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Downloads/March2001.Pdf · Veal, A.J

Downloads/March2001.Pdf · Veal, A.J

TABLE OF CONTENTS: PAGE:

1 INTRODUCTION 4

1.1 Motivation and objectives 4

1.2 Problem statement 4

1.3 Research methodology 5

1.4 Data gathering 6

1.5 Research limitations 6

2 TOURISM POTENTIAL 7

2.1 International tourism 7

2.2 South African tourism 8

3 TOURISM IN 11

3.1 South Africa’s supply of tourism 11

3.2 Demand for tourism 11

3.3 Tourism development 14

3.4 The impact of tourism 16

4 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 17

5 ECOTOURISM 18

5.1 Geotourism 19

1 6 THE SUPPLY OF GEOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA 20

6.1 South Africa’s heritage 20

6.2 South Africa’s geological heritage 22

6.3 Selected sites of importance 31

7 PROBLEMS 39

7.1 Problem of neglect 40

7.2 Problem of signposting 45

7.3 Problem of site accessibility 49

8 GEOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT 50

8.1 The nature of the geotourist 50

8.2 Interpretation media 51

8.3 Geotourism combined with conventional tourism 51

8.4 Geotourism Interest Group 52

8.5 The Geoparks proposal 53

8.6 Current geotourism development in South Africa 54

9 CONCLUSION 58

10 REFERENCES 60

2 LIST OF FIGURES: PAGE:

Figure 1: Flow diagram of methodology followed. 6 Figure 2: The demand curve for a product. 12 Figure 3: World-class exposure of layering at Dwars River. 27 Figure 4: The old lime works at Makapansgat. 34 Figure 5: Aerial view of the Tswaing Crater. 39 Figure 6: The entrance to Fortuna mine tunnel. 42 Figure 7: The neglected entrance to the centre site of the Vredefort Dome. 42 Figure 8: Afrikaans sign indicating the trail to the koppie. 44 Figure 9: The abandoned granite quarry with the koppie in the background. 44 Figure 10: The red signpost indicating Sterkfontein Caves is hidden behind another. 46 Figure 11: Swartkrans: There is no signpost to indicate this National Monument. 46 Figure 12: The disguised turn-off to Makapan’s Valley. 48 Figure 13: A green (in stead of brown) signpost indicating the ‘Vredefort Koepel’. 48 Figure 14: Visitors having an on-site fossil experience at the West Coast Fossil Park. 56 Figure 15: Artists impression of the proposed site museum and viewing deck. 57

LIST OF TABLES: PAGE:

Table 1: The growth of international tourism arrivals and receipts worldwide. 7 Table 2: Employment created by tourism in South Africa. 9 Table 3: Expected number of visitors and employment created for 1999-2002. 9

3 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Motivation and objectives

The motivation for this study is summarised in the following quote: “Put simply and cursorily, the aim is to make known something previously unknown to human beings” (Veal, 1992:1).

Arising from a personal interest in geology and palaeontology, this study was conducted after a realisation of the potential of South Africa as a geotourism destination, the fact that very few people know or show interest in our geological heritage, and the fact that this potential is not being developed or optimally utilised.

The objective is to make people aware of their geological heritage and to create a pride amongst the local people of South Africa. If we can discover why the general public is ignorant about the geological and palaeontological sites of world importance in their own country, we can suggest solutions, which will lead to the enlightenment of the general public. This in turn will lead to the responsible development and management of a tourism industry focused around our geological and palaeontological heritage.

1.2 Problem statement

South Africa as a country has a rich geological and palaeontological heritage. Experts from all over the world come to South Africa to study earth science. Terms like the “”, the “ Supergroup”, the “”, the “ Belt” and the “Sterkfontein Caves” are found in textbooks all over the world.

Unfortunately only a select group of South Africans, mostly academics, know about the geology and palaeontology of South Africa. The general public is unaware of the world-class status of South Africa in terms of this unique earth heritage. Why is this?

4 Is it because of a lack of interest or knowledge? And if so, what causes this? Are sites of geological and palaeontological importance easily accessible? Is it affordable to visit? Are these sites effectively marketed both locally and internationally? Are we even aware of the unique potential of South Africa in terms of global tourism?

These matters will be addressed in order to review the scope of South Africa as one of the leading tourist destinations in the world. The limiting factors in terms of the tourism development will also be discussed.

1.3 Research methodology

According to Veal (1992), there are three types of research within the leisure and tourism discipline: · Descriptive research: Finding out about something. · Explanatory research: Explaining the findings. · Evaluative research: Evaluating the effectiveness of policies / programmes.

The research in this study is mainly descriptive since geotourism is a relatively new field of study and in need of ‘territory mapping’. In trying to explain the problems identified, it also touches on explanatory research.

The study begins with a description of tourism and the potential that it encompasses in employment and economic terms. The tourism potential in South Africa, and specifically the potential of geotourism, is described. The problems that were encountered and identified during the study, as well as other problems associated with geotourism in South Africa are described, and then explained.

The method of research used consists of a process of data observation and description, data analysis and explanation. This is called the inductive process (Veal, 1992). A flow diagram of how exactly

5 this process is followed is included in Figure 1. Four steps that are outlined in the research process are: · Preparation / planning · Investigation · Analysis · Write-up / presentation of results

1.4 Data gathering

Different ways of data gathering were used. Data were collected first and foremost via a literature study: this was done especially in the description of tourism and its potential, as well as the description of the sites mentioned. Another data gathering technique used was the interviewing of individuals and different authorities. On-site investigation also revealed several problems identified in this study.

Figure 1: Flow diagram of methodology followed.

1.5 Research limitations

Due to the limited nature of the study (being a mini-dissertation), and the large extent of the scope of the study, it is impossible to cover all places of geological and palaeontological importance in

6 South Africa. Only a brief overview of the geological and mining heritage of South Africa is given and only a selection of the most important sites is discussed. There are many other interesting and important sites mentioned in some of the references.

2 TOURISM POTENTIAL

The following chapter will explore the international growth in tourism, and the tourism potential in South Africa. This concept is important in the context of this study towards the objective of realising the status of the country as a world-class tourist destination. It is also important since it determines the degree to which South Africa’s geological and palaeontological heritage can be marketed.

2.1 International tourism

Over the past few decades there was a definite increase in tourism as both an industry and activity (Table 1), according to Cooper et. al (1993).

Table 1: The growth of international tourism arrivals and receipts worldwide.

Year Tourist arrivals (1,000's) Tourism receipts* (million $US-1991) 1950 25 282 2 100 1960 69 296 6 817 1970 159 690 17 900 1980 284 841 102 372 1990 429 250 249 300 *Excluding international fare receipts (Hunter and Green, 1995).

7 The growth of international tourism has also been remarkably resistant to adverse economical and political conditions. So much so that the World Travel and Tourism Council's (WTTC) second annual report contains this one striking message: "Travel and tourism is the world's largest industry and the world's largest employer - creating wealth, creating jobs" (WTTC, 1992: Introductory page).

According to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, DEAT (1996) the WTTC estimates that travel and tourism is now the world's largest generator of employment. In 1995, the industry provided direct and indirect employment for 212 million people; accounted for 10.7% of the global work force and provided one in every nine jobs. Between 1995 and 2000, it was estimated that travel and tourism globally added one new job every 2.5 seconds and created 125 million new direct and indirect employment opportunities.

In economic terms, the tourism industry generated US $ 3.4 million million in world gross output and contributed US $ 655 000 million of government tax revenues in 1995. In Britain, Germany, Japan, and the USA, more adults have travelled than visited a library, attended a sporting event or have gone to see a play or concert. The tourism industry is also expected to grow by 50% between 1995 and 2005. By this time the industry will be worth US $ 7 million million to the world economy (DEAT, 1996).

