience is not rny thing ... it took a long time before 1.1 began to convert that and certainly in a career sense and cenainly actively choosing to exercise ieadership." The not-for-profit world presented an ideal situation for Bill to exercise his independence. He stressed. "1 am very independent and I'm not much interested in authority or those who would like exercise it over me ...I reject that. 1 resent that. 1 don't do that well." Bill has transferred his quest for autonomy to working with not-for-profit organizations and continues to exercise his "quiet leadership" in this milieu: ". ..the trick is to get them to do what you want them do. Ah. lead the horse to water and then congratulate them for having discovered it.?' Ethics also figure predominantly in Bill's evolution. He constantly challenges himself to "do the right thing" and has been iniluenced by the behavior of mentors. His continuous introspection is also a vital part of his development of ethicai standards. While Bill desires a hi& degree of autonomy. he believes that the price to pay for this luxury rests in making ethical decisions. His ability to jurnp back and forth between introspective and spontaneous reflection is demonstrated by the following critical incident: What he [a colleague] had done was wrong. What he'd said was not true. And um, you know that he should undo it. And he wouldn't. And just the act of going to talk to hirn and let hirn know that I caught you. you S.O.B... . 1 felt good about myself. 1 felt good about the fact that ah. this guy wasn't allowed to pet away with it. Reflection Three areas are worthy of attention to understand Bill's reflective tendencies: first, the dominant pattern of ethical behaviour; second. the role that rehearsal and introspection plays: and third. his growing need for wisdom. What is striking about Bill's cntical incidents are the ethical dilernrnas that fonn the heart of each one and the subsequent risks involved. Four of the eight critical incidents he discusses involve ethical issues where he deploys refiection both "in action" and "on-action". To this day. he still admits that he is "haunted" by his performance in one of the incidents. These panems of ethical behaviour can be traced back to his early years: when as a Young layer. he was mentored by the president of his company. In one defining incident, his mentor made a profound ethical decision that reverberates through Bill's life to this day: He [the mentor and president] had a very hi& moral sense. an ethical sense.. .that afTected me profoundly, not so much the particularities of this event. but rather that doing what's right for this organization is more important than the politics of me and my career or even the politics of.. .the parent Company.. .he did what he thought would be right for this part of it.. .he, ah' put hirnself at risk. The issue of putting yomelf "at risk" to do what is nght then surfaces in two of Bill's subsequent critical incidents where he emulates the president's behaviour by taking on the vice president of finance who had, in his words. "skewered a fnend of mine" and again, when he confronts a federal employee who had withheld crucial information fIom him: "And 1 said to hun, "Paul, that's wrong". You know? And I told hirn my linle story. see? Ah, 1 cm tell you it's wong; you gona tell the whole truth." Understanding the element of risk he had taken, even with the possible downsides, Bill believes he did the nght thing: "Putting ourself at risk to do something that's ri&, to do something that ah, rights a wrong or helps sornebody else that needs help, that's worth doing." Bill's need for independence and to "do what's right" continued to assert themselves as we discussed his work with the board of directors: .. .and quite honestly.. .my response to it has been to.. .do whot I think is right [italics added].. .if certain people think it's wrong, ahl well I'll. 1'11 tell them what I'm doing and why, but I'm not stopping. You know? And if they don't like it. they can say so. and I put up with them and they can say. 'Take a hike', but nobody's done that yet. A second area of interest is the importance of rehearsal and introspection in Bill's reflection. These are perhaps best captured by a trigger word, "soak time". This was a reflective method his president would use in high pressure situations when he felt he was being forced to make a decision that he was not yet ready to make. Bill describes its effectiveness: "So he'd listen and he wouid ask good questions and the discussion and the debate would go on and all of thar. And at the end of that he would say, 'Well, I think we need a little soak time on this issue', you know?" Later, Bill effectively used this tool during a merger he was involved in: "So I've learned more there or I learned a good .. deal in the .. ..merger ah. about the need to. well the need for soak time .... Bill's need for ''soak time" exemplifies the significance he places on his own "deliberate" reflection: I like to think that I'm more reflective than average. I ah. I am prone to acrion but I ah. I ah. read and think and think and read and mull things over a lot. Ah. that's a big part of my 21 hours ...I do it very eclectically so I'm not necessarily bringing it to bear on my ah. decisions about action. I'm always doing it, but it might only be at best tangentially related to. to issues I'm dealing with. "Speechifying", as Bill calls it. is another way he uses rehearsal to reflect on upcoming decisions. In several areas of the transcript he says that he likes to talk a lot and while this seems to disturb him. it also appears to be a way for him to work out ideas, plans and strategies: Let's talk about what we can do about it and let's embark on a process that has a pretty good chance of helping us to overcome these barriers or difficulties and get on with better things. Urnt and so I talk about these things a lot and we use a process to formalize it and keep us on track. But I spend a lot of time. a lot of my time talking about it. A fmal important area for Bill is his need for wisdom. His ethical imperative connects wisdom with business success. "Ah, actually to be really candid with you, what I'm interested in most is ah, wisdom.. .I'm more interested in being a wise and good person than 1 am in ah. ah?business success." He is more conscious of the need to be less introspective and benefit fiom the wisdom that may corne fiom trusted colleagues and consultants: "1 trust my own counsel quite a lot. Too much though. and the wisdom comes in.. .reaIizing that however much 1 might trust my o\vn counsel. ah. it isn't enough. You know I will gain by, by ah, drawing in other views." Leadership Bill's discussion of ieadersnip focusseti on decision-making within the context of dependence and CO-dependencebetween himself and his executive tearn and his desire to gain a greater understanding of the people he works with. Bill. like al1 of the CEOs C interviewed, has an artless ability to make decisions: 1 make decisions easily. It's not hard for me to do.. .1 guess. if 1 have a natural talent for management. it's. 1 have a natural facility for making decisions. Not necessarily good ones. but it's easy to make them ?ou know? Maybe people saw that you know. "Well give it to him." Bill recognited that it was problematic to have a11 decisions made only by him: "Um, at the XYX for the first half of my time there. there was an awful lot of "Let's. well let's, let's go get Bill to decide." That was really hard to break out of over there. Um. and increasingly. increasingly 1 recob@zed that that was an issue and med to spend time um. and energy fixing that." Initially. Bill tried to "fix" this problem by leaning towards his own preference for independence: he informed staff that they would have to make decisions autonomously in a given time frame: "sometirnes 1 refused to make a decision.. .I told them, "Alright. 1 want you to make the decision and I want it in a cenain penod of time and you, you? you and you ah, go off in a room and figure it out."' When this model failed to produce the results he wanted. Bill then moved to a model where he employed "rehearsai" and "conceptual" modes of reflection: .. . we pracked [italics added] that and 1practiced [italics added] getting a iittle more skillfûl in the diplomacy of how to convey that message and maybe how to convey it a litde more effectively and not necessarily quite so boldly and to get them um rnotivated to feel good about making decisions and wanting to do it. We didn't $et al1 of the way there ah. in my time there. But it certainly got better as time went by. Bill's desire to become more empathetic toward people surfaced in a response he made to a question asked about functional preferences. True to his need for autonomy. Bill adrnitted, "1 Love team work.. .but 1don? like having bosses very much''. He was forthcoming in his admission that. "You know ... it's kind of mushy stuff [talking about human resources] but. but. rnaybe I need a little a bit of that". What followed was a discussion where Bill initially said. I'm not that much interested in what makes other people tick.. .I'm more interested in what makes me tick.. .[ wouldn't be thinking about, what kind cf smff rnotivates Jill? What kind of stuff makes Ji11 fired up? What kind of stuff is she aspiring to? ïhat doesn't occur to me al1 that much. As the interview began to wind down, it was clear that our earlier conversation on "what makes people ticko'was obviously very much on Bill's mind. I obsenred that he seemed introspective and thoughtful, perhaps even uncomfonable with his response to the question. 1 can only deduce that as he was thinking about a new pmenhip he was forming, he made a link between this issue and his new challenge. As I was just about to turn the tape recorder off. he suddenly said. Now one thing occurred to me about.. .your last question about what makes me venus other people tick? Um ... in our partnership with XXX, 1 have started to see. ..more clearly! [what rnakes] my opposite number. my budding partner. tick. And I've paid a Iittle bit more attention to that in this case, than I have previously. Now maybe that's just coincidental. Why does he want to be partners with us? Because he believes in partnership. Professional and Persona1 Development Bill's professional and personal development activities demonstrate that for him, leader development is self-deveiopment (Kouzes and Posner, 1987, p. 78). He is a voracious reader who tends to be cynical about management texts and formal education. He is a fim believer in developing networks and perhaps, most significantiy, believes that leaders can dramatically improve and expand their skills by changing jobs. Bill feels he benefits moa by reading "History and.. .political biograph[ies]. Aht I've learned a lot fkom those things.. .pu can leam a lot about negotiation and strategy, you know, berter than reading some jerk who's just coined a new buzz wordt. He is skeptical about the number of management and leadership books that have flooded bookshelves recently saying. ". ..anybody tells me they've got the recipe. 1 don? believe it.'? An accomplished laver. Bill said that he's "probably sick of?formal schooling and referred to the executive training he received at a reputable American University as wibusinesschann school". What Bill does believe in is the nchness of eschange with tnisted colleagues, the rnajority ofwhom are consultants: "1 guess 1 feel that most of the leamkg that 1 need is leaming that 1 will get fiom.. .being around successful business people and successful people gcneraiiy .. .actuaiiy ro be reaiiy candici with you, what i'm inrerested in mon is ah. wisdom." The seeds of the need for these relationships were sown early in a critical incident Bill relayed that convinced him about the importance of having the benefits of others' wisdorn. Many years ago, he had to terminate twelve employees in one day; a colleague recornmended to Bill that he speak with a &end of his who was an expert in this area and Bill decided to take him UF on the offer. Bill realized that his job did not have to be so lonely: "So this individual ...was 100% right and that's where 1 leamed sornething about having a sounding board.. .it's a very lonely thing. And it needn0thave been as lonely as it was". Finally. Bill made an interesting point that jibed with other CEOs' expenence. Menhe feels the need to develop and grow. he changes jobs: "So the growth curve has been in the content and complexity and um. the scale associated with each successive position." Tnese progressive job changes mesh with the comments of other CEOs who said that there are so few oppormnities for CEOs to receive formai education that when they become bored, they rnove on. Sumrnary of Bill's Leadership Reflection plays a central role in Bill's leadership in three ways. Fim, his introspective nature has been affected by powerful, past incidents that have reinforced his need to do "what's right". A second element is Bill's use of soak time (reflection on action) and his use of rehearsal. Bill has a strong self-discipline that allows hirn to think ahead and anticipate problems he may encounter dong the way. He also employs reheanal to prepare for decisions or action required on big issues. He also prefers to "'tallc things through" with others in order to detemine scenarios and fmd innovative solutions. A final area is Bill's quest for wisdom in which he now has trusted colleagues and fiends that act as a sounding board for him. 5.1 Elizabeth's Leadership I used ro think as the leader you had fo make al2 of the iough decisions. You had ro be iough, and puhad to be al1 rhat. And now I tend ro be. see myselfmore as a mentor with everybody here. regardless of the level of ourhority and responsibili~ Elizabeth Evolution Elizabeth's evolution is a study of polarities. A charismatic leader. she acknowledges that she is driven by spontaneous "streetsmarts" and "gut'? while, at the same time, is equally introspective and self-analytical. She detects the fiction between her impulsive and deliberate reflective styles and is making conscious efforts to become more reheaned and dialectical. Her unique experience of being an Olympic athlete also had a positive effect on her leadership style. The roots of Elizabeth's two different styles may have been planted in her early years when she was hstinto leadership roles. ofien against her will. Elizabeth says. "You know it wasn't part of my trying to build this persona. 1 felt an enormous amount of responsibility and it used to really bother me. But I would srill do it. " [italics added]. It would corne natwally but 1 would also be concemed about the consequences of my actions." She relates how people were drawn to her at a Young age, "they'll be drawn towards people who usually are a bit more extroverted and outspoken?'. Perhaps because of these leadership situations' a pattern developed where Elizabeth relied heavily on spontaneous reflection "in actiono' to solve problems andfor make decisions. Although this method was successful and became ingrained, she also developed a tremendous sense of responsibility that compelled her to look inward for answers. As Elizabeth traces her transition fiom "spokesperson" to "leader", the responsibility and pressure of this role is apparent: ...and the transition though, from having people ask me.. .to represent hem to becoming a thinking leader, or head of a group. came later.. . 1 don't know if it was because of the dues1 was tau& when I was a child and growing up, but 1 aarted realizing that 1 couldn't do tfiings without thinking dirough the consequences. Ahi so 1 became.. .very manire before my age because 1.. .was always concerned to do the ri@ thing. Like Bill. Elizabeth has ethical standards which ofien translate into her setting the bar quite hi&: "You want so desperately to help them. to do things well. Because you get an incredible high in doing that and achieving the great challenges intellectually that sometimes you forget you might nor bc able to do al1 those things." In her early years. Elizabeth experienced the "push and pull" of being drmn to leadership and being .. .I've always been very self analytical. Especially when 1 would do things too quickly without thinking hem through- 1 would he shocked at wrne of the responses or consequences.. .that's when I remember, because 1 was self analytical. and 1 cared enough about doing the right thing, that 1 started probably thinking as a leader. Elizabeth is a charisrnatic leader who cares more about organizational. rather than her own. individual. image. She foreshadowed her future role: ''1 used to dream that when 1 was a teenager.. .that 1 would stand in fiont of a lot people and make a speech. There was this recurrinp dream of being in front of a lot people and talking and them listening and 1thought that was very attractive." Elizabeth's drearns were further realized when she had the rich expenence of becoming an Olympic athlete. As she shared some of the Iessons learned, direct connections could be made between how she participated on the team and how she now ieads her organization: the sport 1 was involved with was.. .a team sport, probably in its purest fom... everyone is extremely important and there isn't just one play that makes the point ...that itself shaped me.. ..it had an incredibly good influence on my ability to work in a team environment and.. .an enjoyrnent 1 get from achieving something that othen do.. ..I believe that's the reason why that I'm much more concerned about where the organimion is [han where I am in rhe organizrion [italics added]. ..I get um an ego boost if people talk about my organization versus talking about me. Reflection Elizabeth's critical incidents provide insight into how she is consciously moving to more dialecticd forms of reflection. In addition. she discusses how she used reflection to develop processes and stages to work through problems and issues. Her need to draw conclusions and lessons from significant events was highlighted by the mgger word '%unhg point". Wiîh the combination of the death of her father and a traumatic event involving employee fraud. she described her reaction to the events as if they occumed yesterday: "...so emotionally. I was urn. still very um? there was a lot of raw ... raw spots on my body.. .when it happened. I felt raped. ..I can't explain it any beaer, 1 felt raped." As she evaluates her performance in dealing with the employee. her introspection culminated in her own personai crisis. She began to doubt her ability to lead: 1 did believe that it had damaged my reptation as a leader. They [the board] saw this as a weakness. Urn, and there's no question that 1 did as well. Which was the reason why it was the tuniing point. And that's when.. .I knew that 1 had to irm and reaci more about how you hire people. why you hire them. It. it cenainly was the first thethat 1 took hiring very senously. and realizing that 1 was not very good at it. Elizabeth was determined to never let this type of incident occur again. She took courses, read books and harnessed her analytic powers by building relationships with other colleagues, who had been through similar circumstances. just as Bill did. This incident taught Elizabeth as much about herself as it did how she would manage future boss-subordinate relationships. Vimally al1 of the first round interviews touched on the delicacy with which a CE0 must create boundaries between fnendships with staff "on the job" and "off the job'?. Elizabeth relates. ". ..so what 1 leamed out of that is that while there's acnially nothing wrong in developing good relationships with people who work for you and with you, that as a leader you mua have the ability to separate those." Elizabeth's refl ective leaming was also Merdeveloped by an incident with her board in which she was asked a question and did not have the answer readily available. In looking back on the incident. she identified a number of stages and processes that she went through after the incident. At first? Elizabeth was angry with herself for not knowing; she says: .. .I can't believe 1 didn't know this or can't believe I wasnlt prepared for this. The second stage is a series of mixed emotions: "it's a bit like rnouming.. .you go through al1 of these different emotions. One gdilt? and then anger, and then you know sadness. There's an evolution to that.. .I get very embarrassed.. . Then' I'm ashamed of myself. .. Interestingly, as Elizabeth "reliv[es] the moment", she is also dissectinp it. She works out fint how she will handle the situation, and ne- thinks about what she has leamed fiom it. In examining her method, there are similarities with Schon's reflective cycle of appreciation, action. re-appreciation and appreciation (Grimrnen 1985 p. 10). Elizabeth describes the process, "then I start prapatically andyzing it.. .thatls when 1 am really good at strategizing thinking 'OK...it's not just I1mgoing to do this, itls how I1mgoing to do it.' And there are stages to it. And I become extremely political at it. You know? And so, in a strange way it brings out the best in me." Elizabeth also draws upon others who have been through similar situations; "they can redly explain the nages theylve gone through and while you might not relate to sep one and two, step three and four mighr just nit you between, you know bath eeyes, in the middie of the foreiead: you 90' "WOW,1 can really relate to that". C Leadership Elizabeth has used her tenure in her new organization as a method of renewal. by consciously using it to enhance her skills and transform her role as leader. Of interest is the Iinkage between her growth in confidence and her experimentation with a new leadership style. In the early days. Elizabeth had two challenges: the first. was to move an organization that was "stuck" after having been led by the same individual for thirty- three years; the second was ro change her own style afier being herself in the same organization for fourteen years (Lang, 1995 p.). She was filled with doubt. "Oh. I remember the first two or three years at XXX. 1 would say to myself. "They're going to figure me out one day and redite diat 1am just not the right person. that 1 know nothing". In order to kick start the organizational renewal process, she laid out a systematic plan whose major elements were: development of her team; improvement of the work environment; and enhanced delegation: I learned.. JO.. .build a tearn better, so to put the right people in the right places and.. .to make sure that they are cornfortable with what they are asked to achieve. Two.. .developing a work environment.. .that numires people's learning. Um and three. learning to delegate and.. .to become more of a mentor versus um that old fashioned leader. That has allowed me to then put some time aside for myself. What is remarkable in Elizabeth's comments is that as she developed organizational processes, she also created a process of professional development for herself Further, the more she learns, the geater her confidence grows. This renewed confidence has dso influenced the way she works with moving fiom the "traditional" style to what she termed 'Oteacher dash motivatoi'. Of equd interest, the more proficient she becomes in leading. the more time she has for her onm development. As a demonstration of her growîh. Elizabeth's new abilities allow her to "let people go". One cm only surmise the difficulty Elizabeth had in separating her chansmatic leadership, where people were naturally drawn to her, fiom the need to provide greater autonomy for her staff. This separation would have been a difficult habit to break. With her new focus on nurturing of people. Elizabeth relates that people will ail1 be ilrawn to her, but for difirent reasons: 'T have more cofidence in people. 1, L'm much better at delegating and letting people lead in their ou-way. 1 think I'm also bener at getting the best out of people than 1 was. Simply because Itm more secure about myself, I'm able to let people go with their ideas and I'm enjoying it more, enjoying watching them? grow: make mistakes. lem and 1 think that I'm acting a lot more as a mentor now than as a leader.'' Professional and Personal Development Elizabeth's professional and personal development is fueled by diverse interests including reading, presentation of speeches' and anendance at conferences. Like Bill. she reads many types of books: "In fact. 1do believe that if you are asked to lead or you have the capability to Iead. that the broader your reading, the bener, bat you ofien learn new things fiom outside the box venus inside the box.". To broaden her thinking on her own leadership, she deliberately agreed to prepare a speech on leadership as part of her professional development, Because 1 knew it would force me to look back and remember what it was Iike when 1 took over and what it is today and to live through the good and bad.. .To frst of dl, encourage myself and say "You've corne a long way baby!" And secondly to say, get off your hi& hones, you ain't that perfect. So, it was um a bittersweet expenence. Most significantly, Elizabeth continues to draw upon her imer strength through introspection. She likes to sit back and think: "1 spend an enomous amount of tirne? sitting here and thinking about why did I react that way? Not from a business perspective 1 mean fiom an emotional, personal imer-self way. Um,am I uptight about this? Do 1 have hang-ups about this?" Summay of Elizabeth's Leadership Elizabeth uses reflection in three significant ways to enhance her leadership. She continues to rely on spontaneity or "streetsmarts" to guide many of the decisions that she makes, Our ir is ciear she reaiizes more rehearsal and pre-planning is required. especially for the high profile activities she is involved in. Her use of introspection. or "self- anaiysisœghelps Elizabeth leam new ways to overcome difficult situations and not repeat mistakes. In the early days at her new organization, Elizabeth exhibited doubt in ability to lead and felt that she was an "imposter". Reflection has helped her to overcome this self- doubt through the detection of patterns and identification of "stages" involved to effectively solve problems. Finally. her cornpetitive athletic expenence. combined with professional development activiries. has allowed her to evolve fi-om a more traditionai leader to a coach and mentor. 5.5 Michael's Leadership Isaid to my managers. when puZook back mosr of this stuff wasn'r broin surgery. It was. Q was, you know the srrategy rvasn 't biinding insighl..First take the action ... whaf sers our company apartjiom the other companies is rhar we acrually do if. WeVe're the first to do it, and we actualIy do il. Michael Evoiu tion Three areas stand out in Michael's evolution: the role his father played in shaping his view of leadership. his arnbitious development as a charismatic leader. and the contribution that public speaking made to his success. Michael's father played an integai part developing his appreciation of ethics and people. His father taught him: ".. .to respect people who worked hard, whether they were garbage men, or whether they were company presidents. To ggive respect to people who worked hard. To do a job well. To finish thinps that you start. Those were al1 things that 1 Ieamed at home and were available to me." These lessons enabled Michael to live in mroworlds: he was well liked amongst his peers and respected by management: "...the boss was away. they bis peers] would come to me naturally and ask me on issues.. .or I would be appointed and.. .in order to lead. you know, people sort of had to let you lead." Fueling his corporate rise were his ambition and charismatic leadership. His ambition is clear: "I've always uied to put myself in a position where others would look to me for leadership either formally or informallyy. Not only did he seek the informal leadership referenced above. but he also sought, and obtained. formal opportunities in the NP0 sector: ". ..you know, I've never been on a board, ah? or served on an organization and not ended up running it." (Michael). The need to stand out is dso evidenced by Michael's willingness, especidly in the early years, to go above and beyond the cal1 of duty : you know, 1 dways have nied to stand out fkom the crowd in ternis of my work.. .like coming in the worse possible snow storm where 1 did this, urn' there was a lot of people not there and they were trapped. ..19d come in, I'd invent an excuse um, i'd find out whether my boss worked late or worked early, 1 would work later or earlier 'cause that's, that sort of was the culture of wherever 1 \vas. In one of his critical incidents. the importance of standing out from the crowd had a major impact on Michael's career. He was asked to deliver a short speech at an annual Company conference. The success of the speech not only propelled Michael into prominence, but also intensified his drive to be noticed: People came up to me. you know. and they said, 'You're such a natural' 'A naturai?' I said, 1 spoke for 15 minutes and had 15 months for preparation. 1 was so far from being a natural. I didn't reaiize how.. .everybody was afiaid to speak in public. And. um' and how it got me noticed.. ..and how suddenIyothe president knew my narne. It was a big deal. He knew my name afier that. And. I set out then to try and become the best speaker that 1 could. As a result of the success of the speech. Michael quickly appreciated the importance of rehearsal as part of his reflective "tool kit". He admitted that he was feamil of giving that first speech but realized the importance of "rehearsing what 1 would say and trying to make it interesting and entenaining". Rehearsal is something that has stayed with Michael to this day as he forces hirnself to prepare for meetings where he has to deal with people in difficult situations: "For me. it's difficult to be critical of people um. so. I have to force myself to do it.. .I ~litethings down and make myself say them. 1 just make myself Say them." A second impact in his successful bid to "stand out" was the development of his confidence. As his confidence grew, Michael sought out public speaking situations of higher nsk including everything from presentations to his board of directors to government bodies. Refiection The hallmarks of Michael's reflection rest in his leaming fiom pst experiences including what experience does, and does not, teach and the importance of admitting that you do not know something when others assume you do. Michael reflects "on action" to gain a jgreater understanding of what went wrong in previous events and has learned, through his experience, methods to tum potentially negative circumstances into positive situations. He has relied on dialectical reflection (which emphasizes processes and outcornes), in many incidents where supenor execution is at stake (Lasley. 1992, p.9). He is cautious' however, about using a "cookie cutter" approach to solve different types of problems because he has experienced simations where this method failed. In one incident. Michael discussed the need to take ownership of issues and then resolve the issue by taking it to the next bel: 1 think I leamed that you should never try and dodge the responsibility. And it's arnazing how fiequently you see people try to do it.. .so "What are we going to do?" If. if. if 1 hang it on you, and Say, "OK' hang it on him." Mea culpa You iww, you have a choice at riie board: you cm tire me because this was wrong and it's my fault and 1.11 take the lumps. Let's spend our time, talking about how we're going to fix it, and what my plan is. This process is indicative of Michael's charismatic style and his sense of responsibility. He is willing to take ownership of every major decision in his organization. regardless of who mi@ have actually taken the decision. This pattern of behaviour works for Michael as evidenced by an earlier incident in which he quickly moved a problem to resolution using this "process/outcome" model: And ah. I remember. like it was yesterday.. .a board member started off with this long harangue about this particular employee and why we had hired him.. .. he turned and said. "I'd like to know who's responsible for this?" And 1 said. "1 am ...You're right in many of the things you've just saidtt... What do you say to that?. ..a11 of a sudden .. .the mood in the room changed and everybody said. "Well you couldn't have been expected to..". ..others jumped in ... and I said, "Look?this is it, "It's something 1 believe in. One of the most interesting insights Michael shared was his conclusion that expenence is not always the best teacher. As Senge and Argyris' research indicates, both "skilled incornpetence" and "automatic learning" are two of a CEOs greatest Ieaming disabilities (Senge, 1990. p. 10 1) . Michael substantiates these findings in one of his critical incidents where he says that he leamed. ...sometimes expenence either, there is no experience or it teaches you the wrong thing.. .I was now applying the same criteria under different conditions.. .there's nothing more foolish than, ah' trying the same thing over and over again and expecting different results. To solve his problem, Michael embraced spontaneous reflection and used improvised much like a "jazz musician" to change his plan of anack (Weiss & Louden, 1989. p. 13). He decided that what was required was, a whole new approach.. .an entirely different direction. Um,you know, it's, it's. we're going to do the opposite.. .then we're going to try and fmd a real solution to this issue. Cause this isn't the right issue. This isn't the right way to handle this. We've got to find another way. And. and. 1 think adaptability, flexibility is something that you have to do especially well because things change so much. In addition io using different approaches, Michael dso leamed a valuable lesson about when to acknowledge that he does not know something. He relayed an incident earlier on in his career when he had taken a new position, and .. . then the boss came.. .he knew it would be embarrassing but he said. " She gave you two or three things that she knew were wrong and you didn't pick up on them". And. you know 1 leamed fiom that, you know. it's far better to Say, "1 don't have a clue. 1 mean help me with this". You know, 1 realized that being the boss didn't mean that 1 had to know everything better than everybody else. Leadership In exarnining Michael's leadership, two elements are wonhy of note. The first is his struggle to pull hirnself away from his traditional role as "operator'? and the second is his discussion of execution and the role that risk plays in its success. A trigger phrase that emerged on a number of occasions in the interview was Michael's assertion that his strategies were not so advanced that they were "blinding insights into the obvious*'. But this phrase also captures Michael's need to ensure that there is enough objective distance between himself and the problems that he is facing. An example of Michael's building this distance is evidenced in his evolution from manager to leader. A self descnbed "operator at hearf'. Michael consciously developed a new style of leadership to prevent old behaviours from surfacing. In discussing the functions of a CEO,for example, he talked about his need to "influence" the course of events and that at tirnes, he had to "insert pimselfj and insist" on various courses of action: "I'rn dways happy to provide anybody who dues to ask, you know, with a full soup to nuts reading of what 1think they should do." ïhe seeds of this behaviour were sown early as Michael relates that in early positions, '9 always tried, whatever position I was in.. .to provide input and have an impact and have influence. That was always important to me.. .I was never particularly content with sort of going dong. I always wanted to have, 1 wanted to influence the way things unfolded." His development fiom "operatorœtto CE0 is clear as he discusses how he has evolved from manager to leader: I think when I first became a CEO, [long pause], 1wanted to do the job in the same way that 1 had been, that I'd done as a manager: to get my hands around every single detail and-ensure that every single thing we'd done..I was concemed early on how things were done. 1 wanted not only the results 1 wanted, but 1 wanted to.. .influence the ways in which thingc were done." Now. he says. 'O...my view is that the chief responsibility of a CE0 is to keep your head up. That's the most important thing. When 1 was a general manager, it was keeping my head down. And now it's keeping my head up. Heifetz and Laurie describe the need for CEOs to determine larger patterns and systems to "get out on the balcony" (quoted in Kouzes & Posner. 1987' p. 145). An event that Michael described demonstrated his ability to do so' while precariously balancing risk, vision and execution. He detailed an incident conceming a recent acquisition that was very risky because the approach taken had never been done before. This incident highlights how he got out on "the balcony" as well as how he "launched outo' into unknown temtory . In this particular acquisition?there was no pattern: 'aied and met' methods did not apply. He descnbed the pressure of entering uncharted temtory: "1 gulped hard. More than a few sleepless nights. But 1 felt that. ihat it was an. an acceptable risk..-1 believe that our company's action onented, but we're not nuts. But this is as close as I've ever corne to being nuts.'? He improvised strategies and executionai elements as the incident developed, and to do this he went "through the scenarios, trying to figure out what the impact.. .on govenunent mi@ be, what the impact on.. .future relationships. future deds might be.. . what's the impact on the people?. .. .and the very real risk of failing.'? Failing however? was not an option. The company's superlative record in execution, described by Michael as "the genius in ninning the Company is in its execution?'~ody served to tum the heat up Mer.He says that his chaiman would be with him %in or rie.. .I don3 want to lose.?' [italics added] While the outcome of this incident worked in the organization's favour, when it was al1 over, Michael was shocked by the course of events. Would he have executed this strategy in the same rnanner should the situation anse again? "NO?'he said, "1 would never have done it.. .I had no idea how negative the reaction was going to be.. . I was surpnsed by the degree of reaction. ..al1 of that was overwhelrning.. . honestly, my anxiety level went from, you know. eight point something on the scale to ten and half points on the xa!e of teE ~fterit xfidly happenrd." Professional and Penonnl Developrnent Michael0spersona1 and professional developrnent cornes frorn many sources. He is an avid readrr but. interestingly enough, while some CEOs indicated that they shied away from reding things specific to their business, Michael endeavours to "try to read something that's related to my business". Extremely disciplined, Michael was the only CE0 to mention specific targeis: "So I try and set goals for myself. And one of the goals I set for myself is to read.. .one business oriented book a month and. ..I frequently buy a book that is about strategic Lplanning]. I'm interested in that." Assessrnent of his strengths and weaknesses is important to Michael. In speaking of his self-knowledge. he says. "1 think 1 know myseif very. very well. 1 know my strengths and 1 know my weaknesses. 1 know. 1 know the things that I don? like to do. so 1'11 do them fint. Um,I know what I'm bad ar, so I don't do it, or I get somebody else to do it or get sorne help." Like Bill, he also questions his ability to manage human resources and he confesses that ''1 never read much about [that] .... but whether or not I'm good at that ...I think 1 am. Perception is dl." (Michael). Michael is a fiequent speaker at MBA classes and at numerous conferences where his well honed speaking skills are always in demand. He thorou~ghiyenjoys these engagements and writes his own speeches whenever he cm. Whrre Michael is luckier than most, his brother is also a CE0 and he has the opportunity to discuss issues and trends with someone. in confidence, who will be less likely to make judpments about his vulnerabilities and more likely to suppon him and facilitate pro blems solving. Summary of Miehael's Leadership From the early days listening to his father's description of work to his demanding leadership role in one of the fastest changinp sectors, Michael successfully balances the spontaneous with the dialectal. There is, however, a growing tension between the proven and the unknown. On the one hand, his use of diaiectical reflection has paved the way for development of misted procesres: bis &i!ity to tzke owmxship of pblens ~ic!inove them quickly to the resolution stage have served him well. On the other hand, as the nature of his business continues to rapidly change, spontaneity and the ability to launch out to find solutions will become more vital. It could be that this duality may work in his favour. The more he finds himself in uncharted waters where he must act spontaneously, the more he may find that he moves away from his preferred "operator" style. In geaing out on the balcony. he will have less time to monitor the goings on in the %tchenoo. 5.6 Paul's Leadership There are al1 of these f~moziscliches in sports. I made up my own ... You know show me a good Zoser and 1'21 show you a loser. Paul Evolu tion Three major elements affecting Paul's evolution are strong family values. his need for indepeildence and heeRms iliat rcsponsibiiity has haa on his ieadership. Paul's evolution as a leader \vas grounded by strong family values and humble bepimings: "1 just remember where 1 carne from. 1 always remember who 1 was. 1 came hm, you know. working class farnily. Parents that had great values and the only thing that they could provide us with was a roof over our headoyou know. a warm med and an education." Along with a strong sense of values, like Bill. he has an independent streak defined by him as '*distaste for direction". He believes that his leadership role "was probably bom more out of.. .being told what to do. Hence. 1 think 1 aspired to a leadership role. to be able to control my own destinp and urn, and to be giving the orders rather than taking the orders." Paul is a fierce competitor, with a dislike for losing that matches his aversion to taking orders. His need for independence manifests itself in his need to be a superior performer in both mastering numerous subject areas on the job as well developing his leadership skills. In his youth. he sought out people that were better in athletics. for exarnple, so that he could improve his own game: "1 dways wanted to participate with people that were better than me, because 1 never believed that I could improve rny game.. .my friends were aiways older than me." His early use of technical reflection at the basebail diarnond or hockey rink made him a suniivor, deveIoping his cornpetitive instinct and need to continually raise the bar: "Because I aiways wanted to be challenged. 1 got pushed around. knocked domand al1 the nonsense that goes with it, but after that happens so many times, you Say, "Nobody's kicking sand in my face anymore, I'm gonna find a way to do it." Followhg this early reliance on technicd reflection, Paul, like Michael and Valerie' enhanced his analytical skills using the inquiry mode of retlection. He developed processes of planning, acting, observing and refiecting when he found himself in situations where he needed to quickly leam new information and/or master various situations (Lasley, 1992, p. 16). As he describes one of these situations in a cntical incident, it is evident that he harnessing boùi his competitiveness and independence to develop expertise: ...and 1 sat at my fxst meeting with ah, laiwers on both sides.. -1 was absolutely out to lunch.. .the terminology was foreign to me, the process was foreign to me, hence any negotiating skills that I thought that 1 had were neutered by my lack of knowledge and I was um, i t was really a comeuppance.. ." [I said]. .. "I'm never going to Let this happen again". I'm going to study up; I'm going to get as much information as 1 cm because if I go to another one of these meetings. 1 want to be a force. So, over a very short period of tirne. 1 just cornmitted myself to know more about it. and believed that I had become. more, a larger contributor in that area. Paul's mantra is to "know just enough to be dangerous.. .the key .. . is to become dangerous enough in each [area]. to know how to ask the right question ro elicit answers. Just to be dangerous enough to not be embarrassed." Part of Paul's need to be knowledgeable in numerous areas is the tremendous responsibility he feels as a leader: "Well leadership, leadership is always a burden. There's a tremendous sense arnong of responsibility that goçs for those who don't take it seriously and those who are cavalier ofien urn, uh, often miss the feelings of people and what's attendant to that." The term "burden of responsibility" becarne a trigger phrase in the interview as Paul discussed its implications in three separate incidents: "1 will bear every bit of responsibility for its [the company's] difficuliies and its failures and do the best I cmto hive off its successes to other people.'' Perhaps it is because he was given large amounts of responsibility at an early age that Paul continues to feel the weight of the office and what is at stake if he fâils to support his people. ". .. .very early part of my professional career. 1, for some unknown reason, 1 was given a huge amount of responsibility in a job that I had. 1 mean, 1 was pinching myself, saying, 'What, are they crazy giving me this responsibility?' 1 mean what's going to happen if 1 screw up?'' His willingness to bear responsibility is unrnistakable: .. .anybody tells you in the business to not take things personally.. .I don't want to be associated with that person. 1 take eveqding personal. I think you have to, 1 think you have to live your business if you are mily to be successful.. . if you don? agonite and aggravate about the problems and revel in the successes, why do it? Reflec tion Paul's use of reflection is demonstrated in his need to continually test himself. Whether it's using his instincts to chart new temtory, drawing upon action research models to expand his knowledge base or employing introspection to analyze what motivates him, he is a highly reflective individual. Paul3 ability to master new areas very quickly is an advantage and a necessity in the work of a CEO. He asserts that nothing is ever routine .'. .. [the] great parts about being a.. .president.. .is the fact that your task and challenge is never routine. Youlre never doing the same thing two days in a row ...the coune is so uncharted. So you have a tendency to be able to participate in a broad, broad range ofactivities. You also have the opponunity to say no and not participate in certain things." Paul's ability to leam in irregular situations is best described by Grimrnett who stated that leaders "cannot know without acting and cannot act without knowing" (Grimrnett, 1985, p. 9). While he has the opportunity to participate in a varie. of things. Paul knows that there are risks involved working in new areas. Possibly because of the many risks he has taken, his biggest fear is failure. nther than of the unknown. He deliberately inserts himself. much like Anne, into new leaming expenences. Explonng the ~»famiZiiis familiar to him and as a person motivated by fear and driven by risk. he almost dares himself to take yet another garnble: there's twice that 1 cmidentiS, I took that risk and I had a great fear of failure. Temfic, temfic, fear of failwe. And 1 think ofien times in my career. I've been motivated by the fear to fail. And it's helped me to be successful in certain circumstances but II failure. or losing, was so distasteful to me that it &ove me to do tvhatever 1had to do. Paul's previous expenence acts as a grounding mechanism allowing him to continually re-frame his experiences and apply them to new situations (Grimmett, 1985, p. 3 1). He uses a garnbling analogy about his nsk taking. "Like going to .. .a blackjack game or a garnbling casino and you know, you make five hands in a row, puSay, 'Shit, this is easy"'. While it sometimes is easy, Paul is well aware of the downsides of cornplacency. He has seen the best and the worst and the times in-between: You get situations that you think are easy, you get 1- with them and you do stupid things. 1 ask, "Why did 1 do that?". ..someone said, "You never as good as you think you are when diings are going well, or as bad as you think you are when things are going poorly." So um, my dad always tells me, you know, "When things are going really good, be careful." Testing himself is a big part of Paul's reflective nature. He echoes Bill's sentiments about the need to use successive job opportunities to gow: I've had the 1uxu-y of being able to grow into them Cjobs]. Ah, which a lot of people dont get. Um. so 1 think that 1 have become, more sophisticated as my challenges have become larger. Um?I've become a linle bit more well rounded in terrns of view of the world and my view of business, probably have become a Iittle less judgmental than when 1 was younger. Um, have a bit more patience that 1 did. It is just as important for Paul to know what he can 't do as what he con do. Knowing and continually testing his limits are a big part of this self-analysis. "1 always have to find out where my. what my Iimit is. And I've always gorta continue to stretch myself out to find out if 1 can do more, or if I can be bener. It's jus1 testing yourseif.. . 1 mean if you give a 100%, that's temfic. but the question becomes can you give a 100% in a more difficult situation or situation that's more cornplex?? Tnat question was to be answered when Paul assurned his curent position, in a deeply troubled organization. He discussed the role that refiection played in helping to clarie the reasons he took the position. Not surprisingly, he took tuming this company around as apersonal task of his. In talking it through with a tnisted colleague, he had an epiphany: "And what cleared my mind, was to recognize the fact this company had thousands and thousands of employees and it wasn't about me, it was about them. And went in with a clear conscience and I said, 'My job and my task is to do my damndest, not for myself, but for the.. .l4?OOO employees'. They were dependent upon somebody Leadership Working effectively with and motivathg people are touchstones of Paul's leadership. Tied to this is his expenence in decisionmaking processes and knowing when to insert hirnself into the decision making process. Paul is pragmatic about how things are accomplished within large organizations and knows the value of the people with whom he has surrounded himself: "But 1 always wanted to be regarded as the best executor.. .but al1 that said, none of us survives without the people out there executing and living it ever single day." Paul's expectations of his executive team are great and this is Merheightened by his cornpetitive nature. "I think you have a tendency to intimidate people who are intimidatable.. . I always much prefer somebody who's tougher. I always prefer somebody who's smarter." He separates the need for hirn to be "dangerous" in certain subjects with the need for his people to get the job done: "...if you bciieve that you knew eveything that they knew. then you shouldn't have them, you don? need them.. . I think your relationships [are] different rvith everyone.. .And that makes me better 1 think at the end of the day.. .hopefully, it makes them better." Like many of the CEOs interviewed. Paul is immensely concerned about the efforts of his people and where these efforts are directed. Men asked how he reacted to decisions being made incorrectly. he said. "I'm never concemed about mors of commission. I'm always concemed about errors of omission. Um. if somebody makes a mistake. ..as part of working really hard, and taking a chance.. -1 laud them. I pat them on the back. 1'11 pick them up and cary them on my shoulders. If somebody m&es a mistake because they're too lazy to follow up or they didn't work at their job, I have no mercy for that." In making decisions within the organization, Paul says, The difficult thing is when you're in a situation.. .when somebody says. "What do you think, or what do you want me to do?" is pushing it back down and allowing that person to take responsibility for the win or the loss. And how you numire that penon and how you numire that relationship becomes a large detïning part of the success of the Company. Dependence and CO-dependencein decision-making surfaced as a strong theme in Paul's interview as he adrnitted, "People are always looking for you to break the tie.. ..very, very few people want to make decisions." In discussing how decisions are made with little information, Paul continues ". .. sometimes, you don't have the benefit of al1 the facts and the information that you need, but you are forced to make a call. Um it's uncornfortable, sometirnes it blows up on you. urn, but there's an expectation that people have around you." His strategy in decision making is as redistic as his view of how things are executed: "Yeah, but you never get it ri&, by the way, you're always, you're always working at it, you're always trying to make it better or ways to insulate, insulate bad decisions and ma-imize good decisions." Professional and Penonrl Development Paul3 persona1 and professional development activities are action onented. Not a leader who is content to sit in one place for long, he is continudly improving his skills by observing situations and people, reaching out to his network, and using "?rial and enor''. At a young age, he realized he was ". . .never going to be effectively groundcd or improved unless 1 started to do things or involve rnyself in things that a) 1 didn't know a heck of a lot about or b) things that I wasn't very good at." Paul was the only leader to reference his preferred learning styles: audio and kinesthetic: "I'm better listening or an audio learner than 1 am ah, a visual Iearner so [ talk to a lot of lawyers, a lot of developen, a lot of agents and things like that, a lot of retailers, just try to get a sense of the process um, to try to gain some sense of the momentun.. .'O Although Paul sûesses that he is an audio learner, he clearly places hi& value on the visual cornponent. In describing his methods to get as close to a situation as possible, he says: 'Tve always subscribed to the theory.. .believe 50% of what you hear and 100% of what you see. So I've always been one who's out there, 1 like to be involved, particularly in business units, 1 like to be involved with people, seeing and touching." In addition to using his eyes and ears, Paul leams through people. The role of mentors and networks continues to play an important part in Paul's development. I've always been blessed with the fact that 1 have a wide network of fnends and people who 1can cal1 who wiiill return my call.. . but I've always been able to rely on a group of people who 1 would call my advisors if you will. People that will help me learn situations as importantly, more importantly. some people that will give you the straight goods. As illustrated, a large part of Paul's development rests in what Kouzes and Posner called learning by '?riai and error'' and "instinct" (Kouzes& Posner, 1987, p. 121). ". ..So 1 think that my own learning cweis more benefited by people that I've corne into contact widi, situations that I've touched.. .I would suggest that it's a far more instinctive approach than a lemed approach." He compares his instinctual preference with more formalized training: "I've been to a lot of seminars, you know, subject onented seminars. m. but as you can see. 1 don't do very well sitting in one place for !onp. Consuid!! fidgeting and constant moving so I've always trïed to learn, 1guess. OJT, on-the-job training, has always been the best for me. To go out to see and to touch and learn.. ." Like al1 CEOs. Paul's expectations of himself are high. He is continually analyzing his performance and leveraging his cumulative learning: 1 mean as a leader, 1 made a lot of mistakes. 1 mean I've done a lot of dumb things. And if puhave the benefit of longevity, you overcome sorne of those dumb things and you get better.. .I can think of so many defining things. that get you there. And I mean, 1 think the thinp to me is always looking at the hct that 1 cm always be better. ALways looking to people that 1 view as great leaders and always trying to adopt sornething that they do to make me better. 1 think it's a work in progress. Summary of Paul's Leadership Whether ifs his need to be masterful and "dangerous" in certain areas or nsk- taking or to overcome his fear of failure, Paul exemplifies an action oriented CE0 who relies on previous knowledge to make informed decisions. Paul's leadership can be characterized by inquiry based and spontaneous reflection. His use of instinct to determine courses of action in new circumstances has been developed by his cumulative experience in leading many organizations. His need to master new situations suggests a need for control and could stem from his tremendous sense of responsibility. Paul's introspective nature allows him to understand how he lems ben. through networks as well as trial and enor. Overall? his use of introspection acts as anchor in his continuous professional development. 5.7 Sonia's Leadership As a Company, we react very qziickly so you need to use yow heurt, pur gut and your head in the decision making process and all direrent points [O rnake decisions. Sonia Evolution In discussing her evolution, "swival" is a trigger word that leapt out of Sonia's interviews. Several critical incidents she related painted a picture of sorneone who has experienced physical. mental and emotional anguish at an early age. Out of this adversity, a charismatic leader emerged. whose personality is cornmanded by drive. detennination and a positive attitude. Her reflective preferences were borne out of these early expenences where she exhibits a unique combination of both introspection and spontaneity. Thinking back to when she was ten, Sonia says, '-the toughest experiences of my life ha[ve] often been the greatest experience". She described the first such incident when her father suffi'ered a hem anack and from that point on. the future of the family f' rested squareiy on the shoulders of the five children in the family. Interestingly, as the middle child, Sonia emerged as the leader in the family. She says. "1 became a CE0 a number of times in a nurnber of ways. 1 think 1 became a CE0 um. the fint time 1 pulled a calf from one of the cows on my father's farm." Setting the stage for her leadership was both the responsibility she assumed on the farm and the contidence that came with it. These early years are important for a few reasons. First. Sonia developed a "survival instinct" at a very early age; throughout her critical incidents she descnbes how her instincts propelled her career progression. nie bits of these developed survival skills were maturity at a young age and an e-xtremeiy positive self-image. Second. developed hand-in-hand with her swival instincts were skills in spontaneity and abilities to reflect both "in action" and "on action-'. The combination of these talents provided Sonia with a powerful fiame of reference firom ivhich to take the many nsks she did in her career. Sonia believes she is a "natural bomg' leader and severai incidents point to the development of her charismatic persona: Y remember. my rnother remembers when 1 was seven yean old, 1 told her I wanted to be a president. And ah, so, 1think, 1 think some people are leaders nanirally, some people acquire those ~kills.'~Like Elizabeth and Michael, people were drawn to Sonia and she describes. ". ..always, in every position that I ever had, even if it wasn't a CE0 position, ah, 1\vas always considered a leader by my peen." Reflection Tenacity, resilience and the development of a positive mental attitude are some of the most important by-products of Sonia's reflection. Like Valerie. she became even more pusirive in the face of adversity. The most poignant of these events is a lengthy hospital stay where Sonia had time to develop her introspective abilities: 1 was in the hospital every year for a month.. .until 1 was about thirty. Profound impact on me. I am the most positive person in the world ... nothing gets me dom...if 1 have a bad day. 1 think back about what it was like when 1 thought t was going to die and I have such an appreciation for life. I look at eveming in the positive ...eveming.. .I can be inundated with seventeen real bad things. but I will look and 1 will find the positive piece. It's been a great motivator for me intemally, but as a leader. people, people gravitate to me. Her challenges did not end with her lengthy hospital stay. One of her earliest jobs was working at a coal mine in her home tom aFter she graduated from university: "1 was the oniy woman in management there for most of my career there for nine years ... Tough is not the word. And so, I could. 1 could name fifiy incidents there that really made a difference in a very negative environment in that industry. Most of the period that 1 was there, there was discrimination and.. .I worked very hard to keep a really positive spirit and a very good balance.. ." Perhaps because she has faced such si-pificant challenges, Sonia has developed a high tolerance for risk taking. She talked about some of her bippest nsks including switching majors in univenity without telling anyone. rnoving to Toronto fiom a small town in Atlantic Canada and launching a national retail chah before she took on her present position. A pattern emerges in these incidents that speaks to her need to continue gowing and learning. In describing her switch in university, a pattern cm be detected that is evident in other examples: "1 was in university. Second year. Bored out of my eyeballs. That was a big risk. Urn, 1just. I needed to fmd something that was more interesting and business, business degree really ah, turned me around in terms of thinking about what my ah, oppominities were." It is interesting that as a professed extrovert, Sonia appears to rnake most of her decisions using introspection, deciding what level of risk she is willing to take, what the trade-offs are and where the opportunity is. Sonia's tenacity and resilience have demonstrated that there is always a way to accomplish what she sets out to do. Her drive was acknowledged by a former boss who commented during one of her performance reviews: "Ne never reen anyom c!imb s mountain like you,' he said. 'If you can't find a path to the top, you'll find another way."' While some CEOs indicated that their greatest fear is to fail, Sonia fears her cornpetitors. The arena she now finds herself in is filled with new market entrants and she rnakes sure that she .. .always rais[es] the bar. I donit stop that. I'm scared. I am so scared of my competiton, you know people, people aiert you to that to about being too confident. You know. 1 am scared to death?. .. And 1 respect them and 1 take what they do best in the field and 1 apply to it my own. to the, to encourage people to apply it to the divisions. The thing that scares me the most is our ~>wn arrogance.. . Leadership Not only have Sonia's life expenences enriched and contributed to her leadership but so have the diverse career expenences she has had. I've had such diversity in my expenence. I've been in all kinds of industries, probably more than most CEOs.. .because of that. 1 can draw upon the experiences, a lot of experience that I've had and so, I'm quite cornfortable in dl aspects of business, of human resources, finances, treasury functions you know the operations, the merchandising, the marketing.. .I think people need to be generalists.. .in leadership positions, recognize thatostheir focus and that they have to buy the expertise in their technical skills um, it isn't for everyone. Motivating people, building teams, and coachhg are three areas where Sonia excels. When asked to descnbe what she felt the mon important functions of a CE0 are, she said, "Most important functions of a CE0 are to create an environment where people can grow?develop, and be everything they cmbe. And it's important to me to create: you have to create an environment and a culture of faimess and integrity and responsibility and motivation. And you have to instill in your people and the people that you surround yourself with the values." As a leader, Sonia's competitiveness and drive could be threatening to those she works with. Knowing her strengths and weaknesses, however, ensures that she harnesses her introversion and extraversion where appropriate: 1 really work hard at not making people feel threatened. 1 am the most cornpetitive penon in the world. .. but 1 don't do it by criticizing or making negaHve commenrs.. . I'm a very loud extrovert, extroverted person.. .l work really hard at that. At listening to what people Say. And that's not hearing them because you can hear a lot. But listening because.. .a lot of rny people that 1 surround myself with don't agree with me. There is a strong comection in Soniaosrnind between the need to develop new ideas and take the risks that go dong with them. She knows that there are real risks in imposing her ideas on others. When asked what happens when things go wrong in this process. Sonia says: Tma very dgnamic person and I can impose my ideas ... on anybody. And that is the most danperous asset 1 have. If used in the wrong way .... 1 make rnistakes here al1 of the time. Absolutely. And then 1 apologize for the mistakes later. And 1 move on. But you know if 1 didn't. 1 wouidn't take risks." Sonia had an epiphany pnor to heading her new firm when she realized that she could not lead alone and that in addition to encouraging teams and individuais to perform, she had to build alignment. "In old days. I used to think, "Ah. a great idea. 1 cm get there alone; I can be a star..." but 1 gona develop star tearns. And so. the evolution has been that the small results that 1 achieve.. . myself, you can't, you can't make them big unless you have a whole group working in the nght direction.' She goes on to Say, "I've reaiized that you can't rely on being the only one who hits the home run?' . Decisiveness was another trigger word that emerged in Sonia's interview. While her nsk taking nature has laid the foundation for her need to make quick, effective decisions? her experience guides her to the inquiry mode of reflection. ernploying broader consultation^ when a decision is more complicated. I can make a sut decision. ..on certain issues.. .if it's a more complex issue, I would ah, look for the resources inside and outside the Companyomuch more extensively. If it is ah, a more sirnpler issue that I have a lot experience with. I would, 1 would have a tendency. my. my colleagues would trust me that I could make that decision um, 1 am not um, someone that doesn't make decisions.. . you know we are very decisive here. Very decisive. In discussing the toughest decisions, like five of her counterparts, Sonia believes they involve people, "Toughest decisions is where you deploy your people and how you remove them." She has no tolerance for poor performen: ". ..you gotta be gutsy and you gotta take risks there too. I'm a believer that non-performen are really the bad apples in the bartel and they can encourage rotting ail through the barre1 so.. .I am tough that way. I'm tough as nails that way." Having said this, though, she also is a supportive coach and talks about how she supported her key people to improve performance: "And I've seen people tum around. I've been in situations where I've had to give performance reviews and you know. where ultimately.. .people cry and bawl and [ifs] the best thing that I've ever done for them. I care enough. 1 care enough that 1 do this. And people do corne around. some don't, and they dont belong, but there are many who do.?' Sonia seeks to have her people emulate her level of risk-taking to build their confidence: "I encourage my people to make rnistakes because.. .if they don't.. .they [will] never take risks. And they'll never have that home run. Um. then, if out of ten times you take risks, and five are successful, if three are successful, it's a home nin and the whole Company benetits from it. It's an enormous opportunity, so building confidence in people is the key here." Professionai and Personal Development A strong sense of self and use of techniq at ensure she has her finger on the pulse of the consumer are essential components of Sonia's professional and personal development. She says, "Yeah. 1 think it's [development] very important. self development, self improvement you know is 1 gotta keep getting better and life keeps changing and I recognize that 1 have to keep improving." Possibly because of the nature of her experiences, Sonia's personal development has had far reaching effects on her professbnal development: "1 know me. 1 was in a hospital bed for a long tirne. 1 know every piece of me. I understand me." Like Elizabeth, Sonia is a fiequently requested speaker and she says that she still speaks about the farnily's stmggle to keep the fm and her illness as inspiration to her audiences: "Big, big impact on my life and on rny career. Both those events and dl of the speaking engagements, and eveqdme 1 taik to people. 1 talk about those two events." 1 wondered if her referral to those events was meant to be as inspirational for the audience as it is cathartic for Sonia. Sonia also capitalizes on her e.xtroverted personality and uses the inquiry model of reflection to sense what's going on in her operation: ". ..being an extrovert really helps me gather data verbally, you know, emotionally ah, in reading material, in videos, 1just, 1 love information. I'm an absorber of information. And that's how, and it's the syndiesis of that, that helps me run the businesso'. Sonia uses information to inform future directions she will take and to keep up with the &tic Pace of the changing consumer: "And 1 think that 1 change enormously and 1 really believe in this whole self-development thing because the world is changing. The world is changing.. . and 1 can't keep up unless, I need stimuli, external stimuli." In an interesting twist, Sonia was the only CE0 that indicated that part of her professional development is to ensure that she remains comected with her customers: "So 1 want to read what they read. 1 want to ride the subway. I want to deal with them. I've never lost that. I never will. No matter how successful 1 am.. .. People that live in ivory towers don? get it. They can't feel it anymore. They dont sense it. They become immune to it. And so, 1 work really hard at that." While she has a network of individuais outside of the Company and at the international headquarters of her organization to bounce ideas around, Sonia, like al1 of the other CEOs concedes that her role is, '' very lonely. It is so lonely sometimes ah, cause you cmnever get close. The elements between personal relationships and business relationships, you have to separate them. you reaily do." Summary of Sonia's Leadership Sonia is a survivor who operates spontaneously unless her experience and intuition tell her othenvise. Her use of inquiry and some dialectical models of reflection are indicative of her need to improve her performance and that of her team. While deeply contemplative, Sonia is also a charismatic leader who is accustomed to makin,a decisions very quickly and has a high tolerance for risk taking. She lives in a world of both extraversion and introversion and is highly amuied to using both of these qualities to coach and reward employees to get that nen ihorne rd"' 5.8 Tom's Leadership Yoir're not going to corne in here in the morning and rhink rhar it jusr doesn't marrer. Ir doesn't work You're still who you are. Andyour decisions yozi've made are rhere. and by wharyou have in mind, where you're comingfiom and where you want tu go. Tom Evolution A need for independence, the effects of world travel and lessons leamed in management in the early days of his organizational career are three important components of Tom's evolution: "1 never enjoyed sining there waiting for someone to tell me what to do." While he is not unique in his need for autonomy. Tom is different than al1 of the CEOs interviewed in that he deciined to share any specific cntical incidents. For someone who did not share specific incidents. however. Tom certainly did provide penetrating insight into how CEOs use reflection and the impact of cumulative expenence on leadership. What Tom did discuss were issues that he said "formedo' him. 1 interpreted this to mean that these issues wre fairly significant moments in his life. Two of these were his . travels in the Middle East as a Young man and his tenure at the company: I can't tell you one incident. 1 can only tell you that if you traveled two years in the Middle East that forms you. If you spent um, ten years in various departments in an organization like this, that forms you. You know, I think it's a conrinztotcs process [italics added]. And your own experiences, not one single incident forms you, you know? His decision to travel with his company paved the way for the flexibility and adaptability that supported him in his career progression: ". ..I guess that's what people in big organizations are looking for. You find with globalization, and ah people who are able to culturally adjust and understand ...that certainiy had some influence.. . it is such a drastic different world, you have to adjust.. .Either you're gonna adjust, you like itor you're not gonna adjust and leave." In addition to his travel. Tom's leadership skills were enhanced by increasing responsibilities in project management which *'. .. was timely.. .if you're project manager, you have to have the leadership skills in there too because you might not be disciplinary in charge of some of these people but certainly Born a professional point and ah, that already makes it some sort of a leadership role." As Tom talked about his first days in the organization, it was evident that he employed by both survival and conceptual forms of reflection. On the survival side, he continued to assert his independence, while comforming to organizational noms. This conflict required him to devise ways to both fit in, and at the same time, be noticed. He ws profol?r.dly ~ffected5y the wl-y Sr bmses mmaged, refemng !o hmas "yec men'': They [the bosses] have no opinion of their own. They \vil1 do whatever they are told to do.. .And they're the ones who survive. Now the othen were strong minded, differcnt ideas. And some were pulled by the way side. .. .So, these were my bosses.. .And they re not going to bring somebody in to argue about it. I've seen it. niey destroy thern. Half an hour for one, empty the desk. So these were the guys that 1 came up with. These negative role models had just as strong an impact on Tom's leadership as any positive experiences did. He consciously adapted alternate behaviours. ernploying conceptual refiection that "performed the reality check between theory and reality" (Lasley, 1992, p. 10). And then that's why, you know. 1 always rejected very strongly this "yes minded thinking" because if it doesn't work: I'm not going to tell you it's going to work. Even if you want to hear it. It still doesn't work. I'm sorry.. .I think that has changed, that's how I started up in a new generation of people, who are, might even have a tendency to discuss too much you know? Evaluate every option. Every theory. Maintaining his independent streak, dong with a good sense of humour. was Tom's method of dealing with this.: "1 said, yes, and then I did what 1 wanted to do...(laughing) .. . When you do it differently, it works !" As a legacy to his evolution, Tom ensured that people in his organization were treated as he would like to be treated. In his design of teams within the organization. he said, 'Tm not saying this because Harvard was going in that direction. It's something 1 wouid have done. 1 enjoyed the job I've done the moa with the more fieedorn 1had and the more decisions 1 had.'? Another example he shared was his willingness to butt out of decisions being made on everyday bais: "Because you're a role model. if you dig around with linle things, I mean everybody's going to go 'ouch"'. Reflection Hamessing experience is a central feature of Tom' reflection. As he employs reflection "on action", he deliberately uses past incidents to see his way into the fiiture, conducting "reflective auditso' to evaluate the quality of action and execution. He uses reflection "in action" to discuss issues with employees, evaluating and validating the directions they are taking. He is conscious of the effects that prier knowledge have on impending and tiiture decisions. His use of dialectal and impact strategies are evident in his references to process and outcornes. Tom believes that prior knowledge is the foundation of successful decision making. His insights into cumulative knowledge suggest an inquiry mode of reflection focussed upon acting and observing effects (Lasley, 1992, p. 9). Tom made a unique distinction between the moment a decision is made and al1 of the information and thought processes that lead up to it: ". ..it [collection of information] goes step by step. It's not coming at you at once like a big wave you know. It's something that you, you basically leam and solve over a certain period of time and you process it and.. .create a certain opinion in your mindset.. .You evolve through that whole process. To illustrate the power of cumulative knowledge, Tom used an analogy: "If pudecide tornorrow to build a new store. where will it be? I cmdnve down the road. Iook at the lefi side, look on the right side. compare and contrast. is this a becter location? But at the end of the day, you stand there.. .'' Tom recognizes the "experience element" as an integral component of decision- making momenturn for the Company: ....1 mean there are always aspects and you cm evaluate it and 1 think that is an absolute mut but leads you also into the decision. Maybe not knowingly , but zmnknowingly, this is Ni the back of yozr head, [italics added] you know. and then you make your final decision. But the final decision at the end of the day determining dl your experience, pnor howledge... There is always risk involved. Aiways. Regardless of what you do, if you do nothing, you have no risk. Like Michael and Sonia, Tom is an optimist when it cornes to see the upside of bad decisions, ". ..even if you've made really bad mistakes ... because you know it doesn't work and it also, it also helps to develop and go in future directions.'' His experience has also shortened the distance between A & B in the decision making process. Like Michael, Tom believes that if your experience is telling you something negative about an employee, you have no choice but to act: I !euned one lescon. Maylie five or six years ago. I ~vouldhave giver? somebody 500 chances. To try somethhg else. Today, derthe second tirne, and then maybe one more, that's it. Don? even try anymore. 