2.2 South African tourism

South Africa saw a 52% increase in overseas tourists between 1994 and 1995 (Wybenga, 1999). Despite this phenomenal increase, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism made the following statement in 1996 concerning the potential for tourism in South Africa: “South Africa has not been able to realise its full potential in tourism” (DEAT, 1996). This reflects the fact that there is untapped potential in South Africa in terms of tourism.

According to South African Tourism (SATOUR, 2001), the WTTC performed an analysis of the direct and indirect employment opportunities created by tourism in South Africa (Table 2). Direct

8 employment refers to the tourism industry and indirect (total) employment to the total travel and tourism economy.

Table 2: Employment created by tourism in South Africa (SATOUR, 2001).

Year Total visitors Direct employment Total employment 1995 4 488 272 220 329 550 451 1996 4 944 430 243 600 627 912 1997 4 976 349 263 013 672 860 1998 5 732 039 287 150 737 617

From the table above, the average number of arrivals per direct employment is 19.9. Therefore, for every 20 tourists to the country, one direct job is created. The average number of arrivals per total employment is 7.8. Thus for every eight tourists, one job is created in the total travel and tourism economy in South Africa.

From the values in Table 2, the employment figures for the period 1999 to 2002 were estimated (Table 3). By the end of 2002 the expected employment figure for South Africa in the total travel and tourism economy will be over a million.

Table 3: Expected number of visitors and employment created for 1999-2002 (SATOUR, 2001).

Year Total visitors expected Expected direct employment Expected total employment 1999 6 253 452 314 439 801 852 2000 6 918 496 347 880 887 127 2001 7 657 984 385 063 981 949 2002 8 480 947 464 444 1 087 474

9 Apart from the potential to create employment, the potential of the tourism industry to spawn entrepreneurship, to create new services like local entertainment and handicrafts and to "drive" other sectors of the economy has not been realised in South Africa. Tourism also has the potential to strengthen rural communities and to generate foreign exchange (DEAT, 1996). According to Olivier (2001) tourism is the best way to increase a country’s GDP. In fact tourism, perhaps more than any other sector, has the potential to achieve the objectives of the government’s Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). According to DEAT (1996) some of the benefits of tourism are that it: · Creates opportunities for the small entrepreneur. · Promotes awareness and understanding among different cultures. · Breeds a unique informal sector. · Helps to care for the environment. · Creates economic linkages with agriculture, light manufacturing and curios. · Creates linkages with the services sector (health and beauty, entertainment, banking and insurance). · Provides dignified employment opportunities.

According to DEAT (1996), South Africa received 4.48 million international visitors in 1995, although just fewer than 1.1 million were overseas visitors. Africa continues to generate the bulk of international arrivals to South Africa (73%) with Europe accounting for about 15%. North and South America, the Middle East, Australasia and the Indian Ocean Islands continue to be very marginal contributors, together accounting for not more than 12% of total international arrivals in South Africa. In addition it is estimated that there are some 7.9 million domestic tourists who took a total of 17 million holidays in 1994.

However, can Africans be reckoned as tourists, considering the fact that a very large percentage of Africans arriving in South Africa, come only for employment opportunities or to buy food? The potential therefore for South Africa to increase both arrivals and expenditures from all three markets (overseas, regional and domestic) is substantial. Especially if one considers the fact that the majority of the previously neglected groups in society have not travelled and that the neighbouring African markets also have good potential for further development (DEAT, 1996).

10 3 TOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

In the study of tourism, the concepts of tourism ‘supply and demand’ are very important (Cooper et. al, 1993). In this chapter both of these concepts will be discussed in terms of South Africa, to see what the country has to offer (what is the supply), and what is the relationship between the supply and the demand for tourism.

3.1 South Africa’s supply of tourism

Most of the tourists to South Africa arrive to appreciate the natural beauty of the country (Wybenga, 1999). The beauty of South Africa is found in its diversity which includes: a generally hot and sunny climate, varied scenery and unspoiled wilderness areas, accessible wildlife, diverse cultures, activities like bird-watching, hiking, hunting, river rafting and diving (DEAT, 1996; Schoeman, 1998) and other resources like our ethno cultural, archaeological, geological and palaeontological resources. These all add up to produce the ‘supply of tourism’, which consists of an amalgam, or mix of attractions.

Because of our diverse attractions, South Africa has a supply of tourism matched by very few places in the world. The supply of tourism in any country also shapes the demand for tourism in that country (Cooper et. al, 1993).

3.2 Demand for tourism

The demand for tourism can be defined in various ways, according to the subject perspective of the author, whether it is economic, psychologic, geographic etc. The geographic perspective defines tourism demand as the total number of persons who travel or wish to travel, and use tourist facilities and services at places away from their places of work or residence (Cooper et. al, 1993).

11 One of the important issues relating to tourism demand is the individuals’ right to demand tourism, as listed by a number of official proclamations. In 1980 the Manila Declaration on world tourism stated that the ultimate aim of tourism was “the improvement of the quality of life and the creation of better living conditions for all peoples” (Cooper et. al, 1993: 14). This statement is reflected in the visions of both the White Paper on the promotion and development of tourism in South Africa, and the Tourism Action Plan (see section 3.3).

Figure 2: The demand curve for a product (adapted from Cooper et. al, 1993).

Despite the fact that 450 million tourists travelled internationally during the early 1990's, the ability to international tourism remains an unobtainable luxury for most of the global population. This can be ascribed to the inverse 'price - quantity' relationship in the economic demand schedule. The inverse demand curve (Figure 2) shows that the quantity of demand for tourism drops with an increase in the price associated with tourism, and vice versa. For example, as the price of a tour to Sterkfontein Caves (Px) would drop from Px0 to Px1, the quantity of demand (Qx) for that tour would inversely increase from Qx’0 to Qx’1, and vice versa.

12 According to Prosser (1994), the character of tourism demand will continue to change. Schwaninger (1989) predicted these following changes in tourism demand: · Tourism demand will continue to grow and will become increasingly differentiated. · There will be greater market specialisation and segmentation with a stronger emphasis on more active pastimes rather than passive holidays. · Packaged holidays will be customised to accommodate greater individual freedom through a modular product design.

These predictions paint a bright picture for tourism in South Africa. The country definitely has the resources to focus on more differentiated tourism like geotourism. South Africa is known for its variety of attractions (fauna, flora, geology, ethnology and scenery). Then there is the climate and facilities to accommodate active outdoor activities like hiking, diving and river rafting (already being very popular). If all of these features are combined, there is a big scope for a tourism operator to put together a packaged tour that will appeal to almost every taste.

It must however be considered that it is not simply the stock of natural resources in South Africa that will determine its competitiveness in tourism, but rather, how these resources are managed and to what extent they are complemented with human innovations. In this regard, there are three aspects that count in favour of South Africa (DEAT, 1996): 1. The already well established network of national parks, which cover some 6.3% of the surface area of the country, and private nature reserves that, until now, have complied with the demands of the increasingly environmentally sensitive visitor. 2. Some companies are already leaders in global ecotourism 'best practice', while others have created theme park attractions in South Africa, promoting the country internationally. 3. The recent successful political transformation in South Africa has virtually opened the country's tourism potential to the rest of the world and indeed to the previously neglected groups in society.

13 The nature of development at a tourist destination is shaped by the demand for tourism in that country. The demand for tourism in any country is, among others, shaped by the supply of tourism. As mentioned, the supply of tourism represents a mix of attractions, and for a destination to be successful, it is important to deliver a quality product and experience. In this regard careful planning and management based on sustainable principles is necessary for tourism development.