1 said it so many times to my guys, when we had discussions about personnel. about another guy. 1s this the second time? If want to $ive it another UV, you do so. But 1 guarantee you, it's not goma change. In another discussion, Tom talks about a situation he's probably found himself in hundreds of times and therefore the results are quite predictable: If you have a problem, you don? stop that problem on the fint day. the first contact. it's gonna be twice the size the second time and it's gonna be blown out of proportion by the third, forth time.. .you can put financial nurnbers on that. First tirne you cmsolve it. it's f 500 bucks, next time. it's S 1000, and the third time, we might have do sornething very special.. .. That's OLU history. Ar leusr that's my experience. [italics added] . Leadership While Tom's refiective roots reside within his expenence. his leadership is based on action, decisiveness and speed within the context of teamwork. Being action oriented can conflict with the more theoretical components of the job that Tom now finds himself immened in because of a recent merger. He continues to work on fmding ways to hamess his experience to balance the theoretical and the practical. As someone who has climbed through the ranks of the Company, his cornfort level resided in the tangible world of delivering results; his relationships have been long standing and close. Now he asserts, "1 think the pressure changes you.. . You suddenly have people that you've worked with before ah, suddenly reponing to you. That changes a lot of things. So it's not just you changing, it's al1 that your surroundings are changing." Tom exercises reflection "on actionoœin discussing issues wivith employees and fmds that it is particularly important now that his relationships have changed with fellow employees because of his promotion to CEO:". ..you have to analyze more what people tell you. Because they're putting a lot more thought into their comments...'? In light of the merger, he talks about the different ways to achieve results: "On the one side, a very profit driven orientation, coming out of past bad experiences, nearly being destroyed, putting it al1 together again and profit, profit, profit and the other side, a company which is completely, totally customer orientated. You know. profit is really an afterhught. Itls always there. It dwqs hrippens. fust r&e car- of the customer." Tom is being pulled in many different directions. He feels the need to maintainhg control while realizes that, to a degree, he has to give ir away. Tom's need for balance between the theoretical and practical is Mer demonstrated in his description of a "live" project producing tangible results versus more long term functions such as strategic exercises: ...y ou can plan something from scratch, you work on it for twelve months and it cornes together and it fmaily becomes an operation which is functioning and you know. customer satisfaction is kicking in and sales are kicking in and al1 of this you know and that is fun. That is fun! Certainly itls not so much fun as theoretical meetings two days about the year 1005: what are we going to do in year ZOOS? Who knows? Why am 1 going to spend my time... we should do this, I know that ... As we were discussing this balance, Tom remembered a Iine used by a professor in a recent trip to Harvard Business School that illustrates the tension he faces in his role as leader, information disseminator and motivator: "1 think the challenge lies in balancing [it] nght to be a, the leader, to guide the organization. There was actually a great saying from the professor at Harvard, 1 hope I cmremember it. 'When we Rart our career, we know everything about one thing. That's when you start. Once you're up there, you know nothing about everything?." in order to build trust and take his leadership to the next level, Tom went about ~owingteams which was one of his major contributions to the company. In instiniting C teams, Tom wdked his "action onented" talk as he described a team building exercise and its purpose: "You need initiative. You need people who are going to change things? for the better you know, who have a continuous push for improvement. If thatls not there. then it's a problem. So.. .over the 1st three years, we did aU Ends of struggling and ah. to the Roclcy Mountains, dropped off at 9,000 feet and teams going up ..." Tom is very conscious of maximizing team decision making potential: "It's very easy to make a decision fiorn the top down and [one] individual leads everything. He takes the risk, he rnakes the decision, and we just wait and he tells us what to do. I've taken that away and there are teams." In speaking about the need for effective decision making across the company, Tom realizes, like Soniû, that "...one guy can not run this company. Y ou know? .. . reality is .. . rniddle management really needs to run their own operation. So, now, how you go make these speed iip. how you go tap into this potential if it's sitting there quietly wasting away?" He has found the use of teams immensely helpful in faciiitating the fast paced decision making required in a very competitive industry: "But in today's world you've got to be quick, speed is of the essence.. .I'd rather have a wong decision than no decision." Echoing earlier comments made by Paul and Sonia on the need for decisiveness, Tom If one of my guys rnakes a decision, well we cm taik about whether he did the right thing. He might have not done the right thing but I will absolutely, for sure, also keep in mind that he made a decision, he was wing to solve an issue. He might have known, he might have done it wong which was some input wasn't right or he was thinking of sorne different circumstances ...that's fine. But he at least tried. But that's more important for me than the other guy who didn't do anything, but was just sitting there and waiting. As alIuded to earlier, Tom is a master of action, "Action. action hris to be done, there's not a question. But you have to be nght." The challenge he now faces is accumulating the correct information so that he and his teams can make the "right" decision: ". ..what 1 really find in the organization is that we have tons of information but it's not readily available, it's hidden away somewhere... it's not in the right corner. You know? So you start, when you rnake a decision. you have to dig al1 over the place to get that information.'? In addition to finding the information, Tom feels the pressures of time and need for action, and finds himself .. . less patient.. .You want to get things done. Um, to a degree you might lose sometimes a realistic sense of what times things take so your expecting things so much higher and nothing's being done and why is not done? It should be done. You know, it cannot be done. Lt's gonna take four weeks. Sorry .. ..no( very often but 1.1 have to recognize that I'm going too Fu. But sometimes, you know, the problem is, you get also results. And then in many cases, you do this, and it suddenly happens (snaps fmgen). So how can he do that? ...Thar might tempt you to use it more than maybe you should. Professional and Persona1 Development Tom's personal and professional development rests largely in his reflection upon his experience, formai educational opportunities and some networking. He assens that decision making 'Ws [not] something you cm leam at university, or get educated in. You just learn it through ...it's the experience element". Unlike oùier CEOs, Tom is not a voracious reader. deriving much of his learning from a few trusted advison and the executive programs he has taken at Harvard Business School. Interestingly. while Vaierie has cultivated a mentor at the international level of her Company, Tom's response to this was: "There are eighteen guys who run this outfit. Do you think he's going to be interested in your linle problem you're having?" Tom does have some contacts that he cm speak to about various issues but is leery of who to trust: "1 do have two or three guys in the organization where we bounce things off. not necessarily discussing. but more less like. 'What do you think would happen if.. ."O When asked about talking to other CEOs. Tom's response was quick. suggesting the isolation he feels: "No ... forget it, foget it." While he may not enjoy hearing about theory for nvo or three days, Tom kvas captivated by the Harvard case studies: "Ah. it's just the case midies. Puning yourself in the position and what would you have done? And then the great thing is they can tell you that this is what happened and is it wrong? And then they have a report on what the CE0 did and reported what really came out of it. And wow, there it is." Tom also enjoyed the Hamard experience because it "either confirms what you are doing or it pushes you maybe in a different direction or just to go one step further than yuthought." Sumrnary of Tom's Leadership Negative role models have probably had more of an effect on Tom's leadership than positive ones. Because he saw what he did nor want to become, he has tried, where possible, to give his tearn membee the freedom and autonomy that he iacked in his eariy years. Tom appears to use reflection "on action" more than "in action". He not only collects and distills information, but he is aiso continuously drawing upon past ctxperience ro inform him OF future àirecrions. Because ne is continuaiiy anaiyzing the theory and the reality of situations. he relies on inquiry, dialecrical and introspective models of reflection. 5.9 ValerieYsLeadership Evolution Valerie's evolution is fiamed by a strong sense of values and a supportive family setting. Patterns found within past job experience also figure highly in Valerie's development as she defined expenences that were applicable to her leadership. As a young, female engineer, she faced many negative expenences but, in the face of this adversity, developed what she calls a "wiming attitude". This "winning attitude" emerged as a trigger phrase in our interview and when she referred to four challenging situations in her life, she indicated that it was her winning atitfude that made the difference. Valene had the benefit of a sheltered harbour where her parents were "very instrumental in developing Cher] self confidence. They were strong believers. They thought that 1 could cure the world and they thought that 1 was invincable." As the newest CE0 of those interviewed, I asked Vdene how she prepared henelf for the position. Harkening back to her strong farnily foundation. she shared. Y came with rny sa of values and beliefs and principles and. I knew quite well when I made that decision to move on with this Company that ah, 1, 1 would fit well in that kind of environment because there would be some consistency, some consistency between corporate values and my own so that hasn't changed on the personal side." Valerie loves to leam and uses action research as a tool to continuously improve herself. As challenges emerge, she studies them Frorn ail angles and defines methods to overcome them. Because of her propensity to learn, VaIerie believes that "leadership is something that cm be learned and, and you only leam it, not by books or sitting in a classroom but through exercising it. You learn leadership when you pick up opportunities to Iead and you can, and you cm, in my case I've done that a lot in not-for-profit organizations." Valene's leadership began much in the sarne fashion as Michael's, where she indicated that. There's always a. ..pattern where 1, 1got involved in an organization and at some point in Ume. I lead the organization.. . In the business community, ifs been the same. And, of course, I've done this fiom the outside and the inside, where I've looked for opydtiesto lead. To lead a stntegic project and be a um,sorneone who would rally troops, who would build a consensus.. .create networks of common interest. Valeriets creation of not-for-profit organizations built two fundamental platforms for her own development: fint, these organizations acted as a training ground to develop leadership skills and second, they assisted in building a vast network of contacts that have supported her throughout her career. ln addition to sparking the development of new not-for-profit associations, Valerie realized the power of teamwork. Early in her career, she felt she had to prove herself and demonstrate that she didngtneed others. which she says \vas as a "rnistake'*. Valerie says: "It was important to be recognized for the work and contribution that 1 made but that was early on in my career but essentially 1 learned that 'Valerie, if you want to do it, you just can't do it alone, you must have a team'". Another interesting element in Valenets evolution is the manner in which she reached back into the past and idenrified patterns that would help her to prepare her for new role. Cashman discusses the importance of experienced leaders being able to '*distinguish patterns and rely on huncheso' in order to progress in their careers (Cashman. 1998, p. 186). Valerie detectrd areas that would be applicable to the leadership she sought: "And rssentially, it, it really has to do with bringing vision. studying directions, inspiring and motivating the troops, the employees. urn building a, a a strong team spirit and finally.. .I had done in other environrnents but afier two years 1 would say that I've applied the same, my knowledge of leadership position to that one and it worked well." In discussing her progression to become a CEO, s he says, "And the.. .challenges that were presented to me were achievable to me, in my view at that time. because I had done it over and over in other roles and in other positions [italics added]." These patterns and repetitions sowed the seeds for her confidence and development as a leader. Reflection Much of Valerie's early reflection is spontaneous and "in actiongowhere she was quickly compelled to devise appropriate responses to help her nwive in what was niIl largely a "man's world". There are three major contributors to her reflective development. Firsc when setbacks occurred, she developed abilities to learn new methods that profssionah'y enhanced her abilities, and personally built her confidence and provided a degree of control. Second, the early self-confidence instilled by her parents. rnorphed into what she now describes as a "winnuig attitude". This attitude has guided her strong sense of intuition, and when combined with experience, informs her when and when not to rely on her instinct. Third, by observing the differences between male and female operational styles, she devised her own. The fact that Valene coniinually had to prove herself in the early dzys motivateci her to develop new learning methods. One of her early acadernic setbacks occurred when she went from a 90% average in high school to 70% in college. While many of her female fiiends withdrew. thinking that engineering was not for them. Valerie was determined to Bnd a new way to learn: "Then I realized that it was very easy to get 90%. ..in college but 1 had to work differently. I didn't have the right rnethodology. 1 had to, to lemhow to learn. 1 said, 'Ok,you goaa start studying with ah. very bright students who have some methodology and 1 gotta leam how to better study and then my marks started to improve.'" Valerie met another major set back in her quest for her first job:". .. when 1 first looked for a job, that was thirty yean ago ... 1 had ah, fifteen interviews and fifteen times been rejected, although 1 was at the top of rny class." Rather than giving up. she decided that there must be something she could do to learn to improve. What is interesting is that Valerie's positive attitude always leads her to develop new insiphts but she never loses her self-confidence: But, 1 never took that as being a failure myself. I said, "Ok, you gotta lem that. You gotta leam something through, through those interviews". Obviously you didn't make the right impression ...y es 1 felt discrirninated but I didn't say, "Well, itosbecause I'm a failure". 1 said, 'Ys just because they don? recognize my value! " These are two the of the experiences that built Valerie's resolve and allowed her tu prove to herself that she could overcome obstacles: 1 think the challenging situations in my life has, is proving that 1 was capable of doing the job that I was asked to do. 1mean by this that originally. when 1 started as an engineer. that 1had to demonstrate my capabilities because we were so few. and it was to demonstrate my capabilities as a manager, because there were so few managers and later on, it was to move up in more senior positions. And typically, most of the time, 1 have been underestimated.. . What I've learned is that it is an asset. There's nothing that gives Valerie more pleasure than knocking down another road block to achieve her goals: "It's ah, when there are obstacles and there will [always] be.. .that.. .it 's almost exciting. It's even more stimulating, so 1 Say, 'OK, Valerie, you got to look at.. .ifs just like playing.. .Chess.. .I goaa strategize'. Ok, this tirne it didn't work but what cm 1 do next tirne that will maybe help?" Perhapc one ~f the mort prized chess pieces Valerie holds is the fact that people have continually underestimated her. While she still reflects "in action", it is aiso clear that Valene has a strong introspective and self-analfical side that. like Elizabeth. propels her to continually examine events and situations in her Iife and how she reacts to hem: Tdlike to Say that life is.. .10% of what happens to us and 90% of how we react. And it's the 90% of how we react, intuition, and I react with a winning attitude. That doesn't mean that I don't have any failures in life. I didn't have any obstacles. 1 do." Cashman would descnbe Valerie as possessing a hi& degree of action mastery where the majonty of her energy is directed towards preparation for the peiiormance (Cashman. 1998. p. 156). Valerie understands she walks the fine line benveen her rigorous training as an rngineer and her leadership of a national corporation: And I think being trained' it has a systematic process by which we are going to get results and I'm extremely organized. Exuemely organized and very systernatic althouph. how can 1 be intuitive and systematic? I know exactly what 1 [vant to achieve and, and I said. oftentimes, 1 will gather information, 1 will go by my gut feelings. but on the other hand. there's so many methodoiogies.. . Control aiso plays a big part in Valerie's reflection. "1 believe that I can control myself and 1 believe 1cm control that kind of outlook 1 have on life. And that kind of outlook that I have on life and that kind of behaviour will impact people I have working with me. If I have a strong attitude, I'm a strong believer." If attitude is the belief that things will get done, connol is the method by which things will get done. Control is intensely persona1 to Valerie, like a retùge from outside infiuences: '-1 will oniy have peace when 1sense that 1 have some control on things that 1am responsible for." Valerie's use of instinct and spontaneity emerged in a discussion regarding how decisions are made and when she decides she has "enough2 information to make a decision: "[I adjun] when 1 have some other information or knowledge or that would suggest we should change or modiQ the coune of action or change pnorities.. .But I'm not ah, going through a lot of ah, scenarios ". Her learning is not only instinctual but also derived fiom her network: .. .most of the tirne it's ah, 1 don't need tons of analysis, 1just need a good feeling of whar's going on in the industry .. .Of course I read a lot to know the players in the industry.. . it has to do more with absorbing a lot of intuitive information, you develop that kind of intuition with experience. with knowledge.. .at some point in tirne, you've got to place your bets and Say. 'OK 1 think we're going to be successfU1-+ .' Leadership Valerie's leadership can be described as strategic and decisive. In addition, just as Tom benefited fiom what he called "bad CEOs", Valene's career advanced because of the differences she perceived behveen the way men and women work. In describing her fûnctions, two trigger words emerged: translator and connecter. On the job, she acts a catalyst in bnnging highly technical products to suit the needs of her clients and. as such. she describes herself as a "translator". But in addition to being a ».anslafor, she is a connecfor and has capitalized on what she views as a deficiency in the way some men do business: "my observation of building relationships is that women.. .tend to find the cornrnonality between individuals and ideas rather than finding the differences.. .men don't need to find a connection, they don? need to be comected." In an field dominated by men, her willingness to adapt new methodologies represented a pattern that she successfully repeated: 1 could start with a person that 1don? know.. .Start fiorn scratch, build a relationship and.. .I Rart to get a good reading of a Company. 1 understand their business environment and then 1 make progress really in working on some solutions that would fit well with their business needs. That's what I did in my previous jobs.. .but 1 was really there to translate business needs or technology into business solutions or business solutions into the technology. So 1 was kind of the translator. From the moment she took the reins of the organization. Valene's training and preference for process were evident: "So that's how 1, I started off.. .developing a vision, setting the direction. ..so we carne as a team and I'm using a lot of processes to' to =et people to work together." This process work is also evident in the type of teams that Valerie forms. They are largely ad hoc, coming together and breaking a part as needs demand. "Processes and creating committees, not maintainhg committees because they are really short lived. It's just for the time and coming and forcing the strategic discussion about issues and also giving them sorne coaching and methodologies and thinking strategically ." Usine- methodologies also figured prominently in our dircucrion of execution. Of ail of the CEOs inteniewed, only Michael and Valerie were emphatic in the process they developed for successful execution. While most CEOs discussed the nerd for superlative execution, Valerie went into detail about hoiv she designed execution strategies using team accountability and peer pressure. 1 created those teams and they are accountable to put in place action plans. I've asked them to present their action plans. Key deliverables. Time lines. Who is in charge of what? And, and I've asked them to present their results to whole group. So the pressure's on. The pressure is always high ... So they are accountable. So they have to present the result not only to me. but the whole team. to their peers and ifs peer pressure. In execution, results are paramount and no different than any of her colleagues, Valerie is "very, very result oriented." Because she is so driven, she encourages creative thinking and has developed special ad hoc teams that break away fiom the mold: "They're made of managers, a mix of managers and high potential employees. Systematically. when 1 look strategically at what we should do. I involve our next generation.. .the young people. those that are going to challenge our traditional thinking. 1 want them on board." While many CEOs discussed their teams in tems of decision making, Valerie3 discussion focussed more on the tension benveen her need to drive snategy and. at the same time, motivate her peoples' cornmitment and build buy-in: My style would be that they take ownership of the direction.. .in some cases, 1 would be very forcefui and Say, 'We gona go this waf and but, 1, 1 \vant them to understand it is um, it is, you some might be skepticd and at the end will rally but yet, um, yes, I doit have people voting on al1 of the issues. Because 1 still feel that I must steer the organization. Like the other CEOs, Valerie is also conscious of where her job ends and her senior team's begins: I'm very ah, focussed on controllhg the result but not so much on the, itinerary benveen point A and B but very much on OK did you do the B in timr as opposed to how did you do it? If you don? have any problems. do it the way you want, the way you feel you should get the results. But if you have some doubts, come and let me know so that 1 can help. Professional and Persona1 Development Valerie's persona1 and professional development revolves around people and the benefits of her cumulative expenence. She possesses a "ne~orkof nehvorks" consisting of strong mentors and trusted advisors both inside and outside of the company. She considen that being a networker is ". .. probably my trademark and.. .I'm a very strong networker. 1 like to build networks, 1 like to ...expand networks and 1 do that, not for my own sake.. .I can see the benefits of bnnging people with common interests to work together because. they can, they cmbe so rnuch more powerfùl in doing so." (Valerie). Yot only does Valerie have a number of nehvorks, but she approached her mentor quite deliberately and sought his guidance almost as soon as she becarne CEO:"He's [Valene's mentor] ah, given me a very good sounding board. He's been with the company a long time and he's wonderful. He's goma give me a really good reading of the organization and if there's stumbling blocks. he will suggest, you should talk to this peson.. .. so 1 will come from time to tirne to bm]..and seek bis] guidance." In addition to her mentor, "1 would meet people that are on top. ..or very analaiytical people. So they exist outside my organization.. .they are working at setting new directions for corporations.. . 1 network for that. 1 need to understand their reading of the marketplace. 1 build networks that provide me with a lot of information. So that helps me broaden my perspective on, on what's goin; on in the market place.'' When asked about the need to explore selEknotvledge to improve performance, Valerie was quite introspective and methodical about her perceptions on why knowing yourself is so vital to succeeding: Y thhk we are more reflective because we, we work with companies and people that are more knowledgeable??.Her introspective nature was Merrevealed in her belief in emotional intelligence: "And you can only be smart about other people if you know yourself well. Cause the way you behave will certainly have an effect on othes and I think ah, and in other ways you'll be perceptive if you know yourself well, you know your capabilities, you know your limits.. ." Interestingly, where some CEOs wanted to test their limits, Vaierie is very clea.about wanting to know where hers are. Summary of ValerieYsLeadership Valenets use of reflection in her leadership is demonsnated through the development of methodologies to overcome challenging circumstances, and thereafter, repeating these successtiil methods as required. In the early years, she was clearly in survival mode and her use of technical reflection assisted her in developing these methodological solutions. Numerous systems and processes were evident in her description of her style as a leader and the manner in which she bnngs teams of people together to work on problems. Now as she finds herself in the role of tranrlator and connecter, she has moved towards more dialectical re flection. She has successfully combined the discipline of engineering with the fmits of her networking. Her leadership style represents a balance between processes and systems (inquiry mode of reflection) and confidence and control (dialectical mode of reflection). 5.10 Sumrnary of Vertical Analysis of First Interviews 5.10.1 Evolution of First Stage Emerpeot Theory While the eight vertical vignettes ihstrate individuai preferences and attitudes, they also provide an opportunity to compare and contrast sirnilarities and differences amongst the CEOs. Combined, these elements fonthe basis of the first stage emergent theeory (See Fipure 3: S~giOne Inteniervs - Emcrgent Tkory). A cy~is.emzrged consisting of five elements representing methods by which CEOs harness their collective expenence to make future decisions. The data suggest that CEOs reflect upon their cumulative expenence, assessing strengths and weaknesses in knowledge and behaviour. halysis of lessons learned acts as a foundation to devise scenarios and courses of action. The ability to delegate decisions and build trust amongst team members appears to be a crucial link in the development of a CE03 ability to discem larger patterns and vision ahead. The cumulative learning that results tiom experience, analysis. delegation contributes to developing sound courses of action. Finally. retlection "in actiono' benveen and amongst each of these elements acts as a "reality check" in processing potential positive and negative outcornes of past action and how they may affect impending decisions. In assembling the emergent theory, it becarne clear that: 1. A CE03 cumulative expenence. value system and self-knowledge of his or her strengths and weaknesses makes a strong contribution to self-contïdence and subsequently, the ability to "launch out" in uncharted waters; 2. Interplay between expenence gained from critical incidents, incidents that trigger reflection and the types of reflection triggered, serve as a bais for "lessons learned" and is ofien used to determine what ro do and/or what nor to do in future situations 3. Mutual responsibility of the management tearn and the CE0 in creating and supporting a healthy decision making structure play a vital role in ailowing the CE0 to discern patterns and understand the bigpr picture 4. Chains of logic and cumulative leaming enables CEOs to better anticipate outcornes and detennine alternate courses of action: 5 Connections between decision making, action and execution and the reflective methods employed to cany OUI and evaluate initiatives serve as a platform the development of superior leadership skills In order to illustrate the evolution of this theory, the questions posed by the four "bucket" categones consisting of evolution, reflection. leadership and personal and professional development will be examined . Figure 3: Stage One Interviews - Emergent Theory Cumulative Learning -Anticipate sound courses of action Past Er periences -Self- Knowledge of Strengthsl Wea knesses in Action connections between Delegrtion of Decisions experience, -Detection of decision- patterns, focus on big picture hnaiysis of Lessons i Learned -Success and Failure -What to do & not to do 5.10.2 Category 1 Evolution: What role does the past play in forming leadership attributes? Although I did not ask specificaily about their youth. each of the CEOs indicated that early experiences made a strong contribution to their leadership attributes. Two major findings emerged that support this conclusion. First, patterns of behaviour became ingrained as a result of the impact of powerful experiences in y~uthtbat shaped xysof thinking, built varying levels of confidence and sewed to develop professional and personal skills as the CE0 matured. Second, these early incidents highlighted preferences in style, splining respondents along gender lines regarding independent or interdependent methods of leading. A correlation can be made between these preferences, past expenences and the CEOIS method(s) of decision-making and execution. To more fdly ascertain the effects of critical incidents occumng either in "youth'' (5-1 9) or as a "young adult" (1 9-30), a significant incident described by the CE0 as being a "defining moment" has been selected. The impact, effect and number of references to the incident is illustrated dong with the resulting ripple effect in patterns of behaviour (see Table 14). The themes raised by CEOs in these incidents are recunent and reverberate throughout the transcript: from Bill's continual nred to "do what's right" to Sonia's strong reliance on "survival instincts", behaviour can be traced to the powerful impressions made by these early experiences. Like an "imprint" on tùture behaviour, these incidents are recognized by the CE0 as seminal in strength-building and confidence development. In addition. each CE0 indicated that these events were positive in the lessons learned. The number of references made to these recumng themes throu&out the interview process suggests that CEOs tum back to these defining events for inspiration when faced with new situations and formidable challenges. The role played by preferences for independence and interdependence is of Merinterest in studying evolutionary patterns. CEOs defined their nature and characteristics in their formative years in both independent and interdependent terms. A pattern emerged suggesting that female CEOs had early experiences ernphasizing interdependence while their male counterpartsoexpenences rested more in the realm of 7 'JI 3 2.37 3 0 4 O -. O - axe- -= 2 'C " '330 c39 c 3=3-p u 37 POc,.O*YZZ 3 $! 3 2::- < ci, cr a, o=+5 8.2 9 -zO-' 2 23 r '3 a% independence as evidenced by Table 15. In analyzing women's response to authority models (e.g. '-they9'and *a''), Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarde found that women are less inclined to see rhemselves separate from the 'iheys" than men and that this could account for womenwsemphasis on co~ectionand men's emphasis on separation and autonomy. (p. 45). These preferences for either independence or interdependence appear to have a direct bearing on die deveiopment of the CEOs' Leadership style. While male CEOs did discuss the importance of their senior management team, the majority ofreferences were related to individuals and their expenence with individuals. ln the case of female CEOs, the majority of references focussed on "the team" itself as opposed to individuals within the team. Anne's reference to "organic leadership" captures the sentiment of the female CEOs. The finding that males are more independent than interdependent is striking in the vanscripts in its starkness. Perhaps more conscious retlrction about the differences benveen males and fernde leaders may ignite a melding of the .%est of' thtir styles. Interestingly, the findings of Belenky. C linchy, Goldbrrger and Tanile reveal that while there has been much research on autonomy and independence (traditional male charactenstics) there has been little in the development of interdependence. intimacy. numirance and contextual thoughr (Belenky. Clinchy. Goldberger. Tanile p. 7). Table 15: Male and Female CEOs Views of Independence and Interdependence .-~-Eo.T~+.:.~.,.. - . . . ,, . :.. t. .-, . .-- .L+G.- . .;- . :;%,?::'~+i$ . -. . , , , , W.7 .-... r'ndep endence ;;-. .. . , In terdependebce~<3~$~&1:.:* Bi11 ".. .obedience is not my thing" , Michael "I've aiways tried to stand out fkom the crowd" Paul '20 be giving the orders rather than taking the orders" Tom "1 never enjoy ed.. .waiting i for someone to tell me what to do" Anne "taking a public service 1 1 kind of attitude towards the 1 customer'? Elizabeth "enjoyment 1 get fiom achieving something that others do" Sonia "I gotta develop star teams" Valerie 1 *'you can't do it alone, you 1 must have a team" In surnmary, evolurion influences the actions and behavioun of CEOs in difierent ways. On the positive side, these expenences are highway markers, reafirming the CEOs' direction and providing oppominities for tacit knowledge to lead the way in decision making and judgements. In the best case, CEOs need to become self-aware of their preferences, recognizing when and whçre it is appropriate to leverage these experiences. On the negative side, these incidents appear to be so firmly ingrained that they may cause problems in shifiing perspective. These expenences could also fuel what Senge has descnbed as "automatic learning" (Senge, 1990, p. 76); in this case, behaviours or ways of perceiving situations may become automatic, leading to the "skilled incornpetence" that Argyns (1 992) identified as a "leaming disability". As helpful as past expenences can be. they can also set a uap for the unwitting CEO. As attested by many of the interviewees. "sometimes experience is not the ben teacher'' 5.10.3 Category 2 RefIecdon: How is reflection used and portrayed in critical incidents throughout the interviews? CEOs use reflection in both a cyclical and linear manner as evidenced by patterns that emeged in the data analysis. Without exception, al1 critical incidents pointed to reflection of previous experience informine tùture action, despite how direct rhe relevance of expenence might appear. CEOs mined their expenence to uncover meaning for their specific situations. As Anne indicated. even though she had little broadcast experience, it was her strong "public service" orientation that she drew upon when embarking on the launch of her stations. The need to find relevance vi~hinexperience emerges as a criticai core competency in a CEO's decision-making and executional abilities. To demonstrate how reflection contributes to cornpetence development. Table 16 traces three areas: Preferential patterns of learning: Connections benveen reflective behaviours and preferences; and ResuIting emerging competencies as a result of leaming pattern and preference As illusuated by Table 16, both cyclical and linear reflection guide CEOs in everyday tasks and those in uncharted waters. Depending on the situation. a CE0 has a variety of reflective techniques from which to choose. Whether it is introspective (mulling things over as Bill does), inquiring (working the phones as Paul does), spontaneous (launchhg out as Anne does) or rehearsing (practicing for federal appearances as Michael does), each CE0 has preferred methods. In addition to using various methods of reflection, they also draw heavily upon on instinct' intuitiveness and their broader expenence. It becarne evident in the interview process that instinct and Tahlc 16: I'rcfercntiul I'attcrns of Itcflectivc Behaviour in CEOs " . -..i>,Ï PiII ,i,.;T'i{$! +iy*',ji; - j;: . , 'b. . , . .,. + ,< Elizabeth '.? . Nichael' '.' Sonia . Rcflcclivc -cliains of -soak time; -evciit driven -defining -contiiiuous -cumiilative ~chnviour leiirniiig ; need for sel f-analysis pro bleiiis testing of success of of building learniiig building on wisdom and to understand aiid liiiiits and takiiig risks cumulative stratepies experience of' the for fiitiirc developing t tien and building kiiowledge becaiise of di vcrsc introspection courses 01' uction developiiig con tidence silualions that cvcnts actioii plans Io expertise in as greater were initinlly solvc tliciii areils risks are viewcd as dccriicd taken setbacks critical to SlIcceSS 1% t t crn Cyclicul Cyclicul Cyclical Evidcnt 1 Rcflect ive -Onaction -On action -011iictiiin -In actioii -111 action -In action 1 -On action Prcfercncc -Introspection -Rehearsal -Spontaneous Emcrging -ciiinulat ive - retiearsal to -pro bleiii - expertise -Iauiicliiiig Competcncc leariiing bet ter prepaie lcarned; solving; iii diverse out dccisioii- leariiing for various idenli ticatioii diffusitig areas; focus inaking to met hodologics; scenririos of stages For iiegat ive 011 anticipate highly probleiii ciicrgy knowlcdge siiitable anal yiical solving iitlai~iiiierit courses of action intuition are ofien informed by each other and are an integrai part of the reflective experience and the actions that result. Interestingly, reflective preferences are split with half opting for cyclical and haif choosing linear methods. Linear patterns indicate a distinct begiming, middle and end to the development of solutions for problems. Paul, for example, defines areas that he believes are intrinsic to his success and then sets out to become what he calls "dangerous" enough in the area so that he is a force to be reckoned with. Tom prefers projects that see tangible. measured results rather than ponng over long terni sntegy. Michael has developed a pattern for quickiy resolving negative problems by fomulating plans that propels the discussion to a new level. hehas learned the power of momentum by leveraging cumulative learning within new expenences. On the cyclical side, Bill, Elizabeth, Sonia and Valerie each demonstrated a distinct preference for building "leverage loops" where the leaming fiom past expenences are clearly moditied and linked to solving challenges. In Valerie's case, she continually modifies her leaming strategies to meet the next set of challenges. and likewise, Elizabeth is continually dissecting previous actions to better understand how they impact existing challenges. Sonia capitalizes on the success of past risks that embolden her to take even greater ones and Bill has noted his need for "soak time" and verbalking scenarios to better understand the implications of various courses of action. There is an even balance of reflection in acriorz and on acrion in the cnticd incidents described by the CEOs. Paul, Sonia and Tom each descnbed themselves as decisive and with a need for action, while it appeared that Anne had little choice but to continually respond to new crises. reflecting while acting. Tom describes the impact of reflection in action: "The more you do it [make decisions] you get more confident about things.. .you know that you're making the ri& decision because of al1 of this experience". Paul descnbes the need to achieve balance in the hurly-burly of business of retail: ').ouYre always kind of tipping the scales and you're always havhg to get a whack on the side of the head and Say, 'Hey, wake up to this reality or that'. In the case of reflecting on action, the some CEOs preferred to build distance benveen themselves and a problem, looking from the "outside- in" as opposed to the other CEOs who preferred to be on the inside of a problem "looking out". Bill, for example, cites his expenence in mergers as an aide when wrestling with the one he is now involved in: ". .. there were a couple of similarities and a lesson leamed in the former case that 1 cm apply here". Elizabeth also demonstrates the need for distance, "I spend an enormous amount of tirne.. .thinking about 'Why did 1 react that way?'" (Elizabeth). For Valerie, keeping her "distanceo' is everything in the very cornpetitive high-tech world, 'Lwe needed to look specifically at how we can outsmart our competitors and do we do that? And what new fields can we get in and what can we do differeotly that tvill allow us to wui that marketplace?" (Valerie). 5.10.1 Category 3 Leadership: What can be learned about reflection from the CEOs' discussion and perceptions about their own leadership? The reflective process assists CEOs accumulate knowledge from pas incidents, provides insight to seize present moments and helps CEOs vennire into unknown future activities. Threr inter-related areas surfaced when analyzing how CEOs use reflection in their leadership. Mintzberg. as referenced earlier. stated in his findings that CEOs are prone to action not reflection (blintzberg. 1973. p. 63). The findings of this research. however. indicate that while CEOs are decidedly action-onented, their ability to take action is contingent zipon their ability to retlect. Indeed. reflective behaviour and the learning that cornes From both repetitive and individual incidents act as enablers. permitring leaders to act decisively. Related to this first element is a second, demonstrating that CEOs hamess reflection to support decision making and execution. Finally, reflection plays an integral role in the motivating and building one of the CE03 most crucial resources: the senior management team. To bener understand the relationship between CEOs, their leadership development and reflection, an aggregate analysis of critical incidents was conducted. Content analysis determined that nine basic types of critical incidents were relayed and Werexamination identified the major type of reflection that occurred within the incidents. Of equal interest is that CEOs employ al1 types of reflection with preferences emanating fiom their expenence level, maturity and the nature of the situation. The emerging patterns and themes fiom the analysis shed Merlight on the linkages between action and reflection. In analyzing the content of the incidents. they can be broken down as follows: Table 17: Segmentation of Critical Incidents Launchine out 4 I Inauirv 1 Total 1 43 1 1 As a general observation, patterns that are immediately identifiable occur in: critical incidents involving risk (ail CEOs demonstrate spontaneous reflection); evolutionary and ethical incidents where introspection is evident; and in strategic and launching out categones where both inquiry and spontaneous reflection are present. In the professional and persona1 development incidents, people-related and mentor-inspired behaviour categories, there is a more mixed reflective approach with a correlation between approach and the personaiity type. To determine the types of reflection used before, during and after critical incidents, (See Figure 4) I observed the CEOs' behaviour and body Ianguage as well as listened to their tapes to discem when and how the four types of reflection emerged (spontaneity. rehearsal, inquiry and introspection). Describing situations where they Iittle or knowledge to assist hem in launching ou& for example, CEOs exhibited both methodical (conduct a market study) and experimentd processes (significant use of words and verbs). In describing how difficult situations were managed or how they had grown as a leader, it became evident that introspection played a significant role as CEOs continually referred to the past and making conscious linkages of what had happened before and how it had afTected their actions. In addition, long pauses in the transcripts usuaily indicated introspection as well as "far away" looks that demonstrated contemplation. In dealing with important speeches or meetings, CEOs emphasized the need to prepare properly and to use rehearsal to work out the "bugs". In exploring the dynamic between reflection and action, a powerful impetus in building reflective capabilities occurs in youth or young adulthood. In both evolutionary and ethical dilemma caregofies (al1 dilemmas provided occurred in puth.) CEOs dernonstrated a high degree of introspective reflection (See Figure 4). These incidents translate into potent "lessons learned", some so profound that CEOs still mentioned being "haunted" or feeling "feaf' over them. While the expenences in youth were often dramatic, the leaming gained From hem were largely positive in nature. building self- confidence, self-knowledge and ability to build trust among peers. Paul's assertion. for exarnple, that "no one was going to kick sand in [his] face'? or Elizabeth's reaction to the "shocking consequences" of decisions she made early in life are evidence of the power of these early incidents: Paul became actively involved in identi-ing his weaknesses and made sure that he became an expert in these areas and Elizabeth began to spend a great deal of time becoming "sel f-anal ytical" so that s he could improve her decision-making. Further evidence of the impact of retlection on past incidents that cmbe traced to present day action are also apparent in NO additional examples: m In Sonia whose early crisis-ridden life was filled with risk and met head on with an assertion of will and self-control, there is now an ability to take ever greater risks. Risk-taking seeds sown when she was young and her introspection on past success continue to fuel her self-confidence. Today, this confidence continues to instill the belief that even bigger nsks will '-pay off' for her in the tùnire. The imprint that early leaniing had upon Valene compels her to Look for patterns that will assist her in identifiing future courses of action: 'O.. .the challenges there were presented to me were achievable.. .because I had done it over and over in other roles and other positions" (Valerie). In the case of decision-making, people-related critical incidents were by far the most numerous examples provided. The difficulty of terminating rmployees was a cornmon theme in these incidents. Past experience and introspection play an integrai role in preparation for making those tough decisions as CEOs recalled previous situations to justiQ courses of action. In the cases of Tom. Paul. Michael, Anne, Sonia, each describes how previous experience taught them that the faster an employee is terminated, the better it is for the person and the organization: Michael's comments encapsulate the feelings of the others: "..it's very clear that this person was not the right person. And that has always served for me.. .n reminder !O roke acrion [itdics dded] wher? you. ;!CE how, constantly. People corne in to me and Say that a hire isn't working out. It was a tough .. decision ah, tve made it.. . In the categories labeled "strategic" and .'launchhg out", CEOs use both reflective inquiry and spontaneity to assist hem in making decisions. Using inquiry, leaders draw upon past experiences, depioying market research and consult with senior management. trusted consultants and colleagues to inform their decision. The pressure of financiai nsk and fear in making these high impact decisions is palpable in the transcnpts as CEOs described not only millions of dollars at stake but fear of failure and cornpetitors. Incidents that exempli@ these hvo aspects of the decision making process are: In the face of massive dowmsizing, Valerie hmessed her "wiming attitude" and decided that action was required. Using inquiry. she conducted broad consultation arnongst her employees to find a way to "make a difference" and to "try new ideas". These ideas were then shared with her sister organizations around the world and helped build her reputation as a leader arnong leaden. In Michael's acquisition of a cornpetitor, the marner in which the acquisition was conducted was entirely new; he found himself in "uncharted waters". His method of launching out involved using spontaneity as he explained: "Going through the scenarios. trying to figure out what the impact.. .on governrnent might be, what the impact on ah. funue relationships. funire deais might be, ah. what's the impact on the people would be, ah, and, and the very red risk of failing. Ah, fier Iaying out millions and millions ofour company's money. And. and. you know I can say notv millions of dollars. you know, that was irretrievable.. ."(Michael). The role of reflection in the marner in which CEOs motivate and build their senior management teams is a third area, broadly represented in al1 transcripts. Emerging as a central theme in ûrinscript analysis, the issue of dependence and CO-dependence between the CE0 and the senior management team dominated discussions in three ways: first, in striking an appropriate balance in decision and determining who decides what; second, in development and recognition of areas of expertise between and arnong the CE0 and their team: and third in the establishment of cordial, but distrn.ced wcrk relationships. Throughout the interviews, it becarne clear that CEOs srniggle to determine "beginnings" and the "endings" of their job and that of their management team's. h intriguing finding is that effective CE0 delegation contributes to their own professional and personal development. Experience has taught them that by dlowing others to make decisions. they have time to consider larger strategic issues, discem patterns and genenlly elevate thinking to a new level. Lessons learned from this expenence reinforces that CEOs "can3 do it alone" and that delegation. in fact, serves as an emancipator. Elizabeth cornrnents captures this new found freedom: 1 think I'rn aiso better at getting the best out of people than 1 was. Simply because I'rn more secure about myself. I'rn able to let people go with their ideas and I'rn enjoying it more, enjoying watching them, grow, make mistakes. learn and I diink that I'rn acting a lot more as a mentor now than as a leader. Than. than. 1 used to think as the leader you had to make al1 of the tough decisions. You had to be tough, and you had to be al1 that. And now, 1 tend to be. see myself more as a mentor with everybody here, regardless of the level of authority and freedom While rewarding, this liberation is hard fought: six of the eight CEOs indicated that decision-making is "easy" for them and as a result, they ofien find delegating difficdt. Each indicated their ease in different ways: Paul said, "... I'rn cornfortable making tvery decision" (Paul). Bill asserted, "I don't mind making decisions' that cornes pretty easily to me and.. .I trust my own counsel quite a lot" (Bill) and Michael said he used to want to "get his hands around every detail" and even today, he's "aiways happy to provide anybody who dares to ask, you know, with a full, soup to nuts reading of what 1 think they should do" (Michael). It is, therefore, doubiy difficult for CEOs to pull back and let others make decisions and yet, they know how crucial this abiiity is to their own growth in the job. As Sonia has said, she leamed a hard lesson in the need to build "star teams", as opposed to being the star herself: "..the evolution has been that the small [wins] that I receive, that 1 achieve myself, you can't make them big udess you have a whole group working in the right direction" (Sonia). Afier working single handedly to launch a major retail chah, the penny dropped as she realized that ihe needed !o he s~rrcur,dcdwith tfle best. Lihv+-ke for Valerie who indicated that in her youth she tried to do it alone but realized "that was a rnistakeoland is now reliant on a variety of support mechanisms from mentors to ad hoc cornmittees. Tom says. Y believe it [getting people more involved] makes berter quality decisions.. .100% and I'rn not saying that because Harvard was goinp in that direction. It's sornething 1 would have done" (Tom). Michael makes some revealing commenrs about how he has leamed to delineate the responsibilities between himself and his tearn: ". ..they [senior staffj have no problems. they Say, "1 wouldn't do it that wayo'...and you know what? What rnatters is they've advanced an argument.. .I'm not the one who's going to make it happen. they are. So it should be that way" (Michael). As welcoming of questions as blichael may be, however. he clearly draws the line of responsibility in describin; a course of action he recently took: ". ..it was rny decision. They're [senior staff] not going to sit there and say 'No'. Their job is to try to' you know. that's a strategic decision that affects the Company as a whole and that's my job". Michaelichael goes on to describe the line between his job and that of his management tearn: "A shared vision is 'Ca we do this?' Tan we execute it?' .. .but once: but whether or not to do it. [italics added] in my view. is totally my decision". .. we've fostered a relationship among ourseives that when we disagree, once the decision is taken, everybody goes down for it" (Michael). Sonia delegates by instilling power: "my objective is to instill the power into al1 members of the team no matter what title, or what position they have in the company." Vderie inserts herself into situations in a manner similar to Michael's: '' When I'm involved in these discussions with rnanagers.1 am part of the discussion.. .I want to rally the majority. non consensus.. .I really need the buy-in of the people so they take ownership" (Valerie). The degree of expertise CEOs require in various areas emerged as a stylistic issue, harkening back to CE0 evolution, but very much a part of their development. Two schools of thoughts surfaced: the first, to become an expert in areas that are crucial to the operation and the second, to surround yo-melf with expens. Where Paul indicated that he would become "dangerous enough" in certain subjects to become "a force9(Paul), Michael said that he compelled his people to "rnake [him] understand" (Michael). Sonia believes that everyone of her 14.000 employees are "leaders": 'T'bey -11 tzke !edc:ship positions at various points of responsibilip.. .they know the probIems"(Sonia), while Valene looks upon herself as a translater and connecter both intemally and externally. This need to continually refine style is also articulated by Michael who said that his job these days was to keep his "head up", whereas in the old days? it was to keep his "head down" (Michael). Paul assens that if he continued to make al1 of the decisions it would be disastrous for his company: "But if l were doing that, the organization falls apart.. .the difficult thing is when somebody says, "What do you think. or what do you want me to do? Is pushing it back down and allowing that penon to take responsibility for the win or the Ioss" (Paul). Tom shares the feelings of Paul. Sonia iMicharl on the need for others to make important decisions: " if one of my guys makes a decision. ..He might not have done the right thing but 1 will absolutely, for sure, also keep in mind that he made a decision. he was trying to solve an issue ... at least he tried ... that's more important for me than the other guy who didn't do anything but was just sining there are waiting.. ." (Tom). Paul emphasizes the importance of understanding expertise' .. .if you believe that you knew everything that they [senior team] knew. then you shouldn't have hem, you don? need them ...rny relationship is diKerent with everyone of those business leaders.. .and that makes me better at the end of the day. It makes me beaer, hopefûlully, it makes them better.. . Paul goes on to talk about the fine balance between developing these relationships and success in the company: ".. .how you numire that penon and how you numire that relationship becomes a Large defigpart of the success of the cornpany.. .sometimes? you give too much and sometirnes, you give too linle.. .ifs never just riat...." (Paul). It become apparent in the transcripts that a adf of isolation and loneliness separates CEOs and their senior management tearn. Interestingly, this became a leaming tool as CEOs were compelled to refiect on their own and use introspection as a result of not being in a position to consult with memben of their senior management team. As Sonia says, Ytis so lonely sometimes', cause you cm never get close. The elements between personal relationships and business relationships, you have to separate them, you redly do". Tom describes the challenge of rising through the ranks and then leading the sarne group of people: ". ..they might expect certain things, special treatment.. .that's not right. you know?. ..I mean you become, yuhave to mdyze more what people tell pu because they're putting a lot more thought into their comments." Ensuring transparency in relationships. therefore, becomes a ski11 that CEOs develop as they mature. Both Michael and Elizabeth exhibit this growth through the course of tirne. Michael says: "...it's difficult to be critical of people.. .I have to force myself to do it and ensure that everything is transparent, that people know the things on which they're being judged and that they have no doubt about their performance." (Michael). Elizabeth agrees: ".. .I leamed.. .to look at people 1 work with a lot more objectively... and that the only way 1 could be a good leader was to make sure thar 1 made it clear to people what was expected of them. ..which is something that has taken me nearly twenty years to learn, to be very cleai?(Elizabeth). Developing a trusting relationship is also vital and the influence that a CE0 has on employees cannot be underestimated. Paul indicates that he intimidated only those people who are ibintimidatable"owhile Elizabeth emphasizes that when you are a team leader, .. .you also realize that everydiing you do or Say affects people to the core of their being. And if you don't take that senously, then you're not worth it.. .and I've leamed to be much more appreciative of that.. .of trying to undersrand what makes people tick and to be e'xtremely sensitive how I develop the relationship and cornmunicate with sorneone. Simply because I realize I am not perfect either. Bill finds himself on the other end of the spectnim: Tmnot that much interested in what makes other people tick.. .I'm more interested in what makes me tick'? (Bill). 5.10.5 Category 4: Professional and Personal Development: What do CEOs do to develop themselves and does it work? The evidence suggests that while CEOs use a variety of methods for professional and personal development, conscious development occurs when specific problems or situations arise. Methods most prevalent in professional and pesonal development are indicated in Table 17 Selow. Of the 13 critical incidents siteci, nenvorking, advice of mentors and consultants, and lessons learned from previous experiences are most often volunteered as the preferred development method. Some incidents triggered the need for professional development: Anne, for example, began looking for a program in finance because she wanted to improve her skills. Tom, along with other CEOs within his firm, was sent to Harvard on an international, cornpany-wide leadership program. There aiso appears to be a correlation between personality type and preferred professional development. Bill. for example, a professed introvert. is more introspective than mon in his approach to professional developrnent, using political and biographicd books as a source of inspiration. Michael. on the other hand, a charisrnatic extrovert. with his love of public speaking, tends to prefer practice and rehearsal. Elizabeth, more self- analytical, relies on inquiry for her professional development calling upon trusted colleagues for input. Anne, representing a more consultative style. also uses inquiry in her professional development. Not one CE0 talked about using a book or a coune to assist them in resolving critical incidents. In fact, most seemed jaded about these methods as Bill indicared he was "sick of school" and any book that bragged it had "the recipeo'was suspect. Valene indicated that leadership was something that "could be learned through experience. not in a schooi" (Valene) and Anne decried that lack of prograrns available to CEOs: "Where are the good cornes?" (Anne). ïhis is not to suggest that books, courses, conferences and education are not important. On the contrary, al1 but one CE0 proclaimed themselves an "avid reader. Women's reading appeared more generalized. wingthe gamut fiom novels to the latea business books where men either didn't read too much (two of CEOs) or reading was concenaated on business (or in Bill's case history and biograp hy). Interestingly, women specificaily highlighted the importance that preparing for speeches made in their development because it compelled them to reflect whereas men had more extemally focussed purposes for speaking. Elizabeth said preparing her leadership speech was a "bittersweet experience" that helped her to see "you've corne a long way, baby". (Elizabeth). Anne reinforced this viewpoint, indicating that conference and panel discussions were helphl in "articulatingT-various elements of her leadership and sharing them. especially with other women. When view;ng male perceptions of public speaking, blichael indicated that he enjoyed it for the attention it brought. Tom, who does not speak frequently outside of the organization. uses public speaking to motivate his employees. Table 18: Preferred Type of Professionrl and Persona1 Development -*t.L; r- , . CE0 . .-. " - '; -Professional & Person- : Personality. . , ." Type:..-:.; -:, ::. -2 +; ' .: . + ;". - - - . , :.- .;.:z,.+..., .. . --. - . .,+;<:: . :., L-. - - , .,.,.. , ..,;,. .- + * .. . A! , ;.: :.. ,- - .- ..- - . ~ë&o~m&i - .. . .. -.. . c . . . . Anne Networking Introspective* Public Speaking Inveaigating formai education in tinance -- - - . - - Bill Books -historical and Introspective* biographical Nehvork of consultants Elizabeth Networking Extroverted * Public Speaking Books - business Michael Books -related to sector Extroverted* Public Speaking tapering off Paul Networking Extroverted* Sonia Public Speaking Extroverted* Networking Mentor Tom Harvard Business School Did not declare a Networking personality type Networking Did not declare a Public Speaking personality type 1 Mentor 1 Books-&end oriented *Declaredpersona[is, gpe in transcipts 5.11 Summary: Emergent Theory from First Stage Interviews While the literature review suggests that CEOs do not use reflection as much as they should, that they have bias towards action and ofien make decisions quickly. analysis of first interview data indicates that, if anything, CEOs continually rely upon reflection for inspiration, direction and guidance. As indicated in Figure 3, five over- arching themes indicate that CEOs do reflect and are more prone to reflection thm perhaps previously thought. The five elements of the reflective cycle emerging kom the data suggests: CEOs consciously and unconsciously develop self-knowledge by exarnining past actions and reflect on learning to improve performance; Past individuai expenences provide lessons and oppominities for analysis so that CEOs can identify what works and what they wodd do differently nexr lime: This experience flows into a third emancipator as the CE0 delegates and empowers senior management leaving him or her with an opportunity to discern patterns and larger trends; The cumulative experience of growing self-knowledge and experience continue to refine the CEO's frarne of reference; and. These four components are then homogenized creating over-arching behaviours and constructing a collective "network of experience". As CEOs are launching out, they are both selecting and discarding information that relates to the situation they find themselves in and, in tum, feeding the hits of this back into their colIective experience. More than fact collecting. the process takes into account checking the pulse on a number of fronts fiom the feelings of tearn members to advice fiorn outsiders and insiders. A central discovery in the first stage theory is the importance of launching out and the vital role it plays to the hedth of the organization. Much of CEOS' ability to navigate uncharted waters rests in their confidence and knowledge of self. As dlbe discussed in Chapter 5, reflection acts a central pillar in developing these two essentid quaiities. allowing CEOs to experiment? ask the right questions and develop personal processes to better understand the implications of their actions. The confidence expressed by Valerie is shared by al1 of the CEOs interviewed: "1 don't know how we're going to get there, but 1 know we are going to get there." (Valerie). CWAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS PERTAINTNG TO THEMES EMERGING FROM SECOND INTERVIEWS 6.0 Introduction The first set of interviews demonstrates how reflection is used by CEOs and types of reflection relied upon during cntical incidents. The second stage interviews render greater clarity and deeper insight into these areas? particularly in relation to the development of self-knowledge. effects of cumulative learning and how development of personal reflective systems rnotivate CEOs to take action. It should be noted that in the process of delimiting the theory, the categories developed fIom the second interviews becarne saturated and there was no point in adding "further exemplars to hem" (Lincoln & Guba. 1985?p. 343-344). Patterns and themes repeatedly emerged both on an individual and collective bais validating McCracken's contention that eight interview subjects is a desirable amount. (McCracken, p. 9). In addition to reinforcing previous themes, the second interviews also highlighted nvo new ones to Funher suppon the significance and use of reflection. Instinct and intuition emerge as robust elements. rspecially when combined with expenence and self- knowledge. Together, they provide a powefil platform for CEOs to enhance their leadership skills. The contribution that confidence and fear have in motivating CEOs to succeed surfaced as a second theme. The reinforcement of existing themes and identification of the two others, shaped the second stage emergent theory (See Figure 5). More holistic than the stage one theory. this second iteration provides a clearer demonstration of the interplay behveen reflection. the persona of the CEO' cornpetencies. actions required and professional, and persona1 development rnethods. The research uncovered a productive tension between these themes. forming a senes of "checks and balances' dong the path to execution. The theoretical mode1 demonstrates how CEOs step through an extremeemely intricate process in decision-making and execution. WhiIe it is clear that the CE03 role has changed, permithg thern to become more of an enabler of their people, the evidence suggests they are still firmly in controi of vision and what is executed; how things are executed do not appear as relevant as perhaps they once did. For this reason, 1 have chosen to depict the theory in a hierarchical manner, with the CE0 fimly ensconced at the top. As the grounded theory approach evolved, a clear inter-relation emerged benveen the "essence or core" of the CE0 and their reflections and critical incidents. The interplay between these elements is highlighted hy the fact ~hat~enty-eight bibbits hm the eight, second stage interviews contained al1 three themes. This eiangulation of the data reaffi~rmedmy early hunches that a strong correlation existed between CEOs. their ability to reflect on past incidents and their effectiveness. These connections between expenence. self-knowledge, decision-making and action represent a web of support much like Senge's "systems thinking" in seeing the "discipline of wholes" (Senge, 1990, p. 69). This healthy balance of ''eeing interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect chains" and observing "processes of change rather than snapshots" further demonstrates the importance for leaders to continuously reflecr on cumulative and self-knowledge (Senge. p. 73). In addition to these three elements, the role of the senior management team cm not be underestimated for without them, the CE0 is hobbled and unable to assume the responsibility of moving the organization fonvard. The absolute necessity of delegation emerged as a critical success factor to successFu1 leadership. The final three elements in the hierarchical mode1 are decision-making, action and execution. These components feed back into the leaming of both the CE0 and his or her tearn; al1 benefit by examining the outcornes and the speed at which decisions are made. Mon significantly, the holistic quality of the emergent theory lays the ground work for leaming. The critical incidents suggest the iterative nature of leading, learning and executing; each success and each failure is a critical building block to the next challenge. It is therefore, cntical for CEOs to reflect in-action and on-action, in order to propel their organizations ahead. 1 did not anticipate the complexity of the process: while the cntical incidents relayed by the CEOs were certainly replete with subtlety and sophistication. they belied the rigor and discipline necessary to mccessfully execute effective strategy. Two reasons could explain this pde.First, al1 of the CEOs interviewed are superlative comrnunicatoe with years of experience in public speaking, media interviews and "thinking on their feet". The smoothness of their delivery made even the most tortuous moment within critical incidents, appear diffindt, but eniirely manageable. It was during this stage of the analysis that 1 began to contemplate the role of the "rnask of the CE0 and the shield it provides for these relatively isolated individuals, on whose shouldes, so much rests. Occasionally, body !anguage wodd te!l the story hehind hard Uecisims; particularly when related to the termination of ernployees. But overall, the mental toughness and resilience 1 observed, dong with a proclivity to play cards very close to the chest, were common traits in ail interviewees. The fact that these CEOs felt cornfortable. and I believe in some cases, relieved, to share these incidents wirh me indicated a large leap of faith on their part; for their trust in me, 1 am grateful. A second reason resrs in the fact that CEOs are superior decision-makers because they have made so rnany, so often. As seen earlier. many leaders indicated how "easy'' decision-making was and that they had to stop themselves from seizing this responsibility from their senior team. Well practiced as they are. the second stage interviews reveal, on both conscious and subconscious levels, the challenges CEOs continue to face in making crucial decisions and how they work to overcome them. Figure 5: Emergent Theory - Second Stage Interviews Values, Style 9 Maturity, Tenure 9 Instinct, Intuition Methods of Leaniing Methods of Leading Reflec tion Critical Incidents Spontaneity Risks Rehearsai Successes/Failures Inquiry Attitude Introspection PositiveOiegative Senior Management Team 9 Dependency & Co- dependency - Decision-Making - Delegation Decision-Making Impact Action - Trial by Error - Leaming by Doing - Process Driven Launching Out Execution - Accountability - Resdts 1 - Leaming fiom execution Themes Reinforced by the Second Stage Interviews 1. Development of self-knowledge acts as an irnpetus to take action and launch out; it helps CEOs frame introspective questions and develop analytical capabilities. 2. Harnessing cumulative leaming assists in developing processes for decision making, helps CEOs heextemal questions and builds insight inro what works and what doesn't work. 3. CEOs develop their own personalized reflective systems which act as a series of "check and balances" that help determine when sufficient information has been accumulated to make a decision. New Thernes Emerging from Second Stage Interviews 1. CEOs use instinct and intuition to help determine courses of action. 2. Confidence and feu play a role in spurring CEOs into action. 6.1 Themes Reinforced by the Second Stage Interviews 6.2 Self-knowledge As An Impetus to Take Action and Launch Out I've gor instincts based upon a lot ofexperience. 1muy be 43 years old but I think I've got the experience of an 86 year oid woman because I've lived the way I've lived and done the things I 've done. Sonia Contributions of Serf-KROwludge to Professional and Person al Development Helps CEOs Build Confidence to: Develop future courses of action. Leam how to frame and ask the right introspective questions. Develop superior decision-making through development of analytical capabilities. Building Confidence Self-knowledge is a building block for successful decision-making and implementing strategies not only because it builds confidence. but is also permits analysis of performance strengths and weaknesses. The truism. however, that it is far easier to bûsk in glory than agonize over defeat is evident in many of the transcnpts. Words like "anguish". "embmassment". "fear" and "sleepless nights" are somc of the trigger words used to express feelings when things go wrong. As difficult as reviewing lackluster performance can be, the CEOs interviewed did admit in doing so, that they gained a better understanding oE Who they are; What they need to leam; Limitations they may have: How they performed in challenging circumstances: and The benefits of archiving both the good and bad expenences for future reference. Valene's discussion of self-knowledge exemplifies how she harnesses her "winning attitude" to seize oppominities as well as to build inner strength that continually renews ber confidence. As illustrated in the tïrst interview, control is very important to Valerie; one of the ways she maintains it is hou& the high level of codidence fueled by her optirnism. Of Merinterest is her ability to archive patterns of behaviour that have been successful. Maturity and experience contribute to Valerie's self-knowledge as she reflects that she was not always conscious of using her attitude but that, as she rnatured, it becme a talisman for her continued growth and well-being: I always look at the positive side and that was how 1 reacted to.. .negative circurnstances.. .I could identie oppominities to.. .get into new markets, generate more revenues, help someone.. .I always looked at the brighr side. Even if it's not yet crystallized into a reality .. .ifs more an attitude.. .it starts with your self- confidence; when you are self-confident, you believe that you can conno/ (itaiics added) the outcome of the situation through your own behaviour and reaction to [it]. I've been able to do that many times in Iife. But I didn 't realize ut that rime rhar I \vas doing it and I didn 'r know thar I was positive. (Italics added) Paul raises an interesting point as he discusses how self-knowledge shaped his evolution as a leader. Because of the different CE0 positions he held. he is blessed with a variety of operating styles, choosing the most appropnate, depending on the situation. As he moves to different organizations, he confidently grows within his new environment. He stores al1 of these operating styles in his "memory bank". knowing that he may require them again: There are likely di fferent styles for di fferent organizations and di fferent challenges. For example, in the Company that I'm at now we have several different independent business operating units that we own. And if you don? euide or you don? CO-opt,you don9 succeed. If in fact you have day-to-day C operating responsibility for a unit, 1 think that your style rnight change. It might be more autocratie. It may be more directive. It rnay be more passive.. .But 1 think there are very definitely different hones for different courses. Iœma different manager here than 1 was in the last place. Learning How to Frame and Ask the Right Introspective Questions In addition to building confidence. the self-knowledge deveioped through introspective questioning helps fhne situations and develop methods to launch out. Demonstrating the challenge inherent in the Meno Paradox, (see page 53) Anne and Bill continue to live the problem of "not understanding what is needed to leam and yet Peing] only able to begin the process by acting as if it is understood." (Grimmea 1985, p. 8). In descnbing their dilemmas, both use "door" analogies and while these certainly represent baniers, past experiences confm that they must cross the threshold in order to move their organizations ahead. Anne reflects on the cumulative leaming that has allowed her to meet future challenges, validating her abi!ity !o silcceed wing inc:emental steps, "Each door I open[ed] was another big oppominity that 1 didnTtknow how to conquer. I thought to myself, -AmI prepared to take this on?' What 1 generally thought was, 'Well, 1 think I've leamed enough &om this world to be able to apply it to something there'." (Anne). Bill works the problem through verbdization, imagining what could be behind the door and explaining this vision to his ernployees. His 'kelf-talk" also serves to validate the direction he is taking: ". . . when thinking about the other folks who I want to corne dom this dark passageway with me.. .and convince them that yes, there is a door and when we open it, at the end of the passageway, they'll be light on the other side and that's where we want to go" (Bill). Developing Analyticrl Capa bilities Advancing anaipical capabilities and creating a frame of reference fiom which to make better decisions are evident in Tom's use of self-knowledge as he solves problems. As evidenced earlier, CEOs recognize that experience cm teach the wrong things. Tom examines how the strength of previous, sound decisions cm become a senous weakness if used as a template for future decisions. While the past acts as a "fiarning" tool, Tom is conscious of not falling into the uap of "automatic leming" (Senge, p. 163). As defined by Dewey (as quoted in Grimmett, 1985, p. 1 1), Tom is intent on "reframing" problems in the context of current circumstances and future needs: If you make a decision for an investment of $1 million, you know ail of the circumstances and the pros and the cons of that particuiar situation.. .l uiink at the end of the day, the approach is probably based on your former experience. The actual decision might be a difFerent one, mighr be the same one, but 1 think we're approaching the issue fiom the same direction... And the problem is that the last 5 years might not suggest.. .the right solution. Because the last 5 yem might have been completely different .... Your expenence from 1st year is not going to help you at al1 now to sel1 this new product. Many of the CEOs share Tom's skepticism and make conscious efforts to be wary of "quick fix" formulas. In continuing to develop his analytic capabilities, Michael, for example, relies on introspective questionhg to cut a path toward action: "We're wary of applying the same old solutions or a consistent solution across the board. We test it. We just don't fdl into the trap of doing it that way because we've done it 100 times before. So I think, for us, it's a pre-condition. We Say, 'Look. this is what happened last time; this is how we dealt with it. What went wrong or what went right?' 