3.3 Tourism development

September is tourism month in South Africa. In 2001, the DEAT hosted a program of events that culminated in World Tourism Day on the 27th of September 2001. The national government has launched several campaigns to promote tourism awareness in South Africa. According to DEAT (1996) the vision of the White Paper on the development and promotion of tourism in South Africa is to develop the tourism sector as a national priority in a sustainable and acceptable manner, so that it will contribute significantly to the improvement of the quality of life of every South African citizen.

The R180 million Tourism Action Plan, the blueprint for the international marketing of South Africa as a top world tourism destination, was launched in in September 1999. The Tourism Action Plan is the product of a public-private partnership between government and the tourism industry. It was their task to formulate an integrated strategic tourism marketing campaign for South Africa. One of the important focuses is to run marketing campaigns mainly in the traditional ‘Big Six’ markets (UK, USA, Germany, Italy, Netherlands and France) to increase South Africa's market share of the international tourists coming to this country (SATOUR, 1999).

The vision of the Tourism Action Plan according to DEAT (2001) is leading environmental management and tourism in the interest of sustainable development for all. Its mission according to DEAT (2001), is to continue the improvement of the quality of life of all South Africans by: · Promoting the sustainable development, utilisation and protection of our natural and cultural resources. · Harnessing the skills, experience and knowledge of the environment of all South Africans.

14 · Fostering equitable access to the benefits derived from our natural and cultural resources. · Empowering the South African public, communities and organisations through participation, environmental education, capacity building, research and information services. · Working together with all relevant stakeholders and spheres of government in the spirit of good governance. · Ensuring that all international participation and obligations are undertaken in the context of South Africa’s environmental policies and principles. · Establishing responsible tourism that ensures environmental sustainability and which contribute to a better quality of life.

However, a number of factors must be considered when dealing with the development of a successful tourism sector in South Africa. These factors limit the effectiveness of the tourism industry to play a more meaningful role in the national economy. According to DEAT (2001), the limiting factors are: · Tourism has been inadequately resourced and funded. · Tourism is a myopic private sector. · Limited integration of local communities and previously neglected groups into tourism. · Inadequate tourism education, training and awareness. · Inadequate protection of the environment. · Poor service. · Lack of infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. · A ground transportation sector not geared to service tourists. · Lack of inclusive, effective national, provincial and local structures for the development, management and promotion of the tourism sector. · The growing levels of crime and violence on visitors.

South Africa also needs to be aware of the fact that tourism as it developed during the 1960’s and 70’s, was self-destructive, destroying the natural resources that attracted the tourists in the first place (Schoeman, 1998). Developing countries are particularly prone to environmental damage because of the need to create an income from tourism, and the low priority given to environmental

15 matters because of lack of funding or understanding. When developing tourism for the sake of boosting the national economy, it is therefore important to consider the possible impacts of tourism.

3.4 The impact of tourism

According to Cooper et. al (1993), the impact of tourism is a major factor to consider in the host destination. Previously, economic impact assessments have been used to determine the impact of tourism. This was done because the data are more easily available and measured than in the case of environmental (EIA) or social impact assessments (SIA). Recently however, as the techniques of EIA and SIA improved, it is more often used in determining tourism impacts although it is difficult to determine the true extent of the impacts. Still the impact of tourism remains a complex issue, influenced by the type of tourism, the nature of the destination and the level of planning and management.

According to Hunter and Green (1995), the study of tourism impacts is relatively immature. Different types of tourism result in different impacts. The range of impacts varies from: · Short term or long term. · Positive or negative. · Local, regional, national or global. · Direct, indirect or induced.

Studies on tourism impacts have previously been approached from one academic discipline like geography, ecology, sociology etc. and have been confined to a relatively small geographical area in the tourist destination. There is therefore a need for a multidisciplinary approach to the description, categorisation, and assessment of tourism impacts.

Over the past few years there has been a definite increase in the awareness of the concepts of impact assessments and especially sustainable development. Therefore it was thought necessary to include a chapter on sustainable tourism.

16 4 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Agenda 21, adopted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), defines the terms of sustainable development. A widely used definition is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Since the UNCED, also known as the ‘Earth Summit’, there has been a global increase in awareness of sustainable development.

Ideally, any form of tourism should strive to be 'sustainable'. But what are the criteria for tourism to be sustainable? Since the agenda does not directly mention tourism, the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism, which was held in 1995 on the island of Lanzarote in Spain, established a “charter for sustainable tourism”. This declaration is an appeal to the international community and defines sustainable tourism in the frame of Agenda 21 (Patzak, 2001).

According to Patzak (2001), sustainable tourism must: · Be ecologically bearable in the long term. · Be based on the diversity of opportunities offered by the local economy. · Contribute positively to local economic development (creation of local employment). · Consider its effects on the cultural heritage and traditional elements of each local community. · Mutually involve and respect all actors both public and private (co-operation). · Improve quality of life.

Cooper et. al (1993), put out principles for sustainable tourism: · The intrinsic value of the environment must outweigh its value as a tourism asset. · Tourism must be seen as a positive activity that benefits the destination, the community and the visitor. · The relationship between tourism and the environment must be managed in such a way that the environment remains sustainable in the long term. It must not be damaging to the resource. · Tourism activities must respect the nature and scale of the place in which they are visited.

17 · There must be harmony between the needs of the host destination, the community and the visitor.

According to Pasztor (2001), ecotourism has been promoted as a means of achieving sustainable development, and can therefore be regarded as a form of sustainable tourism. Ecotourism combines conservation strategies with economic development and is also linked to a positive environmental ethic and tourist education while also promoting cultural tourism and a concern for local communities (Wybenga, 1999).

5 ECOTOURISM

The term ‘ecotourism’ was first used and defined in 1983 by Hector Cabellos-Lascurian, a Brazilian naturalist. The definition for ecotourism accepted in South Africa is an interactive, informed and participating journey, where both the natural and cultural environment is experienced in such a way that it ensures the sustainable use of the environment, its resources and the economic opportunities regarding the industry and the local community. This definition highlights the need for a symbiotic, sustainable relationship between the tourist and the environment (Schoeman, 1998; Wybenga, 1999).

In Malaysia the term ‘tourism geology’ was suggested for a new branch of applied geology that would support the growth of ecotourism worldwide (Patzak, 2001). According to the Department of Agricultural, Environme ntal and Development Economics (AEDE) from the Ohio State University, ecotourism is a “broad term that encompasses nature tourism, adventure tourism, ethnic tourism, responsible or wilderness-sensitive tourism, soft-path or small-scale tourism, low-impact tourism and sustainable tourism. Scientific, educational, or academic tourism (such as biotourism, archaeo-tourism, and geotourism) are also forms of ecotourism. The definition of the term stresses the destinations and objectives of ecotourism from the traveller’s point of view” (AEDE, 2002). From this definition, it is clear that geotourism can be regarded as a form of ecotourism.

18 5.1 Geotourism

The term ‘geotourism’ came into common usage from the mid-1990s onwards. The first widely published definition was “The provision of interpretative and service facilities to enable tourists to acquire knowledge and understanding of the geology and geomorphology of a site beyond the level of mere aesthetic appreciation” (Patzak, 2001). Geotourism might also be seen as the provision of these facilities and services to promote the value and societal benefit of geological, palaeontological and geomorphological sites and their materials.

The conservation of the earth’s geological heritage is called ‘geoconservation’, and comprises the conservation management of rocks, landforms and soils. 'Geodiversity' is a quality we are trying to conserve. It can be defined as the range or diversity of geological (bedrock), geomorphological (landform) and soil features, assemblages, systems and processes. Geodiversity also includes the palaeontological heritage in the form of evidence of past life, and a range of processes (biological, hydrological and atmospheric) that were responsible for the geological formations, and that are currently acting on rocks, landforms and soils (Patzak, 2001).