1s it really the same situation?"' (Michael). Striking a healthy balance between the front and rem view minor is also a method CEOs use to improve their ability to execute. While he realizes the importance of learning From the past, Michael is pragmatic about cutsing his losses and gleaning the information he needs to move forward: 1 absolutely don't look back. I try to leam from my experience.. .I always feel that I react rationally given the set of circumstances that occurred at that time. I'm not blessed with foresight where 1 can actually foretell events. So if 1 made a reasonable decision, or a courageous decision or a decision that was right at the tirne. there's no point in going back. 1 certainly lem from my mistakes but. you know, spilled milk is a waste of time. 6.3 The Effects of Cumulative Learning in Developing Processes for Learning and Building a Deeper Understanding of What Works and What Doesn't Work We fefaced a lot ofbad decisions. before ... and ive 've orercome [hem mriny rimes before. so we 've go[ to keep go»ig. mat 's our plan of our artack? ~Llichael Contributions of CumuIative L earning to Profesional and Personal Deveiopnrent: - Developing interna1 processes to evaluate information, draw appropriate conclusions and devise over-arching smtegies. - Learning how to heand ask the right extemai questions. Building insights into what works and what doesn't work. Developing Systems to Process Information The need for control and mastery continues to be of concem as leaders drive their organizations forward. Using words like "directingo', "guidino", , "influencing", .'* "shaping"' and "con~olling",CEOs indicated that a significant part of their leadership rests in the need to feel their hand fimly on the tiller. The need for intemal systems to process information and make decisions iç: therefore. crucial as CEOs confront discontinuous chaqge, wzde though iiifomatitior. overioad and sifi through opinions and advice from multiple stakeholders. To better manage their work, they describe systems they have devised employing imaginative analogies including "fuMe1" (Bill), "distillation" (Paul), "sifiing" (Anne) and 'sponge" (Elizabeth). A fifih CE0 called his system, "an intemal set of niles" (Tom). The characteristics evident in these systems are: Self-discipline; Dual perspectives allowing issues to be examined both from "inside-out" and "outside-in"; a Understanding what is "different" and what is the "sarne" about a situation: Assessment of long and short-term implications; and Archiving information for future use. Begiminj with Tom's system. there is a ngor and self-discipline that he applies to each situation: Well you probably develop, let's cal1 it some internai rules, some interna1 analysis, methods. which you apply to this individual situation. You look at the pros, you look at the cons, get an opinion and either change your.. .decision.. .or just leave it that way ...at the end of the day, you develop a decision-making process for yourself which you apply for the upcoming situation. Bill's graphic "funnel?' andogy adds another dimension to decision-making as it captures not only the collection and analysis of information but also the fast Pace within the process. His preference for verbalization is again emphasized as he describes the importance of talking about things in order to more fully defme them. These verbal iterations are graduaily refmed as the need for closure loorns. His discussion of the funne1 dernonstrates the inter-connectedness of data, speed, information absorption, alignment and the management of the end results emerging fiom the bel: The more we talk about [italics added] these things, the better we do at defining them.. .like afunnel [italics added] shape, you know at the start, the open end of the bel,ideas are pretty scattered and not very organizrd and as you drift into it, they become a linle more tightly comected.. .to pursue this andogy, as the pipeline gets thinner, the speed picks up, the pressure increases so.. .[at] the other end of the funnel, everyhing is travelling pretty fast in the same direction.. .that's the hope. Paul discusses his need for a distillation process* to avoid making costly, repetitive errors. He also raises the specter of tacit knowledge in the fom of intuition (as did many other CEOs in the second stage interviews) and the role it plays in forming decisions. The need for leaders to be master assernblers and "dis-assernblers" of information surfaced as an analytical method whereby data issues. positions, trends and advice are broken down and then built up to determine course(s) of action. Paul dso takes a "best of' approach io clan@. rationalize and develop reasoning for future courses of action: So if decisions are made based strictly on repetition, God knows, I think it would be temble. But 1 think you hopefùlly take some intuitive skills that you build and a resource base of people that you corne in contact with that help influence you.. .But 1 think that you rely on.. .processing dl of those different pieces that corne together to fom that position or that opinion.. ..Ifs a disrillation process. [italics added]. While Paul prefers a distillation process? Elizabeth uses the analogy of sponge to describe how she assimilates information, soaking up both the tangible (the present) and the intangible (the friture): .. .your role is to be a sponge, [italics added] to get a sense of what's happening, what might happen. From your environment, from the people around you, the people you work for, the people you work with. Those elements lead to build diat vision. ..as a CE0 you shouldn't be building a vision in isolation. *Webster's (Webster S New World Dictionary, 1968) defiilion of distillation as it relaies to CE0 decision making is most revealing: sepurathg the more volarile from the less volatile to produce a refined substance [or resuli] Anne's preferred method is to ernploy a "sifting process" that assists her in analyzing "a whole bunch of things.. .not in a very theoretical way. but more in.. .an ovedl sense that this is the right thing to do.'' (Anne). Leaming How to Frime and Ask the Füght External Questions Just as important as forming tough intemal queries the posing of extemal and worldly questions, acts as a reflective aide and driver in professionai development. Every CE0 interviewed prided themselves in being a superior "question asker": "Absolutely . I know the kinds of questions to ask" (Michael). Tma good question asker" (Sonia). Questioning became a touchstone for understanding how the decision-making process develops and it became clear that frarning the right question can make a diflerence in determining the correct response to a situation. The types of questions highlighted in the transcripts are: * What is the magnitude of the decision being made? 4 Is it long or short-term? * Does it have far reaching consequences? * If sornething goes wong, can it be rasily fixed? CE0 operating styles emerge once again as an arbiter of how questions are fomed and feedback is received. As Michael mulls over his organization's next moves in new media, he exhibits an "opent' style, posing fundamentai questions for his own illumination. It is evident that he's not exactly sure what direction to move in, but he knows that move soon he mut. Interestingly, the pressure of the senior management tearn plays an important role in stimuiating his questioning and provoking him to consider options and plans of action: But understanding what Amazon [referring to Arnaron.com] is doing ri& [is important]. ..they're building relationships and those kind of things. But how does it apply to my particular industry? And how should I take advantage of it? 1 want to. It's something that 1 need to understand and go fonvard with but at the sarne time, I've got a business to m. But everyone wants to know, analysts want to know, your staff want to know, "What are we doing?". ..*'Wh& happening?" Conversely, Bill exhibits a more "closed", autocratic style of questioning, using meetings with his senior stafTto test pre-determined theories. If presented with a persuasive counter argument, however, Bill indicates that he will change his point of view. Interestingly, while discussing his method of questioning, Bill became reflective, and recognized the need to appear more open about the process through which he collects information: 1'11 observe the situation [in the meeting] and 1 will corne to a tentative conclusion right away. hdthen 1 use the rest of the time to flesh out, reinforce or counter that tentative conclusion. But my mental habit is to get to conclusions pretty quickly. And 1 know that in discussion with people about issues, sometimes. if 1 don? work hard at it, they'll see my conclusions. They won't see very clearly the reasons for it. 'Cause maybe al1 too quickly, I've firmed up that conclusion and not talked enough about the process through which I carne to it.. . need to] flip the process a linle bit. Ask a few questions, ask what people think.. .. As she matures in her role, Elizabeth realizes the importance of finely tuned questions and descnbes how her technique has evolved. She now carefully tailors questions to the person who can provide her with the moa insightful feedback. She has reaped the rewards of improved question asking as board members give her more tirne and information: "When you're calling them Doard members] you have to.. .have very specific questions.. ..there has to be a relationship benveen why you're asking the question and who you're asking it tu. It has to make sense to them. to that person. ..But once you've done that. once you've started opening doors and also once they start seeing the results, they become much more open and give you much more time." (Elizabeth). 6.3.1 Understanding What Works and Whrt Doesn't It would appear that CEOs are starting from ground zero in discovering how to conduct business these days. There is a chasm as they reflect upon the ways they used to make decisions and the way they now approach them. Elizabeth shared that her strategic plan is domto five pages fiom fifty, while Sonia, Tom and Anne lamented that they find it difficult to concentrate on strategy when as MichaeI puts it. "an internet year is only three months". Tom sets the stage for this new conundrurn: The problem today is past experience. If you go back 5 years. and you wanted to make a good decision, you just evaluated what happened in the last 5 or 3 years. Based on the development there, you make a decision for the future because the past reflects the fiiture. it 's over. It doesn 't work anymore. [itaiics added] .. . [booming] economy, influences like the intemet, communications have reached a level which has never been there before. So the circumstances, the parameters that you are basing your decision on are constantly changing and they're unpredictable. How will I know how a car dealenhip should operate 3 years fkom now? Michael underscores Tom's assessment: "Experience in the year 2000 is not only not the best teacher, very ofien it's the worst [itdics added] teacher?' (Michael). Given the challenge of navigating these changes, CEOs have added two other tools to their arsenal to develop greater understanding of what works and what does not. Cornparhg and contrasting data, extrapolating the "best OP' past judgernents and appreciating the knowledge that cornes with making more substantial decisions, ernerge as some of the methods that are proving effective in the new corporate challenge of "being their fint" (Michael). Reflection on past judgement aids leaders to detemine those decisions that are "fixable?' versus those that are catastrophic. if incorrect. Michael's method is similar and he moves ahead based on taking action and adjusting dong the way: "...the best way is to 00 O ahead and act and fix it on the way" (Michael). Bill echoes Michael's sentiments: "this sentiment of [not] necessady being nght is new thinking around here. There's certainly some entrenched deeply imbedded ideas and practices and over turning that is sometimes hstrating for people." (Bill). In describing her approach, Anne articulates her own set of '*intemal rules": You have more oppomuiity to look back and Say, "Well, just a minute, 1did this last time. The wrong way was "hmmm" and the right way was "hmmm", so let's try that again and see if that works". ..One of the lessons is that you leam to sort the ones [the decisions] that matter and the ones that donTtby asking yourself the question, "What is the worst thing that cm happen?'. ..and saying, "OK,here's the worst case we should test for. What bad diing would happen if we go this way or that way on it?Sometimes that helps sort out everythmg and I think that people who donTtmake decisions a lot are stymied just by that. In speaking about his most recent job change to a dramatically dBerent retail organization, Paul appreciates the learning firom previous experiences while, at the same tirne, does not allow that experience to heavily weigh down future courses of action. While he compares and contrasts the two organizations, he consciously emphasizes their differences, almost as a warning to hirnself of what not to do and how not to act. Paul stresses the importance of being "present", dislikes hearing how things were done in previous work senings and believes that resting on past success can lead to great trouble for any CEO: 1 have tned very hard to Say that this is a differznt circumstance. This is a different world. This is a different environment with different factors. I did some learning but before 1just repeat what 1 did that may have had some success for me in the pst, I beaer ask myself the question, whether it fits in this environment. So I think you have a certain conditioned Ieaming experience and conditioned learning process. but that said, if you rely strictly on experience [mukes sign of ihroai being slashed]. In addition to comparing and contrasting, it is important for leaders to grow with their decisions. The degree of difliculty in decision-making, for exarnple, often rests in the confidence built over time making progressively lvger ones: "Generally good decisions..allow you to continue to build. ..a lot of great successes are ones sustained over protracted periods of time.. .people that can just continually improve and win day-in and day-out. That, to me, is the hallmark of greatness." (Paul). Sonia describes the significance of learning from mistakes and being given the fieedorn to take risks: "For the first year, 1 had ;mY and dDCX just helping me make mistakes. because I'd never made mis[takes]. ..like you knotv, in a traditionai sense? They wanted me to screw up. And I knew that some of this stuffwould jus1 never work, and so 1 messed up and you have to leam that it's OK. So. we nrn so fast in ihis Company thar sornetimes rve have to slow down ro go faster. " [italics added] (Sonia). 6.1 Using Personalized Reflective Methods That Support Leadership Development ... it 's a bit of experience, it S a bit of being connecte ed.... So I talk to a lot ofpeople. Listen to a lot ofpeople .... How didyou see this particular si~rtation?Do you see that as a good opportunity as I see it? ... often times, the data szipporr[s] what I think we should do. And sometimes. [it] opens my eyes ... Valerie - . - Contributions of Person a/ Refecti~eS'~s?ems to Develop Action Plans and Launch Out: Reflection guides CEOs in their understanding of when they have enough information to make a decision. Reflective practice offers a series of checks and balances in decision-making. Determining When There is Enough Information Timing is evetything and knowing when the "moment is right" to take action is a skill that CEOs discussed at length. Sonia's reflections on "slowing down to go fastei' illustrate how reflection can provide the clarity of insight required in the world of high speed change. Tom with wei&ng the risks between quick exeattion and the need for careful analysis to support a cause of action, CEOs often precariously balance themselves between rehearsal and spontaneity in an effon to find their comfort zone. Michael's dilemma regarding new media is an example of this tension, as is an interchange between Sonia and an employee with whom she was having difficulties: We were having a meeting. She was briefing me on a few things that she hadn't done a good job on. [I said], "You seem to be having difficulty". And she looked at me. ..and I said, "It's OK". And it only takes a little while and it shouldn't be rehearsed dl of the time. It's gotta be spontaneous.. .[you] know what's happening out there. I don't wait to do things formally. No one has surprises from me because I'm talking to them all of the time. In contrast to Sonia's more spontaneous style. Michael's approach is more rehearsed. He says that he pictures how things might be, works out responses ahead of time and, generally, anticipates outcomes to his responses: [I] envision it. ..Later today I have to talk to another CEO about a legal issue and in bed last night and on the way to work today, I have been rehearsing the conversation; how it will go and if he says, "A", 1'11 Say "K What my approach will be. It just makes me feel cornfortable knowing and havhg given it some thought. 1 donTtnecessarily write it out, sometimes I do, most of the time 1 don?. When asked if he found hirnself mentally rehearsing, Michael's response was- "Ali of the time. 100% of the time" (Michael). Interestingly, there are a number of orher types of reflection at work in Michael's methods. Conscious and unconscious introspection play an important role in another example where he consciously spends time with a problem, uses reheanal to write out solutions and then unconsciously contemplates solutions by disengaging From it. Michael is confident in the knowledge that problems ivili be solved, boasting that this "system" has yet to fail him: ~Michael:1 write out possible solutions. 1 spend some time with the issue and then 1 leave it done for a day or whatever, and a solution presents itself every time. Jill: Every time? Michael: Every tirne. Without fail. Jill: And that's just because you've disengaged and re-cngaged? blichael: That's right. That's exactly how 1 do it. Now I'm not saying that the solution is always ight. [laughs] Jill: [laughs] But at least it's there.. . Michael: But a plan always happens. Always happens. Disengaging or detaching herself fiom problems is also evident in Valerie's approach to problem solving as she gts out "on the balcony" to determine possible solutions: "1 doit own the problem. The problem just got there and.. .I own the solutions" (Valerie). Later in our discussion, she made a similar observation to Michael's about the power of subconscious and conscious reflection: Jill: So it sounds like your attitude is sornething that was ~bconsciousand now as you have more expenence, it's become more conscious? Valene: Absolutely Jill: Would you Say that? Vaiene: Yes. Absolutely.. ..I can observe myself. Well, 1 cm see myself in situations and imrnediately, 1 would take that positive attitude? kind of condition myself, not to let myselfdown with a problem or some roadblock. Tom's methods are equally effective as he draws more upon inquiry to run multiple scenarios and demonstrates how his experience has allowed hun to grow with situations: "So you're ninning 4 or 5 different, maybe even more, scenarios a day to just cover what might happen. You grow with your decisions because your experience is growing and decisions become easier." (Tom). Paul discusses the fine line CEOs walk in discerning when they have enough information and pays particular aaention to the information he is receiving tiom his team: "A lot of it's intuitive.. .some executives make decisions on less information, some make it on more information. Some never make it and that's part of the problem. If you are into analysis-paralysis you'll never make a decision. So 1 think that you need to adjust to the environment that you are in and you need to ensure that the information that you get is quality, but as importantly, that the information providers are hi& quality." (Paul). Reflective Checks and Balances The experience gained from decision evaluation forms a system of "checks and balances'? that leaders use to site up the urgency. gravity and impact of cunent situations. Anne discusses the wisdom she has accumulated since assuming her leadership role: ''But you know. there are big decisions in the day-to-day world, that are scaq as hell.. .. They're very big and sometirnes they're very hard and you know 1 think, what cornes with [age], maturity and expenence is you might make the wong one. But the world wonot end" (Anne). Tom is pragmatic in his assessrnent of how he determines which decisions to spend more time on and which can be made quickly. Interestingly, while speed was a trigger word in our fim interview, Tom "checked" himself when I asked him about it in our second meeting. He indicated that past experience guides him in estimating the fall- out of decisions and with a big, real estate deai in the wings. it was clear that Tom was analyzing past deals in a thorough and thoughtful manner: .. kvesting wise[ly], [is] a long term, far reaching decision..it would be irresponsible to make a quick decision. That doesn't make sense. If it's a decision where 1 know, if 1do it this way now, I can correct it tomorrow! so what is the discussion here? Please leave me alone. Do it now, and if it doesn't work, we'll change it tomorrow. Fine, no big deal. But if it is to buy real estate in XXX tomorrow, I'm going to live with this. I nin the risk. 1'11 [ose half a million on it, if 1 pick the wrong spot So 1 think that's what it ail cornes domto. Valerie's checks and balances rest in balancing inquiry and spontaneity as she determines how to launch new products into the market place. As she revealed in the first interview, she uses both systematic and intuitive processes to find her way in uncharted waters. She demonstrates in the second inte~ewhow this unique combination supports her in launching out: How do we do that? Step by step.. .But. when 1 say step by step, I don't need to study a lot. 1 need to talk to a lot of people, get them engaged.. .if we need some data, nz're going to find [it], but get into some knd of action. We don? have al1 the answen yet, but we'll get there. And the strategy will develop as we're finding more about the market so what 1 think that I've been able to do is to then identim what we don? [need] and what we need to do more [ofj. Employing a method that mirrors her risk taking nature, Sonia fights through her decisions: "My best decisions are those where my gut [is] twisting and turning and 1 don? know if I'm making the right decision; those are my best decisions." (Sonia). Bill uses the self-discipline of "second guessing" himself in important decisions: "It is al1 the more important for me to double check and not basing my desire to decidr on.. . impatience [or] persona1 bias.. .so asking myself twice and making sure that I've thought it through is important.. .Ifs not that this is a decision that shouldn't be made. it's that yori berter make sure that this is a decision that should be made " [italics added] (Bill). Bill's reference neatly circles back to Schon's assertion of the need for CEOs to conduct as rnuch "problem sening" as they do "problem solving" (Grimmett. 1985. p. 9). 6.5 Summary of Reinforcing Themes CEOs' use of self-knowledge?cumulative learning and development of personalized reflective systems demonstrates fùrther that reflection plays an integral role in their growth. The building of confidence, ability to ask pointed, introspective and extemal questions, as well as adopt an analyticai framework fiom which to process this information, foms the comerstone of a CEO's decision-making and problem-solving abilities. Equdly important is the accumulated wisdom of what has worked in the past and what has not. Finally, the importance of gauging the degree and depth of information required to make a decision, when combined with leveraging "checks and balances" adds velocity and momentum to strategic execution. Insights into the manner that CEOs reflecr upon reflection emerged as an area yet to be hlly documented. While this phenornenon did not directly appear in the literanue review, it could be interpreted loosely as "reflection on action". Taking this notion a step further, a connection can be made between this reflection with what Arg+s has cailed "double loop Ieaming" defined as "learning that occurs when a mismatch benveen intentions and outcornes is identified and is corrected; that is, a mismatch is turned into a match" (Argn-is: 1992, p. 9). Argryis' theory of "double loop leaming" hit me with some force as 1 reviewed how many of the CEOs continued to develop themselves by analy-ing previous analysis: Tom, for example, discusses how he "grows" with his decisions; Anne talks about using the Ieaming of past expericnces to overcorne current challenges; and Sonia relays how previous nsk-taking allows her to take '.even biggei' nsks. CEOs appear to be continually finding new matches from old situations as they confiont new problems. This ability heightens self-knowledge and is particularly relevant given Argyris' assenion that "double loop learning is more relevant for the complex. non-programmable issues" that CEOs find themselves continually immersed in. (Argyris. 1992. p. 9). From Michael's "engagement" and "re-engagement?', to Sonia's comfon that her sut is twisting and tuning. the data demonstrate that '-double loop Irarning" provides insight. strenaens confidence and. hence. the ability to make bener decisions. 6.6 New Themes Emerging from Second Stage Interviews I mean intuition or serendipiv or luck or a confireme of good rhings. they 're al( the same in my book ... they !e al1 a way rhur evenrs manage to pluy ~hemselvesoui Anne Two new themes emerged in the second stage interviews that provide additional insight into the reflective process as Weil as shedding !ig!h? ?ro netension be~vecn conscious and unconscious thought and action. The first are* tacit knowledge, (defined as knowledge that is not declared openly. but implicd) manifests itself in the interviews in the forms of instinct and intuition. Together, instinct and intuition* act as reflective cornpanions providing deeper imer guidance, cementing resolve in decision-making, building confidence. seif-awareness and self-knowledge. These two characteristics support CEOs by allowing them to mot themselves: they also add another layer of "checks and balances" in the decision-making process. Acting as a road map to the knowledge. experience and information arnassed by CEOs. they contribute to the development of analytic capabilities and intemal processes discussed earlier. Analysis of the data suggests that, while ail of the CEOs constantly rely on instinct and intuition. reflection compels them to consciow'y consider the outcome of their actions. A second emergent theme, highlighting the tension benveen feu and confidence. demonstrates ways leaders hamess these tsvo very different motivators. While identified initially in the first interviews, this theme was significantly expanded upon in the exploration of cntical incidents. 6.7 Tacit Knowledge and the Role of Instinct and Intuition CEOs draw confidence fiom the "natural" skills of instinct and intuition as well as experienced-based "practical" leaming. Throughout the interviews. various areas were declared as "instinctive" or "intuitive" inciuding sizing up employees and situations and knotving when things are going wrong. Six of the eight CEOs interviewed. indicate that *For the purposa of tltis rsrarch, intuition i3 defincrd as "the inmediate knowing or Irarning of somcrtIting withour conscious use cf reasoning or insîantunclous apprcli~crnsionw; instinct is "a narural or ucquircd trndency, aptitude or raientn (IVcbstet's iYrw World Dictionnry, 1968). making decisions for them is "instinctive", "nanual" andor "easy". Synergies are evident between tacit knowledge and reflective processes as critical incidents suggest that while reflection is "in play" up to the final moments of making a decision, instinct and intuition ofien form the "final check" before a decision is actuaily made. Tom's comment about this "final" moment represents the views of interviewees: "You know.. .at the end of the day, we do al1 kinds of research. do your homework well, but you're still going to have to make a decision. But the decision u!tim~?e!yis nof going tu tell you ro do it this ivuy or rhnr way. " [Italics added] (Tom). Table 19 below identifies the primary methods CEOs cited in how they use instinct and intuition. These ways have been Merclassified into three major themes: 1. Providing distance and objectivity between the leader and a challenge: 3. Acting as a bridge between the theory and practice; and 3. Supplying the final "crucial check" on a decision or action about to be irnplemented. Table 19: Instances of Instinct and Intuition as Part of the Reflective Process . .- Anne a NO data akai~ab~e To provide objectivity: "intuition is to get distance to judge whether this is a good thing to do or nef Knowledge of strengths resting on intuition than theory: "I'm not naturally good at strategic +L:-I.:-uui-iiig; I'm mmintuitiveo' Bill Sense of what needs to be done: Providing background and ". ..my instinct is to may be not context in "successive decision collect rnough data before making'' deciding .. .I often feel that others want to collect too much data" Elizabeth Self declared "gut" person; now Enough "baggage" to allow you surrounds herself tvith more to rnake a decision with "some analfical people who Say, "Let's level of comfort" think it through?' Michael Instinctual vision as other Stimulus to provide clarity and viewpoints crystallize as much direction: "1 thought 1 had a what the vision is, as what it is not: vision of some clarity" *%bis is not the right direction.. .and 12 reasons just popped up7* - Theoreticai versus practical Tension between "logical expenence: knowing what is right judgements necessary" versus e.g. implementation of strategy '*information driven assessments" without reading the textbook Achieved through "improving younelf by evolving" - Defining moment in decision- Trusting your knowledge: "1 cm making as information is collected see a decision going the wrong and distilled: "but at the end, it is way"; ''1 can size up .. .a person in your gut" 2 seconds" Platform of expenences building on instinct: "I've got instincts.. .because I've Iived the way 1 lived" -- No data avaiIabIe 0 Foundation to which knowledge is added: e.g. "knowing the business" Instinct as an arbiter of style and 0 Information reinforcing feelings: driving resdts: "1.. .select what side of *-youfeel the situation is my brain 1want to use, depending right.. .you want to get a good on.. .what 1want to achieve" reading" 1. Providing distance and objectivity between the CE0 and their challenges Four CEOs discussed methods by which instinct and intuition assisted them in building distance and objectivity between thernselves and important decisions or problerns. As noted earlier, CEOs indicated preferences for viewing problems from the "inside-cet" or "outside-in". Whik rsisp he: inmitire ski!ls to :it:v things from tle outside-in, conscious introspection has ailowed Anne to maintain objectivity. She says, "you have to use your intuition.. .to get a distance to judge whether this is a good thing to do or not." The importance of tmsting yourself when it cornes to important choices is exemplified as Anne goes on to say, "there have been opportunities that have corne dong and I have looked at [thern] and I've thought about it. and it's not for me.. -1suppose you can look back and say, 'Well those were well thought out plans, or else they were just moments where 1 intuitively just.. .felt that it wasn't nght thing to do'" (Anne). Anne's deliberate use of intuition is in contrat to the more unconscious approach Michael uses to arrive at conclusions. He uses intuition to clan@ what the Company shordd or shoidd not be doing. As he discusses an incident when a number of his senior tearn suggested a strategy that was "oEcourse". he describes the actions he took: "It was one more thing that 1 didn t think we should be doing. 1 thought the thinking was flawed. For whatever reason. [italics added] I thought 1 had a vision of some clarity on the situation and 1 hand wote him a three page note on al1 of the pros and cons and why t disagreed and why 1 didn't want to go ahead" (Michael). Bill uses a combination of intuition and reflection to establish objectivity. He assesses his cumulative knowledge in a deliberate and conscious manner, filtering his learning from decisions and applying them to future situations. Like a painter, Bill sketches out how his appreciation of successive knowledge creates contes: "Al1 of your experience certainly powers it [decision-making] and your ski11 and talent.. .adds texturel adds backpound and context which, if you 're ihinking about it, [italics added] should help you.. .successively. each tirne you're facrd with the question of when to make a decision. I have found that to be so" (Bill). Elizabeth and Valene draw equally fiom both the conscious and unconscious use of instinct and intuition to make decisions. Elizabeth describes how ofien the nvo work hand in hand: Tt's a combination of both.. .of havhg been in enough situations to know that sometimes you have to push that button and other times you need to walk away and. in this case, there was gut and there also a lot of baggage that allowed me to make that decision with some level of cornfort.'' (Elizabeth). Valerie also demonstrates dexterity as she details how different circurnstances determine which "side of her hrain" she se!ects: .. .getting resulrs sometimes means that 1 have to be more sensitive to rny environment. 1 have to play the emotional side and getting results sometimes means getting the right processes, the nght systems in place and. and that's the other side that works. So 1 kind of select what side of rny brain 1 want to use. depending on the result that 1 want to achieve..if I want the team to be enthusiastic and engaged and committed to delivering the results, then I'm going to play on the emotional side, because it7snot the rationale side that will excite them.. . 2. A Bridge Between the Theoretical and the Practicd One of the more interesting aspects of the role of intuition and instinct is how it provides linkages between theory and practice. Many of the CEOs discussed the "nred*' for theory, but ofien followed their comments about the impractical nature of it. prefemng to si& their teeth into issues using what they calied their "guts", g~wisdom". "instinct" and "blinding insights into the obvious". With the exception of Tom's Harvard experience, none of the CEOs were active in forma1 education. rather they preferred to develop networks. read voraciously and use reflection. Yet. even with this professed reliance on practice, it became evident that CEOs sought ways to compensate for deficits in theoretical expertise. The cornments of Anne, Paul, Sonia and Elizabeth undencore this compensatory style as they discuss their approach to strategic planning. ?bey begin by examining perceived weakness and then move quickly to instinct to bridge the gap, tuming practical skills to strategic strength. Anne's reflection that she is stronger intuitiveiy than stmtegically has, in fact, provided an impetus for professional development. She says. "you have to &ce them [your weaknesses]. .. 1 think 1 have a good sense of where 1 win and lose on that scale and how I'm gonna have to work at some things I'm not particularly good at.. .Iomnot naturally good at.. .strategic thinking, I'm more intuitive.. ." (Anne). Compensating for her lack of theoretical knowledge, Anne relies on a combination of past expenence and intuition to find solutions: "So 1 think that it's just one of those things. .. [it's] a sifiing process. ..I did a whole bunch of things but not in a very theoretical way, but more in a sort of an overall sense that this is the nght thing to do ..." (Anne). Sonia finds herself in a similar situation to Anne's, recognizing that "planning is a challenge and we need to do more strategic planning. You have tc, have a vision of where you've gona go and what you want to be and what you want to do.. -1have to do a better job of that" (Sonia). She goes on to Say, "Well you have to change every six months. hd it becomes very tactical and it's an evolving document.. .there's no such thing as a strategic planner anymore.. ..I have a contract with myself.. .for the six months, I know exactly where I want to concentrate on.. .and a lot of it is tactical, rather than strategic" (Sonia). Realizing rhat she does things too spontaneously, Elizabeth uses self-analysis to steer clear of unintended consequences, compensating by surrounding henelf with different types of people. Admitting she is a "gut" penon, needing to rely on more measured theory, she says. But what Itve done over the 1st couple of years is surround myself with people who are a bit more anaiytical and tend to sit back and say, "Hey, wait a second. Let's think this through". ..it has made this organization very successful. It's finding the nght mix of people so therets a buffer. Sometimes you need someone to react very quickly. At an emotional level or a gut level, and in other situations you need someone to Say, "that sounds good, but ...let's think it throughf'. An enlightening example of the power of instinctive knowledge is Paul's discussion about implementing a strategy when he first &ved at his troubled Company. He indicates he knew "instinctively" that the plan was right and seems surpnsed at his skill in implementulg a textbook strate= withozit the use of the textbook. While Paul was not exposed to a formal education process like Harvard, it seems reasonable to conclude that previous expenence' networking, reading and reflection forged these instinctive abilities to successfully execute the strategy: .. .when we took a step back, it was absolutely textbook what we did. Absolutely textbook. We did it [irnplemented the strate=] instinctively. But al1 it says was that it was a reasonably tried and me method which tve used to bring the Company back.. .[Il never particularly thought of myself as a genius, and don3 today. But as much as 1 thought it was groundbreaking and thought provoking.. .it's been done hundreds of times before. But the good news is that [while] this may have been the method, rnay have been the coune, we executed it. We got it done. 3. Providing the Final "Crucial Check" on a Decision or Action About to be Irnplemented Knowing when "enough" inionnation has been collected to take action is one of the CE03 most critical skills. Al1 of the CEOs interviewed develop their ovm systems and processes to determine when they have suficient data to take action. It would appear that as experience and reflection corne to bear on a decision or action item. thcy quickly perform a "final check" that cornes in the form of listening to their "gut", "instinct" or "tnisting themselves". Trusting yourself plays a large part in the defining moment of rnaking a decision as well as moving leaders to rnake larger, nskier decisions in the future. Sonia exemplifies this ski11 with her assertion that these days. she takrs -'even bigger nsks." (Sonia). Given that al1 of the CEOs espressed uncertainty about the reliability of "old" decisions. it would appear this new ability to synthesize tacit knowledge and reflective processes is timely. Like finding the right blend of gasoline for a race car engine. each CE0 has a customized compound of information. intuition and instinct. Valerie. for exampie. uses data, but emphasizes intuition. She says, ". ..ohen times pou fer1 that situation is right [italics added]. You want to get some level of comfort, get a good reading. It's rare that it starts with, 'Let's conduct some market research'. ..you must have an idea behind you when you iaunch the snidyg'(Valerie). Sonia, however, appears to have a more balanced approach: '' 1 think you always have to have the facts. It doesn*t matter how good your intuition is.. .Instinct, intuition, experience ail three things carry you a long way" (Sonia). In Michael's case' data provided hirn with the information he needed nor to pursue a certain direction. In anaiyzing the work of a colleague who "had done his homrwork" on a new semice proposal, Michael realized it was "off strategy" and instinctively knew the recornmendation was wrong : "And 1 read it through and it felt wrong .... And it's interesting, I don? know what it was but I read it through and 1 thought, this is not the right direction for us to be going for a whole variety of reasons. And 1 could name the twelve reasons. [They] just sort of popped up" (Michael). Tom displays his preference for inquiry as he descnbes how velocity and density of infomation cm tum the decision-making process into a moving target. Coupled with the density of information, his imate knowledge of "the business" acts as a frame of reference. His discussion of the iterative process in decision-making describes the delicate balance benveen infomation and timing: .. .ifs an eye opener if you push some of these projects and you're getting the information. The information suggests to you more information and different thinking. So you start building on this and you suddeniy redize. this is not the right way to do it. This has changed. So let's look into this once more. It might bnng you back to the sarne thing but it might push you forward ...So I think ifs the whole process. The advantage of a little bit of a longer decision-making Lprocess] lies in the fact that you have more time to evaluate the individual input. the critena and that might lead to a very different decision. Now if you make a quick decision, you decide on a very static picture. This is the situation today. Let's make a decision quickly! And that might not be the way. Paul discusses the many components that he draws upon to make a sound decision including Iistening, questioning, cornparine and contrasting opinions and weighing information. Like Valerie. he prefen a more intuitive approach: You're challenged to linen, youorechallenged to lem. to be intuitive and try and make the logical judgements necessary than information driven assessments. And you try to lem, you try to improve yourself by Iistening, by evolving, by asking questions and things like that, but clearly, you don3 ever have a full mastery of that. Reflection on past judgement aids leaders to determine those decisions that are "fixablet versus those that are catastrophic, if incorrect. Michael's method is sirnilar as he moves ahead based on taking action and adjusting dong the way: "...the ben way is to go ahead and act and fix it on the way" (Michael). Bill echoes Michael's feelings: "this sentiment of [not] necessarily being nght is new thinking around here. Therets certainly some entrenched deeply imbedded ideas and pnctices and ovemuning that is sometime fnistrating for people'' (Bill). 6.8 The Role of Confidence and Fear Andfinally, I just said. " Ke 're going to do if." ÇVe 're going tu srarr it and ifit 's rvrung. we 'Ilflr it, but we 've gorra gel srarted. itlichael Ifthey think that I'rn just as scared as rhey are. rhen they ivonrtfolloiv ... Bill The intermingling of confidence and fear emerged as two powefil motivaton for CEOs in their professional and personal development. Reminiscent of the Chinese "yin and y&' symbol depicting oppominity in adverse situations, the CEOs interviewed are adept in determining action required in the rnost challenging of circumstances. Three ways that CEOs developed their confidence in the face of adversity are: experimentation and launching out to take action: translating cumulative success into confidence. and overcoming self-doubt ro master fear. Experimentation and Launching Out Paul and Sonia conveyed their fears is discussions about how they can no longer simply trust previous problem-solving methods. There is now an expectation that the CE0 and his or her team must question and experiment to avoid the trap of "the tned and true". The data revealed that CEOs are concemed as much about the way they approach problems as they are in actually finding the solutions to them. The need to avoid an automatic response to new situations is described by Paul: ". ..tried and true fdls by the wayside.. .ifs not working. You can't be afraid of that. If you're afraid of that. you just become paralyzed and you don3 allow yourself to think outside what is a very conventional boxot(Paul). Implicit in thinking "outside of the box" is the growing pressure to take daring risks. In discussing the cornpetencies CEOs need, Sonia emphasizes that, of them dl. "the risk-taking piece makes a leader particularly special. I'rn in a Company that loves drivers. I'rn in a Company that thinks outside of the circle. And we do things without a lot of support" (Sonia). Reaching out to younger generations is cited specifically by Valene and Michael as another way to break free of conventional problem-solving. When Valerie sets up a task force, she insists that young people be included because of the different and fiesh perspectives they bring. Michael reaches out frequently to younger employees actively soliciting their feedback. Given this context of unpredictability and demand for innovation. it is not surprising that CEOs discussed openly how lack of clarity and uncertainty compel them to experiment. Bill's belief in launching out reflects the views of Sonia, Valene, Tom, Michael. Paul and Valerie. "When in doubt: do something.. and if it's wrong, OK, do something else. But doing nothing is no fun.?'(Bill). Vdene demonstrates this new mode of action in two ways that portray her confidence in the chaotic high tech world: the first is her ability to "get into action", and the second to transforrn whatever fear she has into confidence that she will forrn solutions. Valerie finds comfon in motion as pas expenences arm her with the confidence she needs to find answers. She gains distance by exarnining the problem from the "outside-in" and describes how she chms her course in uncertain areas: pn] situations [when] I'm not clear and Idon? have any answer [or] I don7 know how I'm going to deal with it. 1 don't have this fear ... 1 say to myself, "Well, you're not there yet.. .you'll find out. Don't worry." It's just a question of maybe listening. Do sornething; get into action. I could characterize this as fez. but at the end of the day, it's not paralyzing me. it's more a boost to Say, "Ok. I'm going to get into action. I'm going to rnake something happenYf 1 don3 [sleep], itos because I'm looking for an answer, not because 1 dwell long on the problem. While he could be fearfùl about the millions to be invested and the ferocious competition he faces, Michael is pragmatic about how he deais with the world of new media. He accepts that the currency of short term success may ody be how well he lems fiom launching out and applies it to fùture iterations. Michael lems from his actions and carefully scans the horizon to ascertain what others have accomplished, assessing their successes and failures and factoring these elements into his own plan: I'm uncornfortable not doing somediing. There are no perfect solutions. I don't want to mode1 rnyself afier somebody else. But you've got to pick your spots because people are blowing their brains out.. .they have been way too much ahead of the curve.. .we've got to si& millions of dollars in this enterprise and we're going to leam f?om our experience.. .the only remwe're going to expect on the project is to lem fiom it. Translating Cumulative Success into Confidence The role of past success is a critical factor in the ability of CEOs to continue developing confidence. Tom's confidence builds in linear progression like a line moving upwards on a sales chart. He traces his success by examining how small, early decisions contribute to his ability to make successively larger ones: "It is continuous growth and development.. .if you're successfùl [in making] small decisions. obviously you have the courage to make bigger ones and hopetùlly, they're going to work too. So you grow with the job" (Tom). The power of past successes cannot be underestimated in its ability to build confidence as dernonstrated by Michael's belief that he will continue to have his board's confiidence in solving problems and finding the ri& solutions: "My board of directon looks to me for leadership. They don3 want me to candy coat the situation.. .I think that if people are used to hearing you corne up with solutions and many of the solutions work, the? gain confidence in you. I think that's a11 people expect" (Michael). Sonia's experience in youth taught her that success, recognition and attention were anainable fshe stretched herself. Like Paul. she is continually teaing hçr limits. chailenging herself to take on larger risks: "The more responsibility 1 had, the more 1 realized that 1 could do. So, you keep extending yourself.. ."(Sonia). Interestingly, Sonia connects her ability to attract attention as the third of five children with her strong track record of taking even bigger nsks and succeeding: ". ..there was not a lot of attention paid to me. ..so 1 needed to do things to get attention.. .I was the first kid to do things that were not allowed.. .I have confidence today and the leadership has a confidence in me.. .they want me to stretch. They want to challenge the statu quo and challenge the way we do things" (Sonia). While riding on the waves of success can be a confidence builder, it is equdly important for CEOs to develop resilience in their ability to recover quickly fiom upset. While not surprising, few CEOs dwelled on past mistakes but Paul seemed to sum up how most CEOs react to a mis-step: "1 think it's characteristic of a good leader that when they get knocked down, they pick themselves up, real, real, quickly. Because success again is rneasured by your ability to succeed on a protracted bais and if you get knocked down, one loss can knock you off of your game. You're not going to be there for very long" (Paul). Overcoming Doubt and Mastering Fear Doubting oneself and the need to overcome doubt manifests itself in two ways in this research. In the first instance. two of the four female CEOs exhïbited the "imposter syndrome"; in the early days. both AM^ and Elizabeth questioned their abilities tc? tale on their leadership roles and half jokingly said they feared one day, someone would "End them out". Each employ different methods to overcome this doubt. Anne uses introspective reflection, re-afirming that she does have the skills and confidence to lead her organization. It would seem that the more she is questioned by others about her qualifications, the more she is compelled to reflect and assess her strengths: ...a lot of people have said that to me. Tney've said, "You know, I still can't believe that [youœve]got this job. How did you get there? What are your skills? What do you think you still need to know?" I'm more analytic about it because Iœvebeen asked it a lot. I ask myself that question. Elizabeth describes an epiphany she had sining at the desk of her male predecessor who had been CE0 for over thirty years. She consciously made the decision that she could not be the former CE0 and had tofind her oivn tvay through self-discovery and building her confidence: Well 1 think at the begiming. there was an incredibie sense of insecurity.. .But I remember sitting at my desk; 1 was at the job for about four months at that point and reaiizing.. .that 1 couldn't be the penon who had held this job for thirty yean. There was absolutely no way, that in four months, 1 could know everything that he knew. I just fmally came to the realization that 1 had to do it on my own, do it in my own way. In the second instance of overcoming self-doubt four CEOs discussed how the growing pressures of leadership affected their abilities to continudly devise solutions. C While there are differences in approach, each agreed on the importance of maintaining the confidence of their board and senior team. especially in times when they are not sure what lies ahead. Relating back to the "mask" of leadership and underscorhg the loneliness and isolation of the positio- they are stoic for the benefit of employees and key stakeholders. Sonia, for example, fmds suppon by looking inside herself and vduing learning fiom her youth. A fighter and a driver from an early age, she believes that her strong self- image is vital to successfid performance, reflecting on how it supports her today: "You have to really like yourself because if pudon?, you can't influence change. You don3 have the confidence to do what's right. 1 really think that a lot of that was built up through my persona1 experiences. II]saw the differences at a very young age. [Il knew how to compete" (Sonia). Whereas Sonia's response to overcoming doubt is centered on introspective reflection and instances that afinher confiidence, Elizabeth focuses more upon the extemal world. A professed extrovert, she discussed in the fust interview how she surrounded herself with an analytical senior team to compensate for her preference for spontaneity. In discussing the burdtn of leadership, and her perception of her team's expectations of her, it appears she has made a swap between her willingness to lead on thrir behalf, in exchange for their support of her spontaneous leadership style: ...p eople tend to be attracted to extroverts who ofien will speak their minds and reflect the thoughts of others .. . because of that you tend to give them the impression that you cmlead, take on projects or issues and handle them. not only on your behalf but on behalfof the people arozrnd y014 [italics added]. So. penonality has a lot to do with the way people perceive you and if you're very chûnsmatic. 1 suspect people think you have no fear, you have very high energy and guts. They tend to assume that you tvill lead and that you will take on responsibilities. Where Sonia and EIirabeth rely on different forms of self-analysis to help them overcome doubt, Michael and Paul rely on the power of action. "1 do think that the people 1 work with have confidence that 1'11 corne up with solutions. So aithough, in your kart of hearts, you Say, 'Boy. 1 don't know if I can ccme up with a solution'. ..It's important that you move the situation ahead. Sometimes that's al1 thatgsimportant" (Michael). Of dl the CEOs interviewed, Paul is the most candid about how he uses fear to overcome doubt. By gening "back on the bikeo' Paul looks fear in the eye and leaps back into action: "You know a lot of it is motivated by fea... if I don3 get back up on the bike, Igm never gonna ride again. If 1 don't get back in the garne, I'm not going to get deait a hand to play in the game. I think a lot of it is motivated by fear. You know people [ask] 'What's the greatest motivation for success?' Well the greatest motivation for success is fear of failure" (Paul). 6.9 Surnmary of New Themes The new themes reintbrced by second stage interviews reveal how CEOs use tacit knowledge in the form of intuition and instinct as a way to build distance and objectivity in decision-making, bridge hegap beiween theoreticai and praciicai 'mowiecige and to perform the finai "check" before decisions are made. While tacit knowledge contnbutes to a leader's development by building confidence in judgement and heightening self- awareness, it is evident that there are pitfalls in it. The "naturalness" of instinct and intuition suggests a subconscious and "cornfortable" way of doing things. If anything, the critical incidents suggest that CEOs should move away frorn the 'konventional box" (Paul), towards thinking "outside of the circle" (Sonia). The CE0 needs to walk a fine line between trust and skepticism of his or her previous knowledge. Clearly, the ability to build on past successes of recognizable patterns and rnethods are essential ingredients in a leader's development, but, these shouid be tempered with a healthy dose of reflection, analysis and context setting in order to avoid nvo significant challenges highlighted in the literature including learning disabilities, automatic learning (Senge. 1990. p. 17 and 100) and skilled incornpetence. (Argyris. 1992, p. 102). By reflecting on the output of decisions emanating from instinct and intuition. leaders can bctter analyze and capitalize on their strengths and overcome weaknesses. Introspectively, leaders can increase their knowledge through keeping a journal and/or meditation. Using inquiry, CEOs cmsolicit the views of others as well as feedback on performance. Rehearsal can provide support as leaders identify areas where they have previous experience, mentally rehearsing and checking for similarities and dissimilarities within the situation. As CEOs develop skills in these areas. they must also be copizant of the effects of fear and confidence. Interestingly, each prompts leaders to take action: fear, because it suggests vulnerability and possible failure; and confidence, because it suggests positive vision and success. It appears that the antidote to fear is to "do something" and perhaps this may explain why CEOs are cornfortable with the soothing rhythm of motion that corne from proactively attacking problems and challenges. A comentone of "launching out", taking action, is the chief method of discovery for CEOs. Some are fearless in their action as Sonia, Elizabeth, Tom and Valene appear to be, while Paul, Michael, Bill and Anne are more deliberate and studied in their approaches. As fear divides the operating styles of those interviewed, however, they are united in their self-confidence. In this case. maninty, expetience and self-kcnow!ed,-op xt3 primary supporters of a CE03 ability to sustain momentum. The ability to retlect on learning that has occurred in successive positions and to understand the similarities and differences in cmcial situations are lynchpins to a CEO's success and therefore. to building a hi& level of confidence. RESPONSE TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS 7.0 Introduction This midy explored the role that reflection plays in the personal and professionai development of four fernale and four male Chief Executive Officen. Through an analysis of cnticai incidents, it began by examinine each person's gmwth and development individually and then moved to develop over-arching horizontal themes. The theory that emerged from the data suggests that there is an intense and productive tension between a CE03 past experience, his or her reflection on this experience and its ability to move organizations in exciting new directions. IVhile the literature review suggests that the methods of leading and leaming to lead are profoundly changing as CEOs grapple with a plethora of information. intense cornpetition and sophisticated technologies, what remains the same is the need for CEOs to take responsibility for their own development. The study re-affirmed the dual challenges inherent in self-developrnent: not only are CEOs isolated and time poor. but there are few forma1 leaming oppominities availabie. tn order to thrive. therefore, it is imperative that they consciously develop mechanisms. whether through conscious reflection, reading, networking and/or working with top-notch consultants and peers to improve performance. Three major themes emerged during the literanire review that fueled the questions of this snidy: first, and most compelling, is Mintzberg's contention that leaders are prone to action and not reflection: second, Cashman, Connor and Pearmanoslargely prescnptive discussion of the significance and need for reflection and finally, an assessrnent by some respected experts that, given the recent spate of failures of many powerful organizations, CEOs need to do a better job of leading their organizations. The conclusions borne out of the data indicate that, indeed. CEOs are extrernely action-oriented, but they are aiso highly reflective, drawing upon the insights gleaned fiom past expenences to inform future decisions. Secondly, CEOs are hungry for resources but are jaded by "quick fi$' leamhg through books andor experts who daim to have a magic solution. Findly, CEOs are highlhly cognizant of the need to do a "better job" and are actively and consciously developing their own personal leaming systems to enhance thek leadership. 7.1 Question #1 - Do CEOs reflect as part of their professional and persona1 development? What tnggers CEOs to reflect? What various methods do CEOs use to improve performance? What role does "self-development" have in the growdi of a CEO? The purpose of diis research project was to determine what role, if any, retlection plays in the personal and professional development of CEOs. As the data analysis progressed, it became clear that reflection plays a significant part in developing a CE03 ability to leam how to leam and to learn to lead in many ways. Triggers for Reflection Occur in the Following Circumstnnces: "People issues" emerges as one of the most important uiggers as CEOs re refiection helped them during terminations or difficult performance reviews. Important meetings. involving negotiations or where much is at stake, are a major stimulant to reflection; CEOs use rehearsal and introspection to prepare for these meetings. Impending decisions, new strategy development, and product development ofien inspires reflection as CEOs analyze past successes and failures. ming themselves with knowledge of "what works" and "what does not work". Crisis and/or profound change prompts reflection as CEOs use it to unlock the lessons from cumulative knowledge and develop new, iterative strategies. Fear acts as a powerful reflective stimulator for some; ofren out of fear came confidence as CEOs draw cordort fiom remembenng situations that are, perhaps, worse than current circumstances. Changing jobs motivates CEOs to harness previous experience from other positions to meet the demands of the new one. Media interviews, public speaking, and preparation for conference presentations provides CEOs with oppominities to think through past actions and nimulates reflection. Methods to Improve Performance The evidence suggests that CEOs draw upon conscious thought (in the form of reflection), conscious action (in the form of collecting and analyzing i~hm.z?ion)rnd tacit knowledge (in the form of intuition and instinct) to solve problems, make decisions and form judgements. As demonstratrd in the first and second stage emergent theories (see page 128 and 159, these components are linkcd and inter-dependent in enhancing CE0 performance. Conscious Reflection Al1 of the leaders intewiewed demonstrate varying degrees of ability to use conscious reflection to become more aware of their habits. style and preferences. Interestingly, as leaders unconsciously define areas for progress, conscious reflection appears to support these developmental areas. Table 20 outlines dominant methods of reflection and areas for growth : Paul, Valene and Tom prefer "inquiry?'; Sonia and Elizabeth favour "spontaneity", with Elizabeth beginning to use more inquiry: Bill and Anne are more prone to use "introspectiony and Michael adheres to "rehearsal" with evidence suggesting he is becoming more spontaneous. An earlier contention that leaders move through stages of reflection as they progress in their careen appears incorrect. The data suggest that CEOs use al1 types of reflection, with each leader using a minimum of two "stages?'. In describing their critical incidents, the degree of farniliarity, or unfmiliari~,with a situation became a tipping point for the type of reflection chosen. Some CEOs immediately jumped to a diaiecticd level' harnessing the learning hmprevious situations and applying ir. Altematively, some found themselves in completely new situations and used the "survival" mode. Assessing strengths and weaknesses also emerged as a pnmq function of conscious reflection. CEOs made deliberate choices about how to enhance deficits in different ways: some surrounded themselves with individuals who possessed skills they lacked; others made conscious efforts to become an expert in new areas. Regardless of the stage of reflection chosen, a CEO's predominant reflective rnethod improved performance by: 1. Bziilding confidence to undertake new strategies; 2. Developing afiarrte of refirence for the future by analyzing the past: and 3. Becoming more self-analytical to examine rationale for decision-making. Conscious Action The following merhods emerged as ways that CEOs enhance their performance: a Environmental scanning and the ability to cul1 and synthesize information from a vast amount of disparate sources sparks innovation and scenario-driven strategic thinking. This method dominates the conscious action used by CEOs. From working the telephone to attending black tie di~ers.CEOs make use of every opportunity to stay connected with those whose support and opinions they value. Their well-developed nenvorks consisted of: Intemal resources from the workplace (e.g. senior management) with the caveat that, in al1 cases, CEOs believe there is much they can not share. Paid consultants are a major aid to CEOs because of their high levels of expertise and confidentiality. Broad, extemal nehvorks of peers and colleagues ranging hmother CEOs in non-cornpeting organizations to long trusted suppliers. Advice hmfamily memben, especially spouses in two cases, proved to be an important resource. Mentors from the "mothership" of large, international organizations. in the case of two fernale CEOs. Al1 CEOs develop systematic methods to work through problems (e.g. Bill "talks things through"; Michaei makes notes: and Elizabeth works the phones). Table 20: Role of Reflection in CEOs Persona1 and Professional Development $oIe-of Reflection ;; .i;+$$i:i ,"--~&~pZ~~*+?,.-d.- ,. :,. .;.. -J.z,.-L:7k-4-:.. ,,!f.'L .-- --.22,233? >A4:.-a- , -. ! . . .-- . . , ;&?:i-'2s 7 ,+- ,+- .a- .-. .- - -. -. *.>??.- 1 Anne 1 -Introspective and -Support launching out spontaneous -Developing confidence -Learning fiorn past to move -Promote internai dialogue -Development of wisdom Elizabeth -Spontaneity and -Self-analysis to improve introspection; some performance inquiry -Identification of patterns and stages i -Progressing from traditionai leader to coach & mentor Michael -Rehearsal and -Leam to become Less of an - - t- inquiry: discovering "operatof' spontaneity -Devise fitture directions in new media -Crystallize positions and strategies - - Inquiry. -Analysis of pnor knowledge spontaneity ; -Support need to excel iii many developing more areas introspection -0vercome fear of failure -Spontaneous and -Build self-confidence and inquiry tolerance for risk -1nner dialogue re-affirming direction -Launchhg out - -- -1nquiry: some -Leamhg fiom past experience introspection to idkn future directions -Analysis of cumulative decisions Vale rie -Leaming how to use successful previous patterns to overcome challenges F -Using lefi and nght brain strategies -Leveraging inquiry and dialecticd methods The Role of Self-Development in the Growth of CEOs Significantly, both informa1 and forma1 methods revealed in this study validated Kouzes' and Posner's contention that "ultimately leadership development is self- development" (Kouzes % Posner, 1987, p. 288). Self-developrnent manifests itself jbrmally through: A CE03 deliberate choice to participate in public speaking and/or media interviews. As CF@s prepared for these occsiocs, the, reviexed pasî incidzrns, rheir rcac tions to them and contemplated different approaches for the future. Continuous reading of a wide variety of matenals. CEOs' preferences include business books, the latest novels, magazines such as The Econornisr. Hmard Business Review, and the new intemet e-zines. Participation in associations was also preferred as s method to keep up with vends as weil as maintain and enhance nehvorks. It is interesting to note that while only Tom was involved in formai education (at Harvard) its impact on him was significant. He was immersed in the "reai life" cirama presented in a case snidy and wanted to know how it "rnded". In addition. Tom indicated that Harvard "confirmed" he was going in the right direction and in discussions about his plans, he anributed their correctness by linking them with knowledge he gained there. Informai self-development was evident in the following activities: Five of the eight CEOs mention the importance of physical fitness as a way to "stay sharp", de-stress, and provide balance in their lives. a Most CEOs believed that a well-rounded point of view was important to their growth. To stay in touch with redity, some CEOs talked about taking the subway, viewing popular television prograns and meeting with al1 levels of employees for fear of developing what one CE0 called. a "Forest Hill" or an "elitisf' point of view. 7.2 RESEARCH QUESTION TWO Area #2 - If CEO's do reflect, what contribution has reflection made to their leadership abilities? + How have CEOs and their leadership changed as they have grown in their careers? In what ways do they believe they have enhanced their performance? How do CEOs lem how to lead? How do CEOs Lem to lem? How have CEOs and their leadership changed as they have grown in their career? In whrt ways do they believe they have enhanced their performance? During the interview process, leaders were asked to examine how they have grown as their career progressed. As discussed earlier. many CEOs cited previous jobs as an integral part of their leadership growth. The ability to transfer knowledge from one position to the next broadened their repertoire of skills. allowing them to choose the most appropriate skill to the situation at hand. As Paul says, "1 don't think you ever abandon them [opcrating styles]. . .I think you have it as pan of your bag of tricks.. ." (Paul). Table 21 outlines some of the highlights of this growth: 0 Maturity has brought a broader. global outlook to their positions: 4 Development of self-confidence and a positive attitude assisted leaders to "get out on the balcony" (Kouzes & Posner. 1 957. p. 13 1 ). and; Acquisition of knowledge acted as a prompt to continue discovering themselves and examining their leadership. While al1 of the CEOs demonstrated their ability to use different methods of reflection to enhance growth, many had a preference. As highlighted earlier?unconscious dependence on one type of reflection can be dangerous (see page 21). As Elizabeth, for example, explores her reliance on spontaneity. she realizes that she is not as well prepared as she needs to be for important events. Bill acknowledges that his introspection sees him more focussed on his needs. radier than those of others. but that he is trying to irnprove in this area. In examining CE0 growth in the context of Lang's discussion regarding the four stages of growth in leaders (see pages 21-22), it would appear that Bill, Paul, Valene and Tom are Stage II leaders favourùig their own preferences and not fdly exploiting type differences (Lang, 1995, p. 23). Each of these leaders shared critical incidents that demonstrate a need to dominate and control. Elizabeth, Michael, Anne, and Sonia appear to be Stage IV leaders, acknowledging type difîerences and working more openiy and constructively with differences. This wls evident in exm,ples providcd that Lidicated their willingness to allow top management to play out their differences (Ibid.). While Lang suggests that CEOs cannot afford the "luuus." of strong preferences and underdeveloped alternative styles, the data suggest that strong preferences form the basis of a CE03 operating style and the bedrock of their self-confidence (Lang, 1995, p. 309). It is their ability, however, to take the best of these preferences and adapt them that separates a competent, From a superlative, CEO. While CEOs indicated that they "apologized" for making mistakes in situations where preference prevailed and used "different horses for different courses". they were emphatic that their preferences and unique leadershi p qualities were invinsic to their success. Like Academy Award actors. CEOs are mie to their core. but have the ability to assume many different parts. Paul captured the sentiments of many when he said. "that's [my way of leading] I'm not gonna change". While Sonia's major leadership breakùirough is that she leamed she could not "do it alone", she is equally emphatic thai she will aiways stay connected to her roots and remain mie to her beliefs. While remaining meto themselves, CEOs are busy improving professional cornpetencies as they proclaimed they delegated better, were more tolerant of other views and were less "hands-on". The CEOs realize the importance of leaving detail and physical execution to their teams, knowing that this will help them in def~gthe preferred fùture (Senge, p. 1990, p. 106). Michael, Sonia Paul. and Tom emphasize that ensuring those results occur is their major role not how they occur. As CEOs discuss their changes, similarities and dissimilarities are evident. Some believe that they have become "more patient' over time. while others see themselves as being "less patient". Sonia and Valerie are the only two CEOs who feel that they have not change4 This could be attributable to Sonia's incredibly diverse background and Valerie's success in leveraging patterns that have worked for her in previous jobs. Table 21: How CEOs Have Changed Anne Completed the hardest thing fïrst; start up of org. More patient; more cornfortable More patience; better delegator Can not expect al1 results imediately Elizabeth More mature; not as emotional; more pragmatic Less insecure More time thinking dmu? balme LI !ife More confidence in people; mentoring, not leading Previously concerned with how things were done: now more amined to results More tolerant of individual differences Heads-up, rather than heads-down, orientation Grew into roles of increasing responsibilip Becarne more sophisticated as challenges becarne larger; more well rounded in view of the world and of his business Less j~d~mental:more patience for mistakes Less patience for lack of cornmitment or effort -- Sonia Realized cm not achieve results on her own a Sfays comected to older fnends and true to herseIf Tom Life and surroundings change when assumed position Relationships with colleagues changed Less patient; pressure changes you - -- Vale rie Values & principles Never thought she wasn' t ready Roleas motivator & team player sarne Had met challenges repeate* in O ther positions How do CEOs learn how to lead? In analyzing how CEOs Ieam to lead, several patterns appeared that were common to leaders. Table 22 highlights these methods: 1. Al1 CEOs use trial and error as one of their most valuable learning tools. As identified by Kouzes and Posner, Mintzberg, and Pearman? the ability to fui1 is a powerful mechanism, teaching CEOs alternate courses of action. Leaders spoke about the need to "set into action". "do something", "take a risk" md "move things forward" as methods to achieve results. Clearly, some CEOs were willing to take more risk than others? but al1 agreed that the act of ..doin,'. 1s' a &momentof tmth". The conundrurn to move the organization ahead without knowing what will work until it is implemented is a common challenge area for leaders. At the point ofexecution, CEOs quickly make adjustrnents, "fixing it dong the wayt' as Michael says. until satisfied with the resul ts. 2. Menton play an extremely important role in shaping participants' perceptions about leadership and the qualities required to lead. In six of the eight cases, CEOs mentioned. without prompting, that mentors make a difierence. Sonia Valerie, Paul, Anne and Bill cited mentors as being pivotal in early leadership development. In addition. Sonia and Valene discussed their cunent mentors from parent organizations. These individuals are not only highly respected. but also trusted. 3. It should be noted that CEOs observe other CEOs, mostly at a discreet distance. it was evident in the interviews that some CEOs greatly admire the work of their peen. using what may apply in their own organizations. 4. Conversely, al1 CEOs emphasize that? by observing negative role models. they witness what are undesirable behavioun and practices. Tom,Paul, Valerie and Sonia appear to have had the most harmful experiences working in climates of bullying, discrimination and harassment. Interestingly, rather than making them bitter. these experiences reinforced positive behavior as they vowed never to Iead "like them". 5. Learning to lead by tmting one's instinct and intuition is another method shared by leaders. To paraphrase Tom, "decisions are not made by themselves" and the defining moment occurs when a CE0 linens to the collective voice of past experience. CEOs reference both, or one of, "instinct" and "intuition" as methods that inform future action. Al1 women rated at lest one of these elements of "high importance"; males made some reference to each. but not to the degree of women. (See papes 108-202 for discussion on these differences). 