According to Van Tonder and Wallmach (2001), geotourism is a major facet of educational and special interest tourism. It is a means of which the natural history, geology, palaeontology, ecology, prehistory and cultural history of an area can be interpreted and presented in a multidisciplinary way to people of differing levels of knowledge. According to Patzak (2001), geotourism also ensures the conservation of these sites for the use of students, tourists and other casual recreationalists. This new approach will place geoconservation at the same level of importance as the widely recognised term bioconservation.

There is no demonstrable conflict between geoconservation and tourism promotion. On the contrary, geoconservation coupled with tourism provision are key elements of geotourism. To include geotourism within sustainable tourism schemes offers a whole new range of economic development potential. Sustainable geotourism development can practically result in certain advantages (Patzak, 2001):

19 · Sale of local products. · Creation of new products with geological connotation. · Enforcement of local hotel and restaurant business through tourists and visitors. · Employment creation linked to geology, guides, technicians and the guesthouse industry. · Support to local transport.

6 THE SUPPLY OF GEOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa has a supply of tourism matched by very places in the world. The supply of geotourism probably is the best in the world. Nowhere else would you be able to see such a variety of world-class geological and palaeontological sites, combined with a conventional tour, in a country already being popular for its climate and other features. The following is just a brief overview of South Africa’s mining and geological heritage, and a selection of the various places of interest associated with it.

6.1 South Africa’s mining heritage

Gold The name means ‘Place of ’ in Sotho. In 1886 Australian gold digger George Harrison discovered the rich gold-bearing Main Reef that outcrops at Langlaagte, some 5 km west of present-day 's city centre. This site, now known as George Harrison Park, was established in 1947 and was declared a National Monument (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999;Whitfield, 2001).

Prior to the Witwatersrand gold rush, alluvial gold was discovered south of present-day Sabie in 1873. Later that same year, a bigger discovery was made in Pilgrim’s Creek. This caused the first gold rush in South Africa, attracting more than 1,500 diggers. Today, Pilgrim’s Rest, which was once the centre of the mining activities in the region, is also preserved as a National Monument.

20 In 1874 another Australian, Henry Lewis, found gold in small reefs of the at Blaauwbank near the village of Magaliesberg. At Zwartkop, north of Krugersdorp, gold was also discovered in quartz veins in 1878. Stephanus Minnaar made an important discovery in 1881at Kromdraai, west of Zwartkop. This discovery led to further exploration in the Witwatersrand area and was ultimately the precursor to the main discovery by George Harrison (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

Since the early discovery of gold on the Rand, the Witwatersrand Supergroup have yielded nearly 50 000 tons of gold – more than a third of all the gold ever mined on earth, making the Witwatersrand the world’s largest gold field (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999). Not only is it the biggest producer of gold, it also hosts the world’s deepest gold mine, Western Deep Levels, mining at almost 4 000m. The world’s deepest single-drop shaft is also situated on the Witwatersrand gold fields. It is close to three kilometres deep and belongs to South Deep.

Platinum Group The largest known mafic intrusion in the world is the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa. Geologists and other earth scientists come from all over the world to observe and to study this phenomenon. The Bushveld Igneous Complex is host to the world’s largest resource of Group Metals (PGM’s), making South Africa the foremost supplier of these metals.

Andries Lombaard first discovered platinum in the form of nuggets on the farm Maandagshoek. Dr urged Lombaard to sample various layers outcropping on his farm. This led to the discovery of the continuous platinum-bearing reef in 1924. This reef was given the name ‘Lombaard Reef’, but at the insistence of Lombaard, was changed to .

Apart from the PGM’s (platinum, , , , and ) the Bushveld Igneous Complex also contains the world’s largest deposits of chromium and vanadium (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

21 South Africa is the world’s fifth largest producer of rough diamonds and the third largest in terms of value of production because of the high quality of the diamonds mined here. Dr Hans Merensky, more famous for discovering the world’s largest platinum deposit, was also the discoverer of diamonds in South Africa. His geological ingenuity lead him to Alexander Bay on the west coast of South Africa where he picked up a single stone to reveal 487 diamonds underneath it (Anon, 2001a)!

The discovery of alluvial diamonds triggered prospecting along the Vaal and Orange rivers during the late 1860’s until 1870, when a 50-carat was found on the farm Jagersfontein in the . This was the first time that a diamond was found associated with its parent rock, , a volcanic rock derived from the mantle of the earth. The most famous discoveries were however made a year later, at a site that grew into a city now known as the diamond capital of the world (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999). The Kimberlite pipe was mined out to leave the famous “Big Hole” in the city, appropriately called Kimberley.

The world's largest diamond ever found, was the Cullinan, found in the Premier mine at Cullinan, South Africa in 1905. It weighed 3 106.75 carats uncut. It was cut into the Great Star of Africa, weighing 530.2 carats, the Lesser Star of Africa, which weighs 317.40 carats, and 104 other diamonds of nearly flawless colour and clarity. They now form part of the British crown jewels. This diamond was three times larger than the next biggest diamond, the Excelcior, also found in South Africa (Anon, 2001b).

6.2 South Africa’s geological heritage

‘Granite-Greenstone’ basement rocks South Africa exhibits some of the oldest rocks on earth. These rocks are Archaean (2 500 to 3 500 million years) in age and form the basement on which younger sedimentary rocks were deposited. It consists mainly of large masses of granite, intruded into older rocks of volcanic and sedimentary origin known as ‘greenstone belts’. Greenstone rocks are found from the Mozambique border in the

22 east to the escarpment in the west and are named after the green colour of the altered volcanic rocks. There are three main greenstone belts: the Barberton greenstone belt, the Murchison greenstone belt and the Pietersburg greenstone belt. All of the greenstone belts have yielded sufficient amounts of gold to be mined. Notable are the Consort and Sheba mines in the Barberton greenstone belt, which have produced gold for over 100 years. The Eersteling mine in the Pietersburg greenstone belt is the site of the first discovery of gold in the former Transvaal and has been declared a Natio nal Monument. Apart from gold, the Murchison greenstone belt is well mineralised with antimony, base metals, mercury, emeralds, vanadium and titanium.

The basement granites in the ‘granite-greenstone terrain’ stretch from northern Kwazulu-Natal and Swaziland to the Soutpansberg in the Northern Province. These rocks can be seen as domes outcropping in isolated exposures in the Northern Province (Makoppa Dome), in Gauteng (Johannesburg Dome) and between Parys and Vredefort as the world-famous Vredefort Dome. It can also be seen in outcrops showing the contact below the Witwatersrand sedimentary rocks in places like Kalenbach Drive, in the suburb of Linksfield, Johannesburg (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The Limpopo Terrain The high-grade metamorphic rocks from the Limpopo Terrain also form part of the basement rocks in South Africa, as well as Botswana and Zimbabwe. Because of the large faults and high-grade metamorphic rocks, it is accepted to be a zone of collision between the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons, although many theories exist about the exact process of formation of these rocks. The high-grade metamorphic gneisses can be seen in an outcrop in the Sand River, close to Mussina. This site has recently been proposed a National Monument. The large faults in the terrain gave rise to mineralisation (which was mined near Mussina) and hot mineral springs like the one at Tshipise.

From an archaeological perspective this is also an important area. There are sites of ancient habitation in the area. Sites include Mapungubwe and Thulamela, where an ancient kingdom has been excavated recently (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

23 Mapungubwe is situated at the confluence of the Sashi and Limpopo Rivers, at the intersection point of the borders between South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana. In a way this position is mirrored by the location of Thulamela at the border between South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

The site of Mapungubwe consists of three related sites or areas on the farm Vhembe in the Northern Province. Mapungubwe is a sandstone formation with relative steep sides, surrounded by a floodplain. To reach the top one has to climb up a cleft in the side of the koppie. This is very defensible as vertical sides surround the passage almost all the way to the top (Anon, 2001c). According to Hall (1987), the leading families emphasised their status by building their houses on the top of the hill. The rest of the population settled around it on the plains.