6. Finally, early leadership expenences lefi distinctive marks on CEOs and significantly. whether it was leading a project team or acting in a senior management capacity, the participants had a taste of leadership early on. Elizabeth took on leadership in her teens, while Tom and Valene led project tearns in their 20s. Paul, Michael and Sonia held senior positions, gradually working their way into CE0 positions. while Anne and Bill held leadership roles in not-for-profit organizations at young ases. hongthe reflections that CEOs shared regarding leading in their formative years. some of the important lessms learned included: Bearing the "burden" of responsibility; Developing a strong communicaiion style: Trusting oneself; Taking risks; Analyzing what makes a "good" decision; Learning fiom mistakes and then moving on; Defining a direction or vision that is meaningful for people: Convincing people that they should follow you and that you can not do it alone; Showing little, if any, fear; and Creating persona1 systems and processes to move things forward. There were some areas where CEOs employed differing methods to lem how to lead. Sonia, Anne, Valerie and Michael actively entertained public speaking oppominities, using them not only as a method to impart knowledge, but more impoaantly to re-affiirm their actions and verbalize possible funue scenarios. (This experience could be equated to a non-formalized version of Tom's expenence at Harvard.) Elizabeth was more selective about speaking opportunities, detiberately choosing to speak on her leadership to allow her to reflect back on her joumey. Tom,on the other hand, uses public speaking rarely and, only then, to rally his troops. Bill did not mention public speaking at all in his interviews. Michael, Elizabeth, Sonia, Valerie and Bill were more bookish than others, reading new business books and educational magazines to find tips andor case snidies to help them iearn how to lead; in addition to this reading, theey dso red orher books for entertainment and general knowledge. Tom and Paul read some books but not to the degree that the others did. Arme did not mention books at al! in her interviews so it is unknown what her habits are. Table 22: How CEOs Lean to Lead* 4 Conference attendance + Negative role models 4 Public speakhg 4 Very strong network Developed network 4 klanagement position at a young age * Held a variety of leadership positions 4 Mentors 8 Different role models 4 Declared audio and kinesthetic 8 Mentors preferences 4 High preference for intuition fl References to instinct and intuition 4 Political and histoncal biographies + Public speaking very important @ Mentor @ Negative role models 4 Exercised "quite leadership" at a young * Voracious reader age 4 Management position at a young age 4 Developing network @ Strong extemal nenvork 4 Some reference to intuition + Mentor High reference to intuition and instinct . Tom- -- , . - Voracious reader Negative role models 8 Presentations on leadership halysis of past experience Strong network Some networking + Conference attendance Led project teams at a young age * Thmst into leadership at a young age Formal education @ Hi& ~referencefor instinct Some reference to instinct @ Public speaking very important Nehvork of netsvorks * Sets reading goals Public speaking very important 1, Mentors Mentors Was "in charge'' at an early age Led project tearns at a young age 4 Intimate srnaller network Avid reader 4 Some reference to intuition and instinct Intuition of high importance How do CEOs learn to learn? If there is a common element in al1 interviewees, it is that CEOs are not cornplacent. They are always in action, and therefore, aiways learning. This need for action was abundantly clear as 1 observed CEOs fidgeting and checking their watches during our meetings. For some, I was sure that this represented the longest penod they were sicting ail day! The research suggests that CE0 learning centres upon two elements: methods and motivators. It would appear that the style of learning hinges upon defining experîences in youth (not necessarily leader-based) and personality type. Having said this, it is clear that CEOs need a reason to lem, and often the rnotivator is just as important as the leaming itself. Early Learning Interestingly. the methods by which CEOs learned in youth set the stage for future knowiedge acquisition. The sentiment, '7 did it this way before and it worked" is a cornmon theme and it is clear that rnethods become ingrained early. CEOs should be wary of the potentiai of their abilities. turning into disabilities. Examples of the profound impact of these early learning methods have been referenced earlier, but bear repeating in this contes: Elizabeth, feeling compelled in her early leadership to have "the answers" and tuning inside herself to find them (correlation with self-doubt); Paul, continuaily ex~endinghimself because of his desire to excel as his older, athletic fiends did (correlation with fear of failure); Sonia's conditioning to continually take greater nsks (correlation with need for attention). Personaiity plays a role in shaping leamhg methods as demonstrated by Bill's introversion and heavy reliance on books to receive knowledge. He acknowiedged that he now realizes he needs to reach out to people, which is becoming a second. method for him ro accumulate wisdom. Sonia and Elizabeth, both professed extroverts. expressed a need for extemal stimuli but tempered this by declaring that they learned early about the need to be highly self-analytical because of their preference for extraversion. In addition to examining individual learning methods, the evidence supgests that families also had a significant impact on learning styles. Michael's remembrance of his father teaching him to treat garbage men with the same respect as presidents; Paul's recollection of his father telling him to listen, more than talk: and both Elizabeth's and Valerie's memory of the faith of their families had in them al1 reverberate throughout the transcripts. Methods of Lerrning Leaders now use a number of ways to lem including observation, analysis. experimentation, diverse experiences and practice. Each of these components contributes to cumulative experience. Use of tacit knowledge and trusting instinct and intuition is also cited by al1 CEOs as an important piece of the learning pde. "Second guessing". "taking a step back". and "knowing when a decision is not working?' are al1 wys that CEOs hamess inner feeling to guide action. Perhaps an obvious finding. but one of the more interesting, is that CEOs have very different leaming needs that do not appear to be served by current, formai educationai prograrns. In a discussion 1had with Bill, this need crystallized, as he lmented the volume of prescnptive leadership books, the fact that he was "sick of' school and that there were not a lot of alternatives open to him to leam, except to change jobs: It cm be I'm stale, I'm tired out; I've been there. done that, so better get away from here .. .the opposite side of that coin is I wnt to be reinvigorated and the things I have leamed to date in my current position, I'rn certain I can apply productively in a new sening. It will be good for me, and hopefûlly, it will be good for the new environment. Yeah, 1 do that somewhat consciously. Certainly in coming here, 1 had the feeling, well, this last gig has about run its course. It would appear that CEOs are "super leamers", acquixing knowledge and experirnce using the force of need and the will of penonaiity to build their own systems. The evidence suggests that necessity has dnven leaders to formulatuig these methods and that they recognize they will have to do it on their own. As identified in Schon's (as quoted in Senge, 1990, p. 299) concept of "reorganization and reconstruction", the CEOs interviewed have a sound 'Bppreciation of the self as teacher" (see page 43). Senge's contention that the work of the leader is "designer" (Ibid.). could be taken to another level as they design their own learning methodologies. Another fmding is the significance of volunteer experience as a "practice" ground for learning. Associations provide a "safe" haven for aspiring and existing leaders to lem and test things out, erpecidly when it cornes tu motimting people who are not being paid. It should be remembered that both Michael and Valerie indicated that they never joined a volunteer board that they did not end up ninning. Styles of leaming are aiso reflective of a CEOs' curent circumstance: Anne uses "speed leaming" and reflections *'in action" because of her rapidly changing circurnstances; cumulative experience form "chahs of leming" bom which she can make future decisions; Bill learns by "talking it through" and using '-soak tirne'? as he implements a breakcthrough web technology: Elizabeth straddles reflection .'in action" and '-on action" as she balances her new leadership role uith past experience: Michael uses his personal leaming system that rakes problems to the next level in the face of the new media challenge: Paul imrnerses himself in a subject. becorning a "dangerous expert" as his retail organization, embraces sophisticated new information technology; Sonia and Valene continue to rely on the life-lesson that adversity teaches resourcefulness as they excel in male dominated environments; Tom adheres to a continuous process to build on cumulative experience as he contemplates the fall-out of a recent merger. Motivaton for Learning A number of factors motivate CEOs to learn and' depending on the intensity of the circumstance, CEOs may master a completely new subject area, or pick up a tip or two. Some of the most compelling motivaton are: fl As CEOs attain positions of higher stature, they become more isolated. As a result, they are forced to work things out on their own, often using introspection; Crisis is a powerful motivator that cornpels CEOs to launch out, build scenarios and experiment; * Trying and failing and trying and succeeding proved to be of equal importance in contributing to the leaming curve; and s Lpiphanies arc poweiful moti~iiiar~to leam more or io dziegate and misr. b"&hen Michael "got caught" pretending that he knew something, he realized that it was not his job to get his "hands around ail of the detaiis". The epiphany taught him to let go. Elizabeth's reaiization that she would never "beg'her predecessor taught her to have greater faith in herself and Paul's doubt about assuming his current position was assuaged when he realized that he needed to help the 14,000 people that were counting on him. 7.3 Question # 3 - Based on the outcorne of the research, what conclusions can be drawn to support future professional and development interventions? Are differences evident in the ways that male and female leaders reflect? What cm be learned about CEOs' effectiveness in light of their ability ro reflect? What are the implications of the findings in developing the leaders of tomorrow? Are differences evident in the ways that male and female leaders reflect? You worddn 't ask a man who is a CEO,"Horv did you get to the top?" Valerie it should be noted that this research did not set out to overtly and specifically examine differences berween men and women leaders but, rather, to explore what emerged fiom the interviews. There were no specific questions directed at either males or females regarding their perceptions of male and female leadership styles. What surfaced is a bit of a one-sided story, in that females did make cornrnents about male leadership. In the first interview, Elizabeth. Sonia and Valerie spent some time discussing the merits and detractions of rnale leadership. AM^ was the only female CE0 who did not discuss this issue in the first round: however, she did raise it, unprompted, in the second inte~iew. Males did not talk at a11 about female leaders. This discrepancy itself speaks to the chasm between male and female leadership. Fernale leadership attributes, it would appear, do not register on their radar screens. For women, however? male leadership is very much on their thoughts; it has an incredible influence because of the sheer volume of rnale CEOs and the fact that media continually focus on the glas ceiling and "wornen and life balance" issues when interviewing female leaders. The fmdings of Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tanile shed Merlight on this issue. lheir snidy of 1986 indicates that male researchers typicaily omit wornen fkom most scientific studies and that "when scientists tum to the snidy of women, they typically look for ways in which women conform or diverge fiom patterns in the study of men" (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986. p. 6). They go on to Say that "men's experience and competence is a "baseline" from which judgement is made, ofien to the detriment of women" (Ibid). Extending this line of thinking it would appear that the media has done a similar thing in measuring wornen leaders against their male counterparts. It is not surprising, therefore, that differences did emerge in the ways that male and female leaders reflect. The biggest issue for dl women interviewed was their reflection on being a ''wornan in a man's worldo'. Because of this added pressure. female leaders develop different responses to cope with this challenge. As mentioned earlier, both Elizabeth and Anne suffer from the imposrer g~ndrorno.In E!izlbeth's cm. she states that initially this problem increased her level of insecurity but she emphasized the role that introspection and self-analysis played in helping her ro realize that she would never "be" the male that held the job for the past 33 years. Her introspection was instrumental in building her confidence. In Anne's case, she appeared fitigued by the continuous questioning she received asking her to describe her strengths and weaknesses and how she attained the position. Both from within her oganization and without, Anne is questioned. When we met, she had recently been through an intensive 360" review process. In addition to this. she is interviewed frequently by the media, asked to speak at conferences and is vigorously sought out by young women who are hoping that she will act as a mentor to them. In listening to Anne, this concentrated "interrogation", ~vhileclearly sharpening her self- knowledge and reflective abilities. is exhausting. I received the impression from both Anne and Valerie that they had answered the same questions repeatedly and wished the questions would stop. While Valerie was not as weary as Anne by the questioning, she and Sonia both had a different response to the pressure by becoming extremely positive. While both Sonia and Valerie commented that they felt they were in a "fishbowlo', both had an optimistic outlook. In Sonia's case, she indicated that even though she was the most senior women in the organization, she felt a lot of 'Ponfiidenceo'; in Valene's case, her positive outlook Ied her to assert in the face of discrimination that "they don't know my value". A second major issue is that women simply viewed themselves as different fiom men and this, in and of itself, becarne a major part of their retlection. Sonia was the only female CE0 who did not specifically register her perceptions about differences. There is much to be leamed regarding women's perceptions about men's leadership. The highlights are as follows: Table 23: Female Perceptions of Female and Male Leadership than mdes execution , Profile , -!ess obsessed with the? , -a man nakes the I I 1 own profile 1 organization versus the ( other way around Integration -more integratrd within -men do not integrate their organization themselves Cornmonalties and - find commondity arnongst -men don't need to find Differences individuals, rather than connections differences Work Ethic in Schooi -felt they needed to get 90s -jus wanted to pass in school Arrogance -women less arrogant -fernales witnessed more arrogance in males Support -women not afraid to ask -no equivalent comment for directions, but afraid to ask for support Weaknesses 1 -women reveal their -viewed as negative for men weaknesses 1 to reveal weaknesses Imposter Syndrome -no equivalent comment 1 -men do not like the imposter syndrome; they organize their life around Ligoais Role Models -pick the best of personality -no such thing as stereotype traits pattern in men I Ownership of Problems -take ownenhip of -no equivalent comment While it is difficult to validate these perceptions, some appear more 'me"than others. The need for women to establish relationships, both collectiveIy and individually. is a strong theme throughout the female interviews. Men, while concerned with loyalty and trust, appeared far more autonomous and, hence, did not exhibit the same needs that women had to iibuild bridges". A similar observation can be made regarding how women integrate themselves within their organizations. It was interesthg to note, for example, that in two male interviews, they insisted no one called them "M.XX. I found this strangely anachronistic and believed, though, that they tmly felt this was an important way to integrate themselves within the organization. 1 found linle to substantiate the perception that male CEOs were not cornmitted to strong execution. On the contrary, males pnded themselves on the fact that execution was oae of their prime leadership competencies. Nor did the data indicate that men were reticent about revealing we~4nesses:h fxt, in amy of hekcrkicd incidents. &bey specifically acknowledged weaknesses and rnethods for improvement. Whilr by no means grounded in the data, it rnay be concluded that womcn reflect in the following ways: More compelled to introspection due to the uniqueness of dieir position (e.g. not as many female CEOS); ihis assists in the identification of strengths and weaknesses: 4 Greater reliance on spontaneity because: intuitive skills are strong nvo of the females are in relatively new job situarions nvo CEOs identified this as a preference : Not as much use of inquiry as was evident amongst male counterparts. and this has the potentid to cause 'nkilled incornpetence*'if lefi unchecked ; and Lack of rehearsal which, again, can cause challenges cspecially in areas relating to execution. What can be learned about CEOS' effectiveness in light of their ability to refiect? The literature review iliustrated a number of personal and professional development areas necessary for effective leadership (see page 24). Using the primary cornpetencies, the matrices below identiQ the reflection evident in each as well as strengths and weaknesses demonstrated through the research. Table 21 - CE0 Effectiveness and Reflective Capability - Persona1 Development introspection CEOs Develop understanding of Introspection -evident in al1 CEOs to vaqing degrees; CEOs I have to be more planfui, building in time to reflect on self Define reality Inquiry and introspection -evident in al1 CEOs; challenge for CEOs is to be anticipatory of changing reality Holistic view of self Introspection +orne effort: those CEOs who underwent significant emotional evens appeared stronger in this category Hmess change Spontaneity and inquiry -CEOs were able to identify I l 1 persona1 changes they had undergone; more time required to understand implications Find balance Introspection -whiIe effort is there, most CEOs complained that balance was missing in their lives Purposeful reflection Al1 methods of retlection -few CEOs had enough time to reflect; in 4 cases, interview surfaced the need 1 1 1 to be more planfûl In examining the role that reflections plays in personal development (Table 24), introspection plays a key role in supporthg self-knowledge. Developing a deeper understanding of self and viewing the self holistically emerged as significant findings: leaders recognize the importance of knowing their snengths and weaknesses and then developing compensatory responses to them. Further, ability to define current reality and preferred future appean to corne from within. Although inquiry may be used to set context, ir is the conscious processine of these inputs thar arcirts t!e CE0 in dcveloping frameworks for action. Tied to this. it becarne evident that confidence, the ability to launch out, and the need to find new and better ways of doinp things, carne about because of the CEOS' ability to reflect on previous performance. The leaming that occurred was then applied to circumstances that could be similac but in some cases, was totally unrelared. At issue, is the CE0 posing the question to him or herself: "What has occurred in the past that will help me succeed in this current situation?'' Following introspection, inquiry was the second most used reflective method to support leaders in their need to capitalize on change and mode1 the behaviour by developing cycles of planning. acting? O bserving. One of the pnmary challenges that CEOs face in developing their personal reflective capabilities is lack of time. While every CE0 had the best intentions to balance their lives, step back to gain new perspectives on challenging situations and gain a fimer understanding of their limitations' al1 admitted that they had very liale time to do so. In four cases. CEOs indicated that the interview process was helpful in compelling them to personally reflect. Table 25 - CE0 Effectiveness and Reflective Capability - Professional Development "reheaned" (authenticity); in others, more rehearsal required Decisiveness Spontaneity and inquiry -b&h capabilities evident, however, stronger ernphasis on inquiry required Developing relationships Spontaneity, introspection -capabilities evident in and inquiry some; more spontaneity and introspection required in some cases Nwnire vision Introspection and inquiry -al1 leaders exhibited both qualities, however, more emphasis required on inquiry to identiS methods to rneasure results Adapt and cope with change Spontaneity and inquiry -al1 leaders struggling to 1 balance Create and disband 1 Spontaneity and inquiry -same as above -ail leaders exhibited conscious rnethods to learn better ways to lead: some requiring more emphasis on introspection: O thers require more reflective inquiry In the case of professional development, interestingly, spontaneity and inquiry appear to play a more dominant reflective role than introspection. While personal development is "inward" looking and therefore, introspective, professional development appears to be much more "outward'? looking, demanding CEOs to make, in some situations, very quick judgements on people, situations, problems and errors. Perhaps it is because so much of the CE03 job is "outward" focused, requiring quick responses, rhat it is more challenging to t~ketirne Io dwdl on the penonal aiid intcmal. (As Sonia says, "Sometirnes we have to slow domto go faster".) The fact that spontaneity plays such an important role underscores the importance of CEOs being able to ask the nght questions. frame context and size up the quality of information they are receiving in fairly short order. The interviews suggest that while CEOs are spontaneous in day-today communications, decision-making and coping with change, inquiry provides a rigor and system for action that may belie the tough anaiysis that each new situation undergoes before action is taken. What are the implications of the findings in developing the leaders of tomorrow? The implications of the findings for leaders of tomorrow are as follows: Because leadership development is "self-development?~leaders need to work hard to develop their own leaming suategies. Several potential challenges exist for leaders who may not consciously appreciate the necessity to developing their own persona1 and professional develop plan. In addition, sorne CEOs may not have the training required to create their own plans. Executive coaching is likely a good alternative for those CEOs who require assistance. Reflection could well emerge as a unique cornpetitive advantage for future leaders. Those who are able to harness its abilities have the potential to develop greater insights into situations and the decisions that may be required to resolve them. CEOs need to be more aware of what tnggers their reflection and of the danger of "automatic leaniing" or unconscious response that may ernanate from what appears to be similar incidents. A more structured approach to reflection may be useful to some leaders including theput aside for quiet contemplation, use of joumals or verbalization of concerns. 4. CEOs need to recognize the degree of perceived familiarity they have in incidents thry may face and use as many reflective skills as possible to analyze the situation. The ability to know what ski11 ro use at what iime can make the difference between and "infmned'' or "uninfonned" decision, 5. Leaders need to be self-conscious about their preferences and use hem stntegically, depending on the type(s) of people and situations. Using the sarne methods al1 of the time can cause leaders to become "stuck" in one behavioural method which can kad to skilled incornpetence. 6. Considering ways to "refiect on reflection" is a method that may help leaders bener understand their actions, motivations and preferences. This "double Ioop learning" can be helphl in identibing potential miss-steps and pointing out future opportunities. 7. Male and female leaders may improve their leadership skills and build on style by observing each other's methods more closely. While the research dernonstrated that females observed males more, males did not observe female leadership. Given the emphasis today on tearn work, empowered decision-making and delegation, males may become more effective by employing inter-dependent techniques. 8. Conversely, women may wish to seek more of a balance between the inquiry mode of reflection and their intuition? which was cited as a prefened method in fomiing judgements and conclusions. 9. Experiences fiom youth are critical in sethg down methods of learning and patterns of behaviour. CEOs carefully reviewing defining moments in their youth may find deep insight into cunent learning methods. 10. As information and media communications continue to bornbard CEOs with data. leaders should make conscious efforts to develop and continuously improve upon intemal processes and systems. 1 I. CEOs who continue to reach out to develop personal nehvorks will find the isolation and Ioneliness oftheir roles less of si burden. 13. The issue of reliance on intuition and instinct as methods to cornpensate for lack of theoretical knowledge may be an area that can be arneliorated by formal education. Having said this, the system as it is now constnicted, erects considerable barriers to CEOs because of time pressures, personal exposure of weaknesses and composition of classes. As demonstrated earlier. CEOs require a "supef' Ievel of learning and formal institutions should consider unconventional ways to meet this need. 13. Life-balance emerged as an interesting finding with CEOs considering ways to lead a heaithy work and social life. The nature of their work, however. prevents many CEOs From fully achieving this balance and this could have a negative effect on performance. 14. More so than ever, CEOs need tremendous stores of confidence to take risks. make decisions and launch out. Support for leaders to continuously renew their confidence, whether through introspection, networking or persona1 growth, is an essential foundation to career growth. CHUTER 7 CONCLUSIONS iUYI) RECOMkIENDATIONS 8.1 Do CEOs Reflect as Part of Their Professional and Personal Development? This research project set out to determine if CEOs are more prone to action than reflection. a conclusion of Mintzbrrg's stnicnired observational research. While the research indicates that leaders do take action. it clearly demonstrates that numerous reflective stntegies are at work, before, during and after action has occurred. This reflection represents rich learning opportunities that have the potentiai tc continually enhance and refine a CEO's ability to develop his or her leadership skills. CEOs hamess the pst, the present and the hnire, posing questions that continuously develops their decision-making and problern-solving abilities in the following tvays: Thepast: What other situations have I bren in that are similar? What did I do in these situations that worked? What did not work?; The present: What data or research are availabie for me ? Who cm1 cal1 that may have been through this experience before?; and Thefr~tiire:What scenarios should Iconsider to prepare rnyself for the worst possible outcorne?; How will I use this leaming in fhre situations? Through andysis of the forty-three critical incidents, the research demonstrates that reflection played a significant part in each of them and contributed to cumulative leaming for friture events. One of the most interesting fmdings is the interdependence of a CEO's expenence with conscious reflection and tacit knowledge. Triangulation of these elements occurred in over half of the cntical incidents. pointing to a convergence where self-knowledge and personal and professiond development are e.uploited to cornpetitive advantage. These attributes distill information, contirm huches and substantiate decision-making. Further, they serve the important f'unction of building self- confidence which emerged as a core leadership competency. In the context of the literature review, 1 believe this research has shed new light on the need for conscious reflection and the self-discipline required to achieve it. The most powerful finding of the research is that while CEOs have a bias towards action and often make quick decisions, they continually rely upon reflection for inspiration and guiciance. in contrast to iMintzberg7sfindings (1973) that CEOs are prone to action, not retlection, this research demonstrates that CE0 are able tu act, because they reflect. These results are Mersupported by the work of Pearman, Corners and Cashman (dl 1998) who contend that leaders need tu use past experiences to inform Future action. New perspective is also given to the complex chah of events required to take action as highlighted by the emergent theory from the second stage interviews. With Senge's work capturing the processes required to move organizations fiom their current reality to a prefened future, the qualitative process used in diis study illustrates die productive tension that moves leaders to launch out. The inter-related roles of reflection, criticai incidents. support of the senior management team and decision-making (see page 158) each play an integnl part in execution. At the heart of this process is the self- knowledge of the CE0 and their abili ty to draw tiom instinct. intuition as welf as their values and style. The research fuidings also differed from Farkas and Wetiaufer's contention that 52% of CEOs used a "Box and Hurnan Assets Approach" to leading (see page 15). The majurity in this study employ a "Change and Strategic Approach" that emphasizes processes . This discrepancy could be attributable to the qualitative approach used in the research as well as the fact that much has changed since their study was conducted in 1996 and that CEOs are now embracing new ways of leading. The need and ability of leaders to develop compensating behaviours as descnbed by Lang (1995) were borne out to a degree in these tindings with some of the interviewees claiming they were consciously working on different ways to lead. Two of the interviewees exhibited no desire to change behaviour, while NO expresdy realized that different situations demanded different responses. Interesringly, in three of the eight cases, the inte~ewprocess acted as intervention, assisting in surfacing '~tuck"types and behaviours. This provided CEOs with an opportunity to consider altemate courses of action with some beginning experimentation of different methods. These conscious- raising experiences merreidorce the significance of reflection. The research agreed with the findings of Senge (1 990) and Kouzes and Posner (1987), who redefined the new work of contemporary CEOs and the professional development required to master these new responsibilities. It was fascinating to witness CEOs acting out Senge's vision of the leader as designer, steward and teacher as well as gainhg a greater understanding of how they develop their own personai leaming systems to keep Pace wi th the demands of change. If Lvas equally compelling, however. to observe the intense struggle that CEOs have in devising their selCdevelopment stratrgies. Pressed for time, with very few outlets. the research highlighted the loneliness of the development process and revealed that, often reflection is the only vehicle available to work out problems and assess strengths and weaknesses. Finally, the research demonstnted the challenges that CEOs have in "gening out on the balcony" as described by Heifetz and Laurier but, undencored that expcriencr and self-knowledge play a central role in building the foundation from which to lead organizarions in bold new directions. In addition to these. the value of hmessing people, as described by DePree and Pearman. emerged as one of the geatest assets that CEOs have in order to cany out their vision and renew thrmselves. Delegation surfaced as a potent liberator allowing CEOs to move away fiom the role of "director" to "facilitatoi'. 8.2 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOM'hlENDATIONS Conclusions It is clear there are a multitude of variables at work in decision-making, problem- solving and execution; the hdings in this study confimi that reflection makes a significant contribution to their successful implementation. Each of the CEOs in this study exhibited their own personal reflective style which supported not only their ability to achieve organizational results, but dso their professional and personal development. While some CEOs cailed their contemplation "refiectiod', othen referred to it as thinking about 'Turndative" experience. Some were naturally introspective and self- anaiytical which caused them to reflect mare ofien and more deeply. Others relied on tried and tme patterns of the pst, consciously enhancing their abilities as their careers progressed. Othee still, reflected when faced with dificult situations involving people, io times of cnsis or situations where important decisions were required. This study re-affirmed that CEOs are always in action and always leaming. Learning by doing is one of the most important methods CEOs used to develop their knowledge and expertise. In order to carry out this action, however, vast stores of self- i~~ilencc,self-kno wledge and reflective capabiliùes are necessary. Tnese quaîities acted as a foundation for acticn. Out of the clear links made between refiection and action, the contribution that self-knowledge made can also not be underestimated. The results of this study confhn that: CEOs have a hi& need to take action and in doing so? move their organizations ahead; however, leaders aiso have a demonstrated ability to reflect and because of this they are able to act. The majority of leaders recognize the impact of type preferences and consciously work toward selecting the appropriate style for the appropriate situation. Early, profound incidents in youth or young adulthood established patterns of behaviour that are carried through to the present; if CEOs are not aware of the impact of these incidents on their behaviour, it can lirnit theù potential to adapt to new and different situations and types of people. Asking the right introspective questions and extemal questions is a vital leadership competency. CEOs who continue to rely largely on past experiencr to make crucial decisions for the füture are apt to make poor, misinformed decisions. 6. CEOs use job change as a method of professionai development. 315 7. Most CEOs rely heavily on mted colleagues and consultants to discuss challenges and chart future strategies. 8. Leaders have a naturai proclivity for mahgdecisions and believe that decision- making is often "easy" and '-fun". 9. Leaders are generally superlative decision-rnakers because they have made so many highly complex ones. 10. A "super-level" of learning is required for CEOs that is highly expenential, interactive and hture-focused, 1 1. Intuition and instinct are often used to compensate benveen theoretical and pnctical knowledge. 11. With the impact of fast-paced. discontinuous change, "strate&' is becoming '.tactical" and while this may be a competitive operational strategy, this trend has profound implications on the concepts of vision. long-terni planning, momennim and continuity. 13. Because female CEOs receive more requests to discuss how they attained their position, they are compelled to reflect more on their weaknesses, strengths and personal and professionai attributes. 14. Male CEOs tend to be rnuch more autonomous and independent while their fernale couterparts are inclusive and interdependent. 15. While women appear to scrutinize male leadership. males do not examine fernale leadership amibutes. 16. It wodd appear that rejlecting upon refleciion acts as an important tool in making sound decisions. 17. Moa leaders appreciate the cyclical, rather than linear, nature of reflection. As they continue to enter new areas and/or change jobs they ofien fmd themselves back in "survival mode". 8.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH This study was limited to a small aumber of participants. nonetheless the findings have implications for business and educational leaders, executive coaches and particularly the CEOs of varying degrees of experience who are faced with what could be one of the loneliest tasks of their lives: leamhg to grow and develop in a world that expects them to already be masters and mistresses of the universe. The following suggestions for Merconsideration arise fiom the observations and findings of this study, and afim the work of numerous authors and investigators which proceeded this project. Further researc h could: Lem more about how face-to-face interviews can act as a positive intervention to surface conscious refIection. Perform a quantitative study of reflection in CEOs to detemine, compare and contrast its results with qualitative research. Examine the diRerent ways that male and female CEOs refiect. Explore the effects of compelled reflection on female CEOs. Compare the learning and reflective capabilities of CEOs who frequently change jobs with those who have had long tenure. Continue to follow the leadership development of the eight CEOs to determine how their reflective abilities have changed and/or grown. More fully explore the effects of tacit knowledge on decision-mahg and taking action to Merdemonstrate the role of instinct and intuition in leadership development. 8. Delve Merinto how CEOs reflect upon their reflection. 8.4 Refiections As I think about the journey of conceiving, designing, researching, and analyzing the manner in which CEOs reflect, I feel completely part of the reflective process. During the process of preparing the thesis, there were many moments when 1 experienced the stages and types of reflection just as the CEOs did. As they descnbed their launching out in uncharted waters, 1 too was on a course for the unknown, atternpting to make meaning of their words. inferences. tone and gesnire. The need for dl four types of reflection (spontaneity, inquiry, rehearsal and introspection) found themselves in this research project. Spontaneity Spontaneity was important in writing this thesis in a number of ways. In a literal sense. it was necessary as I found interviews heading off in directions I had not planned. When Tom. for example. indicated that 'there is no one critical incident" to share. my mind raced as to how 1 would extract fiom him sorne meaningful comment or experience that would meet my research needs. 1 should not have feared. Tom's feedback on aavels in the Middle East and the "yes-men" he worked with in the early days, more than made up for the iack of "an incident". I leamed from Tom to trust the process of qualitative research; to make meaning of Tom's life the way he saw it; not the way 1 wanted him to relay it to me. For this reason, in some respects, Tom's inte~ewsare the nchest of all because of the learning 1 gained. On another level, spontaneity also taught me the value of losing control. I simply had to go with the flow of the hectic schedules of the participants. In some cases. 1 waited weeks for an interview only to be told by a CE03 assistant that another crisis had calied the CE0 away. What began as a three month inteniew process to conduct eight two-stage interviews (1 laugh at rny naiveté now) tumed into a six month odyssey. Yet, even these slow-downs were helpful in allowing me to be introspective about the interviews I had completed. 1was powerlrss against the changhing rhythm and evolution of the research. 1simply leamed to stop fighting and give into it. Because of numerous technical problems in transcnbing the tapes, my thesis timelines disintegrated. This painful incident again reinforced that not everything could be accomplished within the structure I had so carefully ordered and attempted to control. Looking back, 1 believe one of rny "criticai incidents" occurred on a rainy April afternoon when Barbara Burnaby gently counseled me to rlet the timelines go". Her words were liberating, fieeing me fiom self-imposed deadlines that were unanainable given die circurnsrances. I retlected quite a bit over this incident, asking myself why 1 had been so resolute on the research being completed by this arbitrary date. What was the huny? My bias has aiways been to plan, rehearse and be prepared for al1 contingencies and so I think that some of the strongest leaming came in building my skiils in spontaneity. Spontaneity was one of the primary skills that supported the development of codes. categones, buckets, themes, and sub-themes. In my own way, 1 was "launchhg out'', not knowing where the process would take me. Spontaneity was a much vdued fiend through much of the writing of the thesis and. some days. al1 I could think of was Bill's words "do sornething" (!) when confkonted with a blank page staring at me. Many chapters and charts began at his urging! lnquiry Numerous types of inquiry played a role in the thesis development. The entire process of planning, acting, observing and reflecting were evident as I look back on the research process. The initial inquiry took the form ofplanning the method to be used in collecting the research, potential candidates, appropriate timelines and how I might best tackle the data anaiysis. The literanire review set the stage contemially in gaining a better understanding of traditional and contemporary research in leadership and reflection. In addition to perfonning the scan, it was important to discuss the topic with as many people as possible. to begin to understand how others felt about the action and reflection in leadership. 