According to Hall (1987), archaeological evidence proves that the people of Mapungubwe were involved in trade with the African east coast. Although the major export products from the Limpopo valley around the ninth and tenth century were ivory and animal skins, Bulpin (1985) mentions that the Portuguese voyagers noted that the tribal people of Africa sold gold to the Muslim traders on the coast.

Some golden objects including the famous golden rhinoceros were also found associated with graves on the top of Mapungubwe hill. These golden objects are proof that the tribal people of Mapungubwe mined gold long before the main gold rush in South Africa.

The Witwatersrand Supergroup Sedimentary basins formed on the ancient basement rocks due to tectonics. One such basin is the Witwatersrand basin. The Witwatersrand Supergroup (3 000 million years) is a series of sedimentary rocks deposited in this inland basin. These rocks consist of conglomerates, or reefs (being mined for the gold), quartzites and shales. The Roodepoort Botanical Gardens host an official site where part of the stratigraphy of the Witwatersrand Supergroup can be viewed in outcrop together with a geological trail informing tourists about the significance of the outcrop.

24 There are numerous other sites in and around Johannesburg that tourists can visit to see exposed Witwatersrand outcrop. The Witwatersrand was named after the several east-west stretching ridges from which numerous fountains sprang and streams and waterfalls are found. The highest ridge also acts as the main watershed between the Limpopo and Vaal drainage basins to the north and south respectively (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The Ventersdorp Supergroup The Witwatersrand Supergroup is directly overlain by a series of individual lava outpourings, which form the Ventersdorp Supergroup. This group of intercalated lava and sedimentary layers formed 2 700 million years ago. The Ventersdorp lavas are of economic importance since it capped a gold-bearing conglomerate layer (the well-known VCR, or Ventersdorp Contact Reef) and protected it from erosion, as well as geological importance since it forms a near-circular outcrop around the Vredefort Dome.

These lavas also contain cavities (formed by gas bubbles in the fresh lava) that have now been filled with secondary minerals. They are known as amygdales and can be seen in numerous outcrops of resistant lava hills to the south of Johannesburg, as well as under the Queen Street bridge in the Bezuidenhout Valley area of Johannesburg (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The Transvaal Supergroup Overlying the Ventersdorp Supergroup is the Transvaal Supergroup. This is a younger series of sedimentary rocks (Proterozoic, 2 500 to 570 million years) stretching from Mafikeng in the west to Nelspruit in the east, and from Pietersburg in the north to Vredefort in the south. The oldest rocks from the Transvaal Supergroup are quartzites, containing a dark coloured quartz-pebble conglomerate layer known as the ‘Black Reef’. This reef also contains gold, but not to the extent of the Witwatersrand reefs.

Overlying the Black Reef is a thick unit of dolomite known as the Malmani dolomite. These dolomites contain records of the oldest forms of life on earth (Durand, 2001a) in the form of stromatolites. Stromatolites are domal structures formed by ancient organisms similar to modern alga l colonies (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

25 The same dolomites play host to caves of palaeontological importance, such as Sterkfontein, Kromdraai, Makapansgat and Taung. The caves form when rainwater infiltrate into the numerous fractures, and the dissolved carbonic acid content dissolve the carbonate from the rock. These caves acted as a shelter to a number of prehistoric animals and even hominids, whose fossil remains have been trapped by the collapse of cave walls and roofs. Today, these sites are of world importance for the study of the evolution of humankind (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

Overlying the dolomite is a variety of unusual sediments that contain high levels of iron, manganese and in some places sodium. The big iron-ore mine at Sishen, which is the backbone of South Africa’s iron and steel industry, mines the enriched iron from these Transvaal sediments. The so-called Kalahari manganese field, the largest manganese-mining district in the world, is also situated on Transvaal rocks. The most important tiger’s eye producing area in the world is Niekerkshoop, a small town south of Kuruman. Tiger’s eye is a famous yellow-brown ornamental stone formed by the weathering and silicification of blue asbestos. Other asbestos deposits previously mined at Penge and Chuniespoort also occur in the Transvaal sediments.

The quartzites from the Transvaal Supergroup form some of the most beautiful scenery in South Africa. The Magaliesberg Mountain range, extending from Tshwane (Pretoria) to beyond in the west, is situated on these quartzites. Faults have caused displacement of the ridge to form gorges or ‘poorts’, like the one where the popular Hartbeespoort dam has been built. A cable way was erected up to the ridge next to the dam and offers a spectacular view of the dam and surrounding geology. The Geological Society of South Africa has produced a scale model of the geology and topography of the area on site. The same cliff faces and buttresses outcrop in Mpumalanga to form the northern part of the Drakensberg escarpment (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The Bushveld Igneous Complex The Bushveld Igneous Complex, the world’s largest , intruded into the Transvaal Supergroup sedimentary rocks around 2 055 to 2 060 million years ago. Large volumes of mafic were injected parallel to the bedding of the quartzites and shales. As the magma body slowly cooled, crystals of different composition, density and crystallisation temperature began to form. The crystals then differentiated either by settling out to the bottom of the magma body, or

26 floating to the top. This is how the continuous layering formed as well as the concentration of different elements (like platinum) within the different layers. The Merensky Reef can be traced for over 240 km. The whole complex stretches from the area in the west to Lydenburg in the east and from Tshwane in the south to Potgietersrus in the north.

There are also a number of smaller intrusions adjacent to the main intrusion as well as sills that have intruded into Transvaal Supergroup rocks. Felsic rocks (composed of , quartz and mica) are also associated with the Bushveld intrusion. These are mainly the pink Bushveld granites seen in places like the Rustenburg area, and felsites and granophyres (finer-grained volcanic rocks) that overly the layered mafic rocks.

Sites of world importance include Dwars River and Magnet Heights. The Upper Group no.1 seam is exposed in a gorge cut by the Dwars River. The dark coloured layers bifurcate into the lighter coloured (Figure 3).

Figure 3: World-class exposure of Bushveld layering at Dwars River (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

27 This site is frequently visited by scientists from all over the world and was declared a National Monument in the early 1980’s. Magnet Heights is a site where the main magnetite layer of the Upper Zone is exposed. This layer is two meters thick and can be traced for over 250 km. It is extensively mined for vanadium contained inside the mineral magnetite, a magnetic mineral that can easily be separated by magnetic separation (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The Vredefort Dome About 2 020 million years ago, 35 million years after the formation of the Bushveld Igneous Complex, a estimated to be between 10 and 15 km wide hit the earth’s surface in the Parys - Vredefort area. In the centre of the a piece of the basement granite popped up as a result of the energy rebound. This granite dome is known as the Vredefort Dome and is surrounded by a 70-km wide rim of upturned beds of Witwatersrand Supergroup sedimentary rocks (known as the ‘golden arc’). The original size of the crater is estimated to be at least 250 km in diameter, which not only makes this structure the oldest on earth, but also the largest known (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999)!