1 took every oppominity I could to discuss my initial fmdings in the research and potential implications. Adding to the discussion, 1 began a journal to record my perceptions, insights and research notes. The second stage of inquiq, acting, involved designing questions and conducting UiteMews to elicit responses that addressed the research subject. At this point in the process, and many times thereafter, 1 discovered the loneliness expressed by the CEOs. Sometimes, the data around me were suffocating; I was in the process so deep, that I felt no one could really understand the uncertainty and anviety 1was experiencuig. The "acting" process continued as I developed systems and processes to analyze the data. 1nquix-y and spontaneiry &ove the coding, categones and themes that emerged. It was rhis method of reflection that taught me not ody to keep asking the tough questions, but the importance of self-discipline and the rigor of process. There were moments when I was completely stuck, unable to figure out how to move foward but heeding Micharl's advice, 1knew it was time to disengage. Like him, after 1 disengaged, and then re- engaged, a solution presented itself. ..every time. The third stage of inquiry, observing, presented me with opportunities to get to know the participants individdly by developing the vertical vignettes. Soon, I completely forgot their real names and thought of them oniy by their pseudonyms. 1 could instantly remember key phrases and trigger words that would jump start both the coding and witing process. In each transcrip~.and using my journal notes, 1 tried to feel their emotions, leam with hem as they answered my questions and discovered their methods for re flection. As 1 began moving away fiom the individual portraits. I distinctly remember feeling a twinge ofregret at leaving this stage behind. But any sadness was soon overcome by the challenging task of building collective meaning of the viewpoints, and then moving on to synthesize and distill them. I found myself looking at Argyris in a different light; not for his advice to leaders but to me about the need to find "matches and mismatches". This method was helpful in understanding the leaders' various points of view in the context of the literature review. The final stage of inquiry, rejlecting, was most useful as I began to compare and connast the findings, discern patterns and similarities and differences. 1 learned many valuable lessons in this later process including: conclusions can not be forced; evidence is sometimes not what it seems; and that memory cm not aiways be tnisted. 1 found it ofien diEcult to disengage hmthis intensive period of the work. Sometimes I felt like a mad scientist in what fondly became known as the "war room", calling up transcnpts to verify huches, disregarding what 1 had initially thought were brilliant insights and re-kindling my self-confidence to fmd the most relevant information that would assist the people most important to the research: the eight CEOs who were so giving of their tirne. But in this isolation. 1 aiso found that, like Bill, 1 used verbaiization to work my way through analysis, especially when 1 was wrestling with cornplex issues. Blessed with pauenr bienas and coileagues, i reaciied out as ofien as I could to continue to clariQ my thoughts and move my thinking ahead. Like Michael, 1 knew how important it was to continuaily push the research to the "next level". Rehearsal Getting ready to interview a CE0 can be a daunting task. interviewing eight of hem was hmowing! Rehearsal of the questions, playing out scenarios and thinking about what to do when the ailwent cold were al1 things that I prepared for. Although 1 had what I thought were reasonable questions, 1 had no idea where the answers would go. Conducting a dry nui of the questions was he1pfb.l as 1 began to prepare for the real thing. Thinking the questions through to their logical conclusions and pre-planning various supplementary questions was aiso helpful. in an interesthg similarity, rehearsal was probably the least used of the four types of reflection I accessed. Looking back, I asked myself. "Could 1 have been bener prepared to conduct these interviews?" The answer is both 'yes" and 'ho". Yes, because I sometimes think more rehearsal would have better prepared me to anticipate various responses (e.g. I might have been better prepared for Tom's unwillingness to share incidents) and no, because I wanted to ensure authenticity with the CEOs. Leading up to the interviews, 1 was aheady nervous; I had one chance to get what 1 needed. 1 believed that it was important to "be me" and not a stiff interviewer, which 1 was sure the CEOs had probably seen enough of Introspection If my declared bias is not spontaneity, it certainly is introspection and for this reason 1 was concemed from the outset that 1would be inwardly consumed by this project. Knowing rny introspective tendencies in advance however, dlowed me to continuaily "check" myself when 1felt 1 was losing control of the process. At times, ihough, the project did take over and I consciously fought to regain whatever meager portions of my life I could reclaim. Runnuig becarne very important to me as t regularly clocked 20 kilometers a week to de-stress, to think through portions of the research that were troubling, and at times, to escape the thesis altogether! Introspection occurred on many different levels during the interview process. On a literal level, 1 ofken found myself muiling over people's thoughts and reactions to the questions 1 had posed. The CEOs' thoughts were constantly in my head and I found that 1 could recite verbatim many parts of the transcripts that were provocative. moving or perhaps that resonated with me. Intemalizing this information became immensely helpful as the project evolved. I developed an aimoa photographie capability in pinpointing segments korn the sixteen transcripts that supported key areas in the research. 1 was, and still am. concemed that this thesis deliven value to its participants. One of the by-products of qualitative research is that the bar is raised considerably higher because of the intimacy of the long interview. At the end of the day, these were real people with real issues and with expectations that the resdts be insightful, pertinent, useful and lasting. Because I received a glimpse into these people's Iives, I know how hi& the bar is set and am hopeful that rhis research not only meets, but exceeds, their expectations. Table 26 encapsulates the short-term impact that the interviews had upon participants. My introspection aiso prornpted me to wonder why these Leaders had consented to be interviewed. For some, I believe it was sheer curiosity. For others, it ivas pure altnllsm and that is much appreciated. For others still, they appeared to be very much in the rhythm of being inte~ewedand, at times, I had the feeling that 1 was being "spun" by stories that had been told repeatedly during speeches and interviews. In these cases, 1 made every attempt to gaze behind the mask of the CE0 (and after this research, in my mind, it is a given that leaders require a mask) and nt thes, 1 believe 1 was successful in penetrating it. Findly for some, I believe they were in need of an independent third party to share feelings and concem with. 1 was "safe" because I had no axe to gruid and no politicai advantage to seize. 1 ~uaranteedcomplete confïdentiality and because of these things, I believe 1 earned their trust. On a professional level, the reflections of the CEOs haunted me in my own work environment. I was yoing hou& an intense penod of restrucniring, strategic planning and developing new products to attract the dotcom generation. 1 found rnyself, consciously and unconsciously, benefiting kom their counsel on how they had handled similar issues. Their words rung me in many situations, as 1 found myself agrecing with Sonia that "sometimes you have to slow down to go faste?. Their humour was also a tremendous boost; I still smile. remembering Paul's line, '?ou show me a good loser and 1'11 show you a loser". When t found rnyself faced with terminating staff, like Paul, and for that matter, ail of the CEOs intewiewed. I never slept a wink the nighr before. Finally, 1 believe my owm leadership has improved sigiificantly as a result of this research. I have been blessed with the best learning I hi& I will ever have in this subject area by spending time with some of the most accomplished leaders in Canadian business today. 1 pinch myself at my good fortune. Appendices Appendix A: Participant Consent Date Dear XXXX, Thank you for agreeing to participate in my research snidy to obtain a greater understanding of the ways in which Chief Executive Officers use reflection for their personal and professional development. By signing this consent agreement, you agree to participate in two tape-recorded interviews for the study on the ways that CEOs use, or do not use, reflection in their self-development. You will bc asked about your expenences, attitudes, opinions and feelings regarding your personal and professional development as a leader. You will not be required to answer any questions which you choose not to answer. Excerpts taken fiom these interviews. written or spoken, will disguise al1 names of persons and places. so as to maintain confidentiality and preserve anonymity and privacy. You will receive feedback on these interviews. While most people fmd these interviews engaging and worthwhile, you will have the ripht to withdraw from the study at any time and to have ail data provided returned. Sipature of Interviewee Thank you for your generosity in making time available for my research. Jill Birch Date Masters Degree Student Appendix B: First Individual Interview Questions Thesis Questions - First Interview Introduction (approximately 10 minutes) 1. How did you become a CEO? Were you always in a leadership position and feel that you had "naturd abilities" to undenake the role? Did you feel that you had to *work" at becoming a CEO? Part 1 - Function (8 minutes) 3. What do you feel are the most important functions that you perform as a CEO? 3. How do you pnoritize which functions you concenaate on? Can you give me an example of functions you prefer to work on more than others? Part 2 - Type (5 minutes) 4. How have you changed as a CE0 over the years? Part 3 - Critical Incidents (40 minutes) I've asked you to think about 2 or 3 criticai incidents that occurred in your career that you feel have been defining moments in your leadership. Can you describe the first (second, third, etc.) for me? How long did it take you to resolve the situation? What methods did you use to resolve the situation? What courses of action did you take during the event and how did you arrive at these courses of action? Did you anticipate that this event was going to occur? Looking back, what, if anydiing, do you wish that you would have done differently? Why? What do you now do differently as a result of this experience? How would you have wished to be prepared for this incident when it occurred? Were you tough on yourself as a redt of this incident? Part 4 - Professional and Persona1 Development (8 minutes) 6. Do you consciously collect information to improve yomelf? How do you do this? 7. Which magazines, books or publications or other aides have been m08 helpful to ou? 8. A recent study conducted by Arthur Andersen looked at the ways in which CEOs nin their orgaoizations and concluded that it wodd be helpful if CEOs had greater self- knowledge. In their view, CEOs would have been more effective in their work if they had greater understanding of themselves. Mat's your response to this? Part 5 - Wrap Up (5 minutes) 9. Any final thoughts you wouid like to share at this tirne? Appendix C: Second Individuel Intemew Questions Interview Questions - 2'* Stage - Ann Reaction to transcnpt -anything you would change, surprises set up to 1 final question: Did Anything change as a resdt of our interview? 1 Intuition You seem to have a strong intuitive sense. In the transcript t got the feeling that you didn't necessarily know whar to do in new situations 1 but "found your way". Can you comment on how you think you 1 deveioped your intuition? Servant Leader 'ïhere are many different types of leaders. You seem to be what Robert Greenleaf calls the "servant leader". Can you talk about how [ t- t- you came to this type of leadership? (e.g. motivating/developing team) You've said in the transcript that you ask yourself difficult questions Strengths and and that you get yourself into situation. Can you taik about how you inject yourself into situations to develop yourself? You mentioned in our interview the issue of "organic" leadership. Leadership Can you comment on the evolution of your leadership with respect to this? When your two cornpanies merged, you had to shiR your style from an Changing autocratie to more consensual style. How did you make this Environment changelread the environment and generally change with the tlow of 1 events and new culture? ' Balance Btwn Many of the incidents you discussed relate the tension arnong action, decision making, reflection and execution. Can you talk about how 1 II/ II/ versus and when you know that you have enough information? How do you Decision maintain the precarious balance between these forces? Making and Retlec tion Co-Dependence Can you discuss where you see your job be30inaing and ending versus and those of your senior staff! independence What effect, if any, did our interview have on your reflection or Euestion anything on the job? A AppendLr C: Second Individual Interview Questions Interview Questions - 2" Stage - Bill Reaction to tr;uiscript -anmg you would change, surprises set up to ] fmai question: Did Anythuig change as a result of our inteniew? Patterning of Bill, one of the things I detected in your interview was patterning Behaviour yourself afler your mentor Fred. Are you conscious of this, when did it begin and where did it corne fiom? ' Leader I am curious about how you launch inro rhings that you know little Launching out about. In the areas of mergers, for example, you are extremely skilled, in your example of terminating employees, less skilled. How do you learn about areas that you are urûmiliar with? Self In reviewing your transcript, you descnbe dmost a "superlevel" of Responsibility leamhg required for mature CEOs. Do you think that a) CEOs must for determine their own Iearning style and then develop appropriate Development oppomuiities and b) when faced with a new challenge tind someone who has gone through it? Do you use your love of history and biography to support you here as well? Moving the ne.- The area of CO-dependenceand dependence surfaced in your , phase of transcript. How do you now deal with decision making when staff development may be saying, "Bill will do it" and is there a temptation to make decisions for them. How do you know when you have "Just enouph" information to make a decision? Balance Action is a driver for CEOs. How do you combine your need to Between Action reflect (soak the) with your own (and Board's) impatience for action'? and Decision E.g. Waiking the fine line between role of intuition, gut and asking the rieht auestions Perception, Did your work on XXX's image consciously/unconsciousiy affiect the Modeling CE0 you became? As you crafted XXX's image, did you create a tem~latefor vourself? Your critical incidents revolve around ethicd issues - is this patterning around Fred's infiuence - doing what's nght? What effect, if any, did our interview have on your reflection or anything on the job? Appendix C: Second Ind~dualInterview Questions InteMew Questions - 2adStage - Elizabeth Reaction to transcript -anything you would change, surprises, set up to 1 final question: Did Anything change as a result of our interview? Charismatic Much of how you are perceived indicates you are a charhatic leader. Leader Do you feel you are? How do you handle the pressure and r-- responsibility of king a charhatic leader? Team Versus We talked about the Olympic expenence you had and how it independent intluenced the team spirit you developed here to move the team ahead. Action How do you reconcile your need for group victones and collective momentum vesus the "it's lonely at the top" adage of the life of a CEO? You mentioned the importance of culture and breaking down silos. How did you do this over the course of 4 years and how did you Leam to make these changes? Did you ever have to change tactics? Reflectiod One of the themes in your interview was the discussion of gut and Inaction and Street smarts which suggests action and fast action. How do you Action reconcile this with the need for more preparation? Have you, or did you consciousIy change your behaviour as a result of some of the critical incidents vou related? You mentioned that you were afraid that people would see "through you" in the early days here. Can you talk about how you got yourself up to speed in this fast paced environment? Balance between Vision How do you balance the tension between these 2 key issues? and Execution Hiring to Type You discussed the importance of not hiring a clone but stressed later 1 on in the interview that it is very difflcult for someone who is not a 1 clone to be successful in this work environment. How do you reconcile the two? I What effect, if any, did our interview have on your reflection or 1 anything on the job? Appendk C: Second Individual Interview Questions Interview Questions - 2udStage - Michael Reaction to transcnpt -anything you would change, surprises, set up to final question: Did Anything change as a result of our interview? Ambition and You tdk about the influence you would like to have and do have on Muence people and within the Company. Can you talk about how your influence skills have matured over the years? Have you consciously r-or unconsciously made an eEort to develop this skill? Insert and Insist These were 2 trigger words I picked up - It seems a very dificult challenge for the CE0 to know when and where to both insert him or herself into a situation or decision or to insist that a certain course of t-- t-- action be taken. Can you talk about how you judge when and when not to do this? - Charismatic Peopk are drawn to you and they often-saythat this is a quality of Leader charismatic leaders. Can you taik about the responsibility of having so much of people's faith in you. What have you leamed about yourself and your leadership in the way people have been drawn to you? How has this affected, if at dl, your penonal and professional develo~ment? Patterns of 1discemed some patterns in your criticai incidents. One of the biggest Decision issues appears to be a) admitting you were wong and b) taking the problem to the resolution stage. I'm interested in the genesis of this ski11 set and how you leamed to move things to the next level. I'm interested Ui knowing what you've leamrd about repetitive Behaviour solutions that may not work in a different or changed environment. Do you now watch out for warning signs and how do you know if they are warning si-? What '~ells"you that you are in uncharted waters? Launching Out You gave many good examples of being in unfamiliar temtory. One of the biggest challenges is to move the Company boldly where it has not gone before. What do you do to help yourself when you know you are in a brand new situation (no prior knowledge) to move ahead? r-Respected What did you leam most fioom the GE Way? Can you talk about how you balance these 2 things? Vision and Direction Action and The CE0 mus balance the tension between knowing when to act and Execution when to wait to collect more information and ensuring that actions are executed properly. How do you know when you have enough info to move? What ezect, if any, did our interview have on your reflection or l?2LQuestion anything on the job? Appendix C: Second Individual Interview Questions Interview Questions - 2" Stage - Paul Warm Up Reaction to ûanscript -anything you wouid change, surprises, set up top haI question: Did Anything change as a result of our interview? Launching Out You talked about the fact that a CE03 life is never routine. Can you 1 in New 1 taik about how you take a company in a different and new direction 1 1 Directions- 1 when faced with the unknown? (eg. Areas and or challenges where 1 L'ncharted you have lide personai experience'!) Waters ( Learning By A lot of CEOs have said that they Leam by doing as you have also said. Can you taik about how your career moves have grown your expenence leveYskills (relating to question that many CEOs have said they change jobs to develop themselves) Self Another area that intrigued me was your comments on stretching Discovery/Self yourself: to "know your limits". Cmyou elaborate on that and talk Development about what limits, if any, you may have discovered now or in the past and what you've done when you have perceived that you have a "reached a limit"? Style Did you try a number of different styles before you chose the "CO- opting" style that you now use with yow employees? How did you arrive at this choice? - Fear of Failure You mentioned in the interview that you had a fear of failLe. How does that translate into recent developments that you have experienced at this company? Are you stronger for it? intuition and You descnbed intuition and gut as being two key strengths in your Gut Instinct leadership. In the ininscript you talked about how Fragile everything is and that it could be al1 gone tomorrow. How much, if any. did you for- tell vour current situation? Action/ We aedabout the volume of information that you are currentiy Executiod dealing with. How does the CE0 strike a balance between knowing Reflection when he or she has enough information to make a decisiodlaunch an initiative etc. I Wind up What effect, if any, did our inte~ewhave on your reflection or Question anythina on the iob? Appendix C: Second Individual InteMew Questions Interview Questions - 2udStage - Sonia Warm Up 1 Reaction to transcript -anmg you wouid change, surprises, set up- to ha1question: Did Anything change as a result of our interview? Risk A lot of your critical incidents are related to risk. Can you taik about the lessons learned and role that risk has played in your professional development? How, if any, has reflection played a role in your I anaiysis of what you are wiiling to take a risk on? Seizing You obviously have a knack for seeing and seizing opportunities. Can Oppominities you talk about the ways you do this? How have you learned over the years to see and seize these openings? Traoslating A lot of CEOs, including yourself. talked about the need to boldly OPPO~~Ymove their organization in new directions. Can you taik about how into Reality you do this in mas where the path is uncharted? How do you learn to 1 conquer these new areas? Decisiveness "We are decisive here" is one of the thingsyou mentioned in your Risk-Action- interview. Cm you taik about how you mark the jurnp off point Repetition- between action/reflection/decision? Decision C harisma "People gravitate to me" You appear to be one of 3 leaders in this research who may be called a charismatic leader. Cm you talk about how you feel being called this, if you think you are and what rote this has played in your leadership, if any? Driver "Continue to mise the bar" You taik about younelf and others calhg you a "drivei' Can you talk about a) if this evolution was conscious/unconscious b) how. or do you. check this behaviouduse this behaviour when appropriate? Self-Knowledge Y continue to know me". What rnethods do you use to stay co~ected with your berself! Wind up What effect, Xany, did our inteniew have on your reflection or Question anything on the job? Appendu C: Second Ind~dualInterview Questions Interview Questions - 2ndStage - Tom 1 WmUp Reaction to transcript -anything you would change, surprises, set up to final question: Did Anything change as a result of our interview? Cumulative You taiked about the fact that there is no one incident but a series of Formation of a incidents that contributed to your development as a CEO. Cmyou CE0 aescnbe the type of impacts that these incidents had on you over the years? What kinds of changes have you seen in yourself as a result of these changes? 1 Role of 1 You taked about the role that expenence plays in allowing you to ( Expenence in make good, quick decisions. Can you elaborate on how your Decision experience has helped you to make the decisions you have made? Do Making you ever think back to what has worked, why it worked etc? Dependence and Can you talk about how you decide where you job ends and the jobs of - - 1 Co-Dependence 1 your senior management team begins? Do you find that your staff 1 willingly takes on decision making or are they deferential to you? Confrontation Cm you discuss how you handle situations that are highly I 1 confrontational? Can you give an example of a confrontational I situation and how you handled it? Identity and You talked about your influence or imp~ton the job. Can you talk 1 Imprint of the 1 about the impnnt bat you've had in your role here as CEO? How 1 CE0 on the Job 1 much do you feel your identity is tied up with your job? Tenure at the 1 Many CEOs have suggested that one of the best ways for them to 1 Company 1 expand their ski11 sets is to change jobs. You've beën at the same 1 Company al1 your life. Cayou talk about the negative and positive effects of this especially as it relates to your role as CEO? Momennim and Maintaining and building momentum and triggering change were key Change themes in our first interview. Can you tak about how you keep the momenturn going and how you and when you feel you need to "nigger change"? Wind up What effect, if any, did our interview have on your reflection or Ouestion anvthine on the iob? Appendu C: Second Individual Interview Questions Interview Questions - 2ndStage - Valerie Warm Up Reaction to interview-anything you've thought of since the inte~ew;' would change, surprises, set up to final question: Did Anythmg change as a result of our interview? Launching Out You taked about the fact that a lot of your work is exploring in New uncharted waters. Can you taik about how you take your company in Directions- a difîerent and new directions when faced with the unknown? (eg. Uncharteci Areas and or challenges where you have littie professionai I Waters ex~enence?) Importance of You talked about the importance of values in the last interview and values how yours fit with your company. Can you tak about how your values may have affected your leadership style? Learning By One of the things you had mentioned was the importance of patterns in Doing-Pro and your work-where you had done things over and over and transferred Con of Patterns this learning to your new job. Have you ever found that past expenences or patterns have worked against you? Self You made a great comment that life is about 90% of how you react to DiscoveryISelf 10% of things that happen to you. Can you comment on how you Development developed this philosophy and how it has helped you in your career? Strateeies / Style 1 Did you try a nurnber of different styles before you chose the "support 1 and create" style that you now use with your employees? How did you arrive at this choice? Fears of Failure Many CEOs mentioned that they had aii different kinds of fears in their jobs. Some of failure, some embarrassrnent and others of being terminated. Do you have any fears in your role as CEO? And what kinds of things do you do to overcome them? Intuition and You tallced about the move fiom products to people here. You also Gut Instinct in described how intuition and gut as well as the development and the face of execution of systems and processes are central to the way you now Processes and work. Can you talk about how you balance these two almost Systems "yin and yang" worlds in the move fiom products to people? Action/ We talked about the volume of information you are currently dealing Executiod with. How do you strike a balance between knowing when you have Reflection enough idormation to make a decisionflaunch an initiative etc. Mentoring You are a very committed mentor of women of al1 types; as a mentor, cm you talk about the kind of mentor that you now seek; what quaiities might this peson have? l Woman in What Can you taik about being a wornan leader in a man's world ? Did you Was a Man's embrace certain male leadership characteristics, reject them? 1 World What effect, if any, did our inte~ewhave on your reflection or anythinp on the job? Appendix D: Thematic Organization of Code Categories Master List of Thesis Codes- First Stage Interviews # 1. M C - Action and Execution # 2 M C - Ez~~enence Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Launching Out Lessons Learned/Saategies Leading in a Changing Environment History of Company Moving to the Next Phase of Development Effect of Success of Co. lproductivity Lcrusling T'hough Job Chge Speed Experience as a Bad Teacher Impact Pro blem Solving #3 M C - Crisis # 4 iM C - FamiIv Sub-Codes Sub-Code Chaos Social Status Stress # 5 M C - Decision Makin~ # 6 M C - FeadNo Fear Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Decisiveness Failure Patterns of Decision-making Self-Doubt Tou& DecisionlBad Decisions Mistakes Evaluating Decisions of Others Recovery from Mistakes PainErn barnssment #7 RI C - Dependence & Co-Dependence #8 LMC - CE0 Function Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Coaching What Leadership Isn't Insert and Insist Prioritization of Functions Delegation Synthesis of Information Preferences # 9 M C -Ethics #10 M C - Influencing Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Values Controlling Truth and Honesty hserting M.O. # 11 M C- Esecution # 12 LMC - Intuition Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Action/Reflectioa/Execution Gut/Street Smarts/Instinct Vision and Execution Execution Gone Wrong Results # 13 M C - Evolution # 14 M C -Leadership Tvpe Sub-Codes Su b-Codes Early Leadership Charismatic Leader Becoming a Leader Servant Leader Travel Experiences Natural Born or Leamed Skill? Negative Role Models Slick CE0 f: 15 3% C - What Leadership Is #16 M C - Learning Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Discipline Leaming Style Educatioa Self-Discovery Precariousness Leaming & Recognition Responsibility Learning to Lem Choosing To Lead Education LonelinessAsolation Sharing Knowledge Fragility LedgBy Doing Leaming Through influence of Others Books # f 7 M C - Learnin~In Leadership #18 M C - Mentors & Networks Sub Codes Sub-Codes Context & Complexity Role of Consultants Exercise of Leadership Relationships & Learning (growing) Emotion Proactive Networking Core Essence-Self Knowledge Leadership in Life AbilitiedSkill Development Competencies Leaming on the Job Celebrating the Win Compensating #19 M C - Risk Takin~ #20 LMC - Men & Wornen Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Seizing Opportunities Differences Between Men & Women Translating Opportuaity into Reality #21 M C - Self Deveiopment # 22 M C - StrengthsWeakness Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Public Speaking Successes and Challenges Wisdom Opportunities #23 M C - SWIe # 24 M C - Theorv & Realitv Sub-Codes Talking in Pictures # 25 M C - People and Teams # 26 LMC - Personality/Traits Sub-Codes Sub-Codes Working with lndividuals ConFidenceMr*uLningAttitude Building Teams Characteristics of Personality Working with Tems Pngmatism Tearns Versus independents LndependencelRej ect Authority Boss/Subordinate Relationships Driver Individual Venus Organization Survivor Reliance on Others Ego Hiring Competitive/Ambi tious Temiinating Motivation Confrontation image Extemai/Intemal Self Organized Procrastination Lack of Confidence MBIT # 27 PI C - Vision & Stratew Sub-Codes Culture #28 M C - Processes #29 bl C - Reflection Su b-Codes Sub-Codes Stages Self-AnalysisRerception PattemdLack of Pattern Role of Reflection Bencharking Perception of Others Technology Reflection and Action Mermath Appeodix D: Thematic Organization of Code Categones Master List of Thesis Codes - Second Stage Interviews A. CE0 B. Reflection 1.Vaiues 1. Spontaneity 2. Style 2. Rehearsal i-Finding what you're cornfortable with 3. Mahinty 3. Inquiry 4.Trn1.m 1. Introspection 5. Ego 5. Power of Reflection 6.Methods of Learning 6. Don't Look Back i- power of ideas 7. Reflection In-Action ii - learning fiom othen 8. Reflection On-Action iii- growing with decisions vi - role of responsibility vii - extending yourself viii - absorbing information ix - changing jobs x - reading xi - frorn change 7. Balance 8. Qualities/Characteristics 1. cornpetitive ii. ~o~dence iii. judgement iv. self-criticism 9.Attitude C. Critical Incidents D. Management Team 1. Risks 1. Dependency & Co-Dependency 2. Successes/Fai~ures 2. Role of Asking QuesûonslDiagnosis 3. Attitude, Challenge Staius Quo 3. PIan of Action 4. Positive/Negative 4. Modeling the Behaviour 5. Reflection & Action 5. Pushing Dom Responsibility 6. Fear/No Fear 6. Motivating 7. Defining Moment 7. Instilling Confidence 8. Seizing the Opportunity 8. Continuous Feedback 9. Measuring Progress in Performance 10.Rules of Operating 11. Recniitment 12. Subordhates Looking for Approval 13. CE0 Not in Decision-making Process E. Decision Making F, Action 1. Volume Trial by Enor 2. Speed Leaniing by Doing 3. impact Process Driven 4. Outcome Launching Out 5. Process Decision-making W ithin Context 6. Aggressive Targets Naturalness 7. Past Decisions Power of ldeas S. Bad'Wiong Desisions Role of Information Long Tem vs. Short Term Procrastination Re-evaluating Decisions Good Decisions Risk StuckAnside/Outside the Box DiRerence Between Big & Srnail decisions ScenariosEvaluating What Others are Doing Recovering from Poor Decisions Timing Role of Team G. Esecution H. Experience 1. Accountability 1. What Doesn't Work 2. Resuits 2. Intuitiodinstincts 5. Learning From Execution 3. Knowing the Business 4. Performance 4. Not the Best Teacher 5. Using Different Resources 5. Been There, Doue That 6. Just Do It 6. Tried Everythllig 7. Gut 8. Power of the Present 9. Judgement 10. Regret i 1. As a Good Teacher I. Change JeGrowth Speed Continuous Scenarios Ml-encompassing Technologicai Factors Embrace It Changing on the Fly Management of Team and Change Greatest Changes K Leading L. MaIe/FemaIe Roles 1. View Frorn the Top 1. Behaviours 2. Self-discipline 2. Pressures 3. Communications 3. Female-Compelled to Reflect More 4. Need for Challenge 4. Femaies that Have Made It -"unusud 5. Need for Consistency quaiity" 6. Charismatic 5. Wornen as Pioneers 7. Lessons Learned 6. Negative and Positive Qualities 8. Lonely 7. Women Need to Ask for SuppodMen? 9. MentorMe~orking 8. Owning the Problem IO. Servant Leader 9. Lack of Confidence - Women 1 1. Switching Roles 12. Responsibility 13. Concise/C lear 14. Personal PlandObjectives 15. Finding an answer/solution 16. Control 17. Multi-tasking 18. Listening 1 9. Flexibility 20. Humility 2 1. Visioning M. Challenges 1. Strategic Planning 2. Execution 3. LT* 4. Off Vision 5. Decisions - Holistic References Andnisyszyn, M.J., (1 996) Facilitating Reflection in Cornouter Mediated Learninq Environments, Toronto: University of Toronto Argyris, C ., (1 992) On Oreanizational Learning, Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Publishen fnc. Bardacco. i.. (i998), Discipline of Building Characrer, Harvarci Business Review on Leadership, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School of Publishing Bennis, W., (1995) Creative Leaders, Executive Excellence, Vol. 2, p. 35-38. Bleakness. M., Clinchy, B., Goldberger, N., Mamick, J. (1986) Women's Wavs of Knowing: Development of Self. Voice and Mind, New York, NY: Basic Books hc. Cashman, K., (1998) Leadhg at the Edge of Chaos: How to Create The Nimble Organization, Danven, LU:John Wiley & Sons Chnstensen, C., (2000) Meeting the Challenge of Dimptive Change, Boston, bLA: Harvard Business Review, MarcWApd, 66-78 Costa, A., Lipton, L. & Wellman, B.? (1977) Shifting des, shifting roles: Transforming the work environment to support 1eanï;ng. in Caldwell, S., (ED.) Professional Development in Leamino-Centred Schoois, Oxford, Ohio: National Staff Development Council, 93- 1 14. Farkas, C., Wetlaufer, S. (1996) The Ways Chief Executive Offices Lead Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review, May/June 96, 1 10- 13+ Farquar, K. (1994) The Myth of the Forever Leader: Organizational Recovery from Broken Leadership, Business Horizons. SeptlOct. 1994, p. 42-50. Glaser, B., & Strauss, A., (1967) The Discoverv of Grounded Theorv - Strateeies for Oualitative Research, Chicago: Aldine Publishuig Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A., (1992) Becomin~Qualitative Researchers: An Introduction, White Plains, NY: Longman Publishing Grimmett, P.P., (1995) The nature of reflection of professional development. In Guskey, T. & Hubeman. M (Eds.) Professional Develo~mentin Education: New Paradians and Practices, New York: Teachers College Press, 253-267. Hannay, L. (1994) Strategies for facilitahg reflective practice: The role of staff developes. Journal of Staff Develo~ment.15,(3) 22-26. Hannay, L. & Seller, W., (1990) The Influence of Teachers' Thinking on Curricdum Development Decisions. In C. Day, M. Pope & P. Denicolo (Eds) lnsiehts into teacher's thinkine and ~ractice.Lewes, England: Falmer Press Harari, O.,(1996) Leadership vs. Autocracy: They Sut Don? Get It! Management Review, Aug. 96, p. 42-5. Hogan, Curphy and Hogan, (1994) What We Know About Leadership, Amencan Psvchola&, Vol. 49, Xo. 6, p. 495-504. Howard. A., (1 996) High Involvement Leadership, Executive Excellence, Vol. 3. 1 1- 12. Huberman, M. (1995) Professional Careen and professional development: Sorne intersections. In Guskey, T. & Hubeman, M.,(EDS). Professional Deveio~mentin Education: New Paradiems and Practices. New York: Teachers College Press, 193-225. Kernmis, S., (1987) Cnticai reflection. In M.F. Wideen & W. Andrews (Eds.) Staff development for school improvement, Lewes, UK: The Falmer Press. Kouzes. J. & Posner, B. (1987) The le ad en hi^ Challenge, San Francisco: CA: Jossey- Bass Kotter. 3. P., (1990) What Leaders Really Do, Harvard Business Review, May-lune. Boston. MA: Harvard Publishing, p. 103-1 1 1. Lang, S., (1995), Strategic Planning and Peaonality Tvoe: Toward Constructive and Contineent Use of Difference, Toronto: University of Toronto Lasley, T., (1992) Promoting Teacher Reflection, Journal of Staff Develooment, Vol. 13. No. 1, p. 8-29. Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E., (1985) Naturdistic Inauin: Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Magnusen, L, (1995) The Legacy of Leadership Revisited Business Horizons, Nov-Dec 95. p. 3-7. Marshall, C., Rossman. G., (1989) DesidgQualitative Research Newbury Park CA: Sage Publications Inc. McCracken, G, (1988) The Long Inteniew. Newbury Park. CA: Sage Publications Inc. McShane, S., (1998) Canadian Organizational Behaviour, Toronto: McGraw Hill Ryerson Mintzberg, H., (1 998) What Leaders Really Do, Harvard Business Review on Leadership. Boston. MA: Haniard Business School Publishing Mintzberg. H. (1973) The Nature of Manaeenal Work. New York: Harper & Row Publishers Morgan. G.. & Smircich. L.. (1989) Designing Qualitative Research. Journal of Management Review, Vol. 5. No. 4491-500. Nahaxmdi. A.. B: 3Mrkzadch. 4..Mini. P.. Lcadcn and I Iow They Manage. Journal uT Business Strategy. May/June. 9 1. p. 47-9. OWDonovan-Polten.S.. (1994) Constructions of Success of Eminent Canadian La~wers. Toronto: University of Toronto Pearman. R. (1 998) Hard Wired Leadership: Unleashine the Power of Penonality to Became a New MNenium Leader. Palo Alto. CA: Davies-Black Publishing Senge. P.. (1990) The Fifth Disciriline, New York: Doubleday Del1 Publishen Weiss. J.. & Louden. W.. (1989) Images of Reflection. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Woolner. P.. ( 1983)?The Power Processes of a Public Srctor Organizational Chance: Towards a Grounded Theorv. Toronto: University of Toronto Zalemick. A.. (1998) Managers and Leaders: Are They Different? Harvard Business Review on Leadership. Boston. MA: Harvard Business School Publishing