The Waterberg sediments Trapped in the South African geological history is the first appearance of free oxygen in the atmosphere. The Waterberg sediments or ‘red beds’ owe their colour to the presence of iron oxides. This series of sediments composed of quartzites, arkoses and conglomerates was deposited 1 800 million years ago on top of the Transvaal Supergroup, the Bushveld complex and parts of the basement rocks. The Waterberg sediments occur north of Witbank, between Tshwane and Groblersdal, around Vaalwater as the Waterberg Mountains, and from Louis Trichardt to the northern part of the Kruger National Park as the east-west stretching Soutpansberg Mountain range (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

Namaqualand Metamorphic province Between Upington and Britstown lies the Namaqualand Metamorphic Province. The sediments from the 1 600 to 1 400 million year old Bushmanland Group have been metamorphosed into a variety of gneisses, schists and quartzites. The Namaqualand Province host a cluster of lead, zinc and copper deposits west of Pofadder, around the town of Aggenys. The copper mining districts of

28 Springbok and Okiep, the latter being the oldest mining district in the country, is situated further west in the Namaqualand hills. Other minerals that was mined from the Namaqualand Province include corundum, , tourmaline, , rare earth elements and varieties if quartz like amethyst and rose quartz. The Namaqualand Metamorphic Province forms part of the Namaqua- Natal Belt; a belt draped around the southern edge of the . Younger Karoo sediments mostly cover these metamorphic rocks, but outcrops can be seen in southern Kwazulu- Natal. Between Port Alfred and the Tugela River, stream erosion of these rocks gave rise to the distinctive rolling hills, forming the famous Valley of a Thousand Hills between Durban and Pietermaritzburg (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The After the Namaqua - Natal geological activity, a chain of basins formed in the southern and southwestern coastal areas of South Africa. The Malmesbury Group sediments were deposited into these basins around 600 million years ago. The sedimentary rocks were then intruded by the Cape Granite Suite around 550 million years ago. Between 450 and 350 million years ago the Cape Supergroup sediments were deposited on top of the eroded Cape Granites and Malmesbury slates. It consists of a series of shales, sandstones and conglomerates.

These same sedimentary rocks have been highly folded and now form the spectacular Cape Fold Belt including the Witteberg, Swartberg and Outeniqua Mountains. The world famous Table Mountain consists of units of Malmesbury slate and Cape Granite Suite (forming the flatly eroded basement), overlain by the sediments from the Graafwater and Peninsula Formations of the Cape Supergroup (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The Karoo Supergroup The sedimentary layers from the Karoo Supergroup cover about two thirds of the surface area of South Africa. These sediments were deposited between 300 and 140 million years ago and consist of different sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The main Karoo basin stretches from Touwsrivier in the Western Cape to Witbank in Mpumalanga. However, remnants of Karoo sediments also outcrop in the Springbok Flats area in the centre of the Bushveld Complex, to the north of the

29 Soutpansberg, along the Limpopo river and on the eastern border of South Africa along the Lebombo Mountain range (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

According to Durand (2001a), the Karoo Supergroup is the most extensive Permo-Triassic terrestrial deposit in the world. The fossils that were found here were also found on other continents like Australia and South America. These Karoo-type fossils served as the final proof for the existence and subsequent break-up of Gondwanaland through continental drift. The Karoo is most famous for its mammal-like reptile fossils (therapsids), regarded by Dr as the most important fossil animal ever discovered (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999)!

According to Viljoen and Reimold (1999), the Karoo succession records a remarkable change in the geological environment, as the palaeo-continent of Gondwana migrated from polar to tropical latitudes. The first period of deposition was of the Dwyka Tillites – which is glacial debris. These sediments can be seen in the Klein Karoo, Namibia, Kwazulu-Natal, and the area between Middelburg, Vredefort and Vereeniging. Evidence of glaciers can also be seen in the form of striations on glacial pavements, which formed when pieces of rock embedded in the glacier scoured the underlying surface as the glacier moved over it. The glacial pavement on the farm Nooitgedacht near Kimberley has been declared a National Monument.

After the ice sheets have melted, shales and sandstones of the were deposited in an inland sea shallowing to the northeast. Swamps and forests with vast vegetation covered this shallow northeastern part of the basin. As the vegetation died, it became submerged under the swamp waters and formed the extensive coalfields of South Africa.

With the climate gradually getting warmer, the Ecca Sea slowly disappeared to give rise to the extensive river flood plains and the fluvial sedimentation processes of the . During this time amphibious and reptilian life flourished. Numerous fossil species have been found in the Beaufort Group sediments, including the mammal-like reptiles that bridge the reptile – mammal transition. The many carnivorous mammal-like reptiles found in the Karoo strata documents the evolutionary history of mammals. One of these species, , was one of the few survivors

30 of a poorly understood mass extinction event (that killed almost 90 % of life forms) also recorded in the Beaufort biostratigraphy.

The sandstones of the , the red mudstones of the and sandstones of the overlie the Beaufort Group. The Elliot Formation contains numerous early dinosaur fossils, including the 12 m long Melanosaurus. Although the overlying Clarens Formation is host to dinosaur footprints, it also records a change in climate from the temperate climate of the Beaufort group to dry, desert conditions. Most of the sandstones are aeolian, deposited as large dunes. These wind-driven dunes migrated over each other to form large cross-bedding structures visible in cliff outcrops.

The whole Karoo sedimentary succession was terminated by outpourings of large volumes of basaltic lava. These ‘flood basalts’ of the coincided with the break-up of Gondwana and once covered large areas of the subcontinent. It has been mostly eroded but remnants can be seen in Lesotho forming the plateau of the Maluti Mountains, and also near Harrismith as the famous landmark ‘Platberg’ (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

Some of the fossils found in South Africa are on public display. These fossils include mammal-like reptiles, dinosaur and plant fossils from the Karoo, and hominids from the . Places to visit include the Transvaal Museum, the National Museum in Bloemfontein, the South African Museum in Cape Town and the Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontology at WITS (Durand, 2001a).

6.3 Selected sites of importance

It is impossible to mention all the sites of geological and palaeontological importance in the scope of this thesis. Some of the most important sites are mentioned, and discussed in more detail:

31 Cradle of Humankind A site of great importance is the ‘Cradle of Humankind’, declared a World Heritage Site in 1999. For more than 60 years scientists have unearthed the fossilised remains of hominids and their lithicultural belongings. Hence the name ‘Cradle of Humankind’. This site bears exceptional witness to the human prehistory and its associated cultural development. Over 500 different hominid fossils have been found, 9 000 stone tools, thousands of animal fossils and over 300 pieces of fossilised wood.

There are 12 different sites within the listed Cradle of Humankind (DACEL, 2001): · The world famous Sterkfontein Caves, home of the 2.6 million year old ‘Mrs Ples’ (Australopethicus africanus) and 3.3 million year old ‘Little Foot’. This site is the richest in the world in terms of Australopethicus fossils and is the site of the world’s longest sustained hominid excavation – continuing from 1966 until today. · Bolt’s Farm: The oldest fossils within the Cradle of Humankind are found here. These are 4.5 million year old rodents. Other fauna include fossil elephant, pig, antelope and the sabre tooth cat. · Coopers B: This site is just 1.25 km from Sterkfontein and has also yielded hominid fossils. · Drimolen is situated inside the Rhino and Lion Nature Reserve. This is the discovery site of the most complete Paranthropus robustus skull, including the lower jaw and all teeth. · Gladysvale consists of three underground caves. It was initially mined for phosphates in bat guano until the first animal fossils were found here in 1936. This site preserves one of the most extensive time sequences in the Cradle of Humankind. · Gondolin falls within the boundaries of the North West Province. Over 90 000 fossil specimens were found here since 1979. · Haasgat has yielded the fossil remains of early forest-dwelling monkeys. · Kromdraai: Here a schoolboy, Gert Terblanche discovered the first skull specimen of robust ape-man (Paranthropus robustus) in 1938. This was also the site of the important gold discovery made in 1881 (see section 6.1). · Minnaars: No recent excavations have been done here, although they do not discount the possibility that hominid remains may be found here in future.

32 · Plovers Lake yielded abundant faunal remains, including baboon crania, antelope, extinct zebra and a leopard lair. · Wonder Cave is a beautiful tourist destination. It has been open to the public since 1991 and hourly tours are conducted into this vast cave. Spectacular cave formations can be seen here including cave pearls, popcorn, mushroom and straw formations and the rare rimstone pools. · Swartkrans : Swartkrans is more famous for the evidence found here of the earliest deliberate use of fire 1.3 million years ago. However, this was also the first site in Africa to yield remains of Homo ergaster, thought to be the ancestor of Homo sapiens. It is now also believed that Homo ergaster and Paranthropus robustus coexisted at this site.

The same dolomite unit from the Transvaal Supergroup that was responsible for the caves in the Cradle of Humankind is also host to the caves in Makapan’s Valley.

Makapan’s Valley According to the Northern Province Tourism Board (NPTB, undated), Makapan’s Valley is currently also in line for World Heritage status since it displays the most complete record of hominid occupation anywhere in the world. Makapan’s Valley is part of a highlands system that tilted into existence during the Bushveld Intrusion. The large masses of magma accumulated on top of Transvaal sedimentary layers and caused it to sag down in the middle. This caused the perimeters of the ‘soup bowl’ to pop up and form the Makapansgat highlands in the north, and the Magaliesberg Mountains in the south. The valley is host to Makapansgat, Historic Cave and the Cave of Hearths (Pinnock, 1999).

The evolutionary history of humankind is represented at Makapansgat from the Australopithecine era, right through the Stone and Iron Ages to modern times (Durand, 2001b). The earliest bones are from 3.3 million year old hominids, and the evolutionary history continuous through to today.

Makapansgat After the 1925 discovery of the Taung child skull by Prof Raymond Dart, a teacher from Pietersburg sent him pieces of cave containing bones that he found near the lime kilns on

33 the farm Makapansgat (Durand, 2001b). The Makapansgat lime works was the scene of limestone mining activities to support the Johannesburg gold mining industry (NPTB, undated).

Figure 4: The old lime works at Makapansgat (Durand, 2001a).

The Makapansgat lime works (Figure 4) is the oldest of the discovery sites within Makapan’s Valley and covers an era between 3.3 and 1.6 million years. Fossils found here include that of the lesser ape-man, Australopithecus africanus (Durand, 2001b).

Cave of Hearths According to Durand (2001b), the Cave of Hearths and adjacent sediments preserves a remarkably complete record of human occupation. The oldest sediments contain evidence of Early Stone Age habitation. The Middle and Later Stone Ages up to the Iron Age are also preserved here. Nineteenth century European relics like brassware and musket balls were found on the surface at the onset of excavations.

34 Ficus Cave The Ficus Cave got its name from the wild fig tree Ficus ingens found at the entrance to the cave. This cave produced artefacts from the Iron Age and Nineteenth century. A large underground lake is also found in this cave. Close by evidence was found of Early Iron Age (550 AD) and Late Iron Age (1560 AD) habitation. Another cave, Peppercorn’s Cave also contains ancient Iron Age relics and an underground lake (Durand, 2001b).

Historical Cave This cave contains Iron Age and Difaqana relics. Historical Cave was also the scene of the historical clash between the Boer commando and the people of the Langa and Kekana tribes after the murder of the Voortrekkers at Moorddrift, Mapela and Pruizen. Chief Makopane (Makapan) and his people together with a herd of cattle were trapped inside this cave for almost a month without food and water. Altogether 1 500 people died of starvation. Several Boers were also killed, including Piet Potgieter, whose body was retrieved by none other than Paul Kruger. The town of Vredenburg was changed to Potgietersrus in the late 1800’s to honour Potgieter and the cave was declared a National Monument in 1936 (Bulpin, 1985; Durand, 2001b).

Cango Caves The Cango Caves started forming around 70 million years ago in the Swartberg Limestone belt. These are part of pre-Cambrian formations underlying the Cape Supergroup. Over the following period until about one million years ago, rainwater containing carbon dioxide infiltrated the cracks and dissolved the limestone. It also formed underground rivers that carved out tunnels and caverns. About one million years ago, the tunnels opened up to let air into the system. That is when the slow process of the limestone formations started. The current cave formations are only about 100 000 years old, because of a major roof collapse.

A farmer, Jacobus van Zyl, discovered the caves in 1780. Since then it was improved to make it more accessible for tourists. The caves receive about 250 000 visitors a year, and the numbers are growing all the time. Today the Cango Caves are among the top five tourist attractions in South Africa, but according to Bristow (1995), they are being ‘loved to death’ or at least over-exploited.

35 The uneven floors have been filled in with the clay that once blocked the tunnels, concrete walkways and steel ladders have been built. Access holes have also been cut through rim stone floors and existing tunnels and openings have been enlarged.

The last time this was done was in preparation for a visit by B.J. Vorster, the then Prime Minister. On his visit to Cango he decided not to progress beyond the first hall, so all the 'improvements' were in vain. A separate 'apartheid' entrance was opened into Van ZyI's Hall during the rule of his predecessor, Dr H.F. Verwoerd, to allow non-whites separate but equal entry.

This was one of the worst things that could have happened to the caves, because it allowed for greater airflow and caused the drying out of a unique system that depends on moisture for its development. The various forms of calcium carbonate crystal structures that once decorated the walls and ceilings, are now almost gone because of the dissolution of limestone by carbon dioxide.

Another great impact on the cave formations is the growth of algae (lampen flora) on many crystalline forms, dulling them beyond recognition. The constant heat from the show lights caused this algal growth over many years. It is primarily because of this reason that lighting has been greatly restricted in the caves, and may be even further dimmed.

The greatest impact on the caves however has been the wanton vandalism through the removal of formations over the past two centuries. It was only brought under control when the local civic authority turned the caves into a tourist attraction and thereby controlled the access. Tour guides have previously shown tourists fairy tale figures, religious icons, biblical characters and other far fetched images interpreted in flowstones, limestone curtains, crystal walls, stalactites and stalagmites. Today guides devote more time to explaining the geological creation of the caves and the formations (Bristow, 1995).

36 West Coast Fossil Park Situated 110 km north of Cape Town, this 14 ha fossil rich area was discovered during the course of mining operations the last 40 years. The mining operations ceased in 1995 and in 1996 the site was declared a National Monument after realising its potential.

The thousands of fossil bones collected from the site indicate an overwhelming palaeo-biodiversity. The fossils have attracted worldwide attention and generated over 70 scientific publications. The fascinating range of extinct animals includes the first bear ever to be discovered south of the Sahara, Agriotherium africanum. Other mammals include lion-sized sabre tooth cats, short-necked giraffes with long horns called sivatheres, three-toed horses and at least two species of extinct elephant. The site also yielded numerous fish, frogs, reptiles and birds, including a mega-tooth shark and an ostrich bigger than the one found presently in South Africa. The fossilised pollens, shells and a variety of invertebrates provided data for the deduction of an ancient habitat.

Since the 117 000 year old Langebaan footprints were found nearby, the West Coast Fossil Park with fossils dating back five million years ago is the oldest human-related fossil site in South Africa (Haarhoff, 2001a; Smith, 1998).

Vredefort Dome Much has been written about the meteorite impact 65 million years ago that was responsible for the mass extinction of the dinosaurs. The 2 023 million year old Vredefort Dome in South Africa, however, is now recognised as the world’s oldest and largest meteorite impact structure. It is no wonder that this site is on the list for proposed World Heritage Status. Situated an hours drive south of Johannesburg, it makes an ideal day trip and shows enormous potential as a tourist destination not only for local tourists, but international tourists arriving in Gauteng. There has been much debate about the origin of the structure, whether it was caused by processes from within the earth, or by a meteorite impact from outer space. The evidence points to the latter:

The 70 km wide near circular dome show upliftment of near crustal rocks of at least 10 km. The rocks also show evidence of violent deformation in the form of pseudotachylite breccia (melt rocks) and shatter cones in the sharply upturned rocks forming the outer rim, or ‘golden arc’. Some

37 minerals like quartz and zircon also show micro deformation structures, caused by produced by pressures in excess of 100 – 200 kilobars. This type of pressure is far from achievable by any internal geological process, especially in the rocks from the upper crust (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

Other interesting facts about the Vredefort Dome according to Venter (2001) are that the largest natural Wild Olive (Olienhout) forest occurs in the Dome conservancy and five of the eight biomes in South Africa can be seen here. This explains the big diversity in bird, plant and insect species occurring in the area. Four insect species have been identified here for the first time while the area also boasts with more butterfly species than the British Isles!

Tswaing Crater The 220 000 million year old Tswaing Crater northwest of Tshwane is much more recent, and much better preserved (Figure 5). The crater is only 1.1 km in diameter with the crater floor lying 120 m below the rim, which is raised 60 m above the level of the surrounding Nebo granite (part of the Bushveld Complex). At first it was thought that Tswaing was a volcanic crater because of the presence of volcanic rock, but subsequent evidence pointed towards the impact of a meteorite. Mineral fragments from a breccia found in the interior of the crater also contained high-pressure deformation structures. Glass particles from within the breccia are also indicative of a high-pressure meteorite impact. Since the surrounding volcanic rocks have been dated at 1 300 million years old, and the glass particles at only 220 000 years, there is no doubt about the impact origin of the crater (Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

The only other impact crater in the world that is as well preserved and as easily accessible is Meteor Crater in Arizona. This slightly smaller crater is situated in the desert of Arizona; nevertheless it is being visited by hundreds of tho usands of people each year, while very few South Africans even know about Tswaing Crater. Because of the ideal location of the crater, more than two million people can visit the site in less than two hours drive. They can also visit the eco- museum, which is one of four meteor crater museums worldwide (Durand, 2001a; Wallmach, 2001).

38

Figure 5: Aerial view of the Tswaing Crater (photo by the late Herman Potgieter; Viljoen & Reimold, 1999).

7 PROBLEMS

When one considers the supply of geotourism in South Africa and how it relates to other similar sites in the world, it is clear that this country has the potential to be the world’s foremost geotourism destination. Now the question needs to be asked why it is not? The answer lies in several problems that were identified that limit the promotion of our geoheritage.

The problems include neglect of certain sites of importance. These sites are not maintained in a way that keeps them clean and interesting to visit. A secondary problem is of insufficient signposting and is a result of neglect. Another problem that was investigated is that of site accessibility: if tourists are interested in such sites, are these accessible and / or affordable. These problems cause the public to lose interest in these sites, and subsequently in the associated heritage as well.

39 7.1 Problem of neglect

Gavin Whitfield is a geologist who believes that geotourism holds the key to protecting South Africa’s geological and mining heritage. According to Whitfield (2001), the centenary of the discovery of Witwatersrand gold was jointly commemorated in 1986 by the GSSA and the South African Institute of mining and in the form of an excellent guidebook and street map of the Central Witwatersrand. Descriptive plaques were erected at 62 sites, of which sadly very few remain intact. He recently visited some of these historic mining sites in and around Johannesburg, but was appalled by what he saw (Whitfield, 2001).

George Harrison Park He first visited George Harrison Park, a declared National Monument on the Main Reef discovery site. The site was established in 1947 close to Main Reef Road. It has been extensively damaged by vandals, and suffers from a lack of maintenance. The historic Robinson Mine stamp battery and housing has been extensively damaged, partly through pure neglect. According to Whitfield (2001) the old exposed mine workings are untidy and unexplained. The site looks desolate and one would be very embarrassed to bring any visitors here.

On a visit by the author, several of the descriptive signs were found to be missing – even the National Monument emblem was removed. The place is scattered with litter and even faeces from passers by. Graffiti is painted on the stamp battery (which has been damaged by arsonists) and on the wall where the National Monument emblem was once erected. There is also evidence that people live down in the tunnels left by the mine workings.

This site falls under the management of the City of Johannesburg's MuseuMAfricA, who recently had their expenditures severely restricted. The neglect is not due to lack of concern by MuseuMAfricA, who in the past put up fencing specifically for the long-running vandalism problem, but due the unavailability of funds and inadequate security (Whitfield, 2001).

40 Langlaagte Deep Village The historic Langlaagte Deep Village on Crown Mines, just off Crownwood Road, has also been declared a National Monument and dates back to 1902 when it was established for the accommodation of white miners. Some of the more recent houses are occupied, and look in reasonable condition. According to Whitfield (2001), the old corrugated iron cottages close by are in a sorry state of disrepair, and have been thoroughly vandalised and overgrown. He reports that on his visit, a truck was illegally dumping a load of refuse in the adjacent field, and that this appears to be common practice from the state of the surroundings.

The site is also of recent political interest as anti-apartheid activists apparently occupied the houses during the 1980s and several people are believed to have lived there in a multi-racial community (Whitfield, 2001).

Robinson Mine The third site Whitfield visited was the old headgear and inclined shaft on the original Robinson Mine, off Anderson Street West, and close to historic Ferreiradorp. The shaft was called the Bonanza Shaft and is probably located directly on the Main Reef. This original timbered headgear, apparently dating from 1897, is still standing and bearing witness to over 100 years of gold mining, but due to the heavy machinery in operation around it, it is uncertain how long it will remain in tact.

This site is also sadly being used as a dump for builders’ rubble and other refuse. It is in desperate need of immediate protection before it is demolished, either intentionally or by negligence. However, the ownership of this site is not known (Whitfield, 2001).

Fortuna Mine Fortuna is an old gold mine situated in the Barberton Greenstone Belt, with some of the oldest sedimentary rocks on the planet. The entrance to the mine itself is situated in Barberton; underneath the 20km long Havelock mine cableway, one of the longest in the world! This site has been developed into a tourist destination in the form of a 1.7 km tunnel route into the abandoned mine. Here tourists can experience the hardships of the early gold prospectors. Unfortunately, this site

41 also suffers from neglect (Figure 6). Signposts have been removed and squatters in the area have extensively littered the place. This also created a secondary problem of crime in the area.

Figure 6: The entrance to Fortuna mine tunnel. The red pole visible to the left is from the broken down signpost (Durand, 2001a).

Figure 7: The neglected entrance to the centre site of the Vredefort Dome. The granite koppie visible to the left serves as a lookout point.

42 Vredefort Dome During a visit to the world famous Vredefort Dome on the border between the Free State and North West Provinces, the author had some difficulty to gather general information about the significance of the site. In Parys a neglected scale model of the area (originally constructed by the geology department of the Potchefstroom University) is tucked away in a corner outside the local library building. There is no legend to indicate the different lithologies depicted in different colours on the model. The towns of Parys and Vredefort are painted on the model but the indicator flags have been removed, and there is no way for tourists to orientate themselves since the north arrow is also missing. The library staff refers you to the town of Vredefort, a few kilometers west of Parys.

On the way to Vredefort you drive past the official demarcated centre of the Vredefort Dome – a granite koppie visible to the north of the road. This elevated site offers a beautiful view of the upturned rocks forming the rim of the crater. However, the site is badly neglected. Apart from the corrugated iron ‘long drop’ toilet marking the entrance to the site (Figure 7), an incomprehensive sign in Afrikaans (Figure 8) informs you of the abandoned granite quarry next to the koppie (Figure 9). The quarry, which has not been rehabilitated, now serves as a dumping terrain and even car wrecks can be seen rusting away. The area also suffers from deforestation where the locals cut down the trees for firewood and one must be careful not to step into the dung from local livestock grazing there.

There are no other explanatory signs to inform visitors about the global importance of this precious site and the only information that the author could find was a pack of illegibly poor copied notes from the Vredefort library. This pack of notes contains background information of the area together with scientific articles dating back from 1985 (when it was still uncertain whether it was in fact an impact structure or not).

43

Figure 8: Afrikaans sign indicating the trail to the koppie. Also reading: “REG VOOR U IS ‘N OU STEENGROEWEGAT STUK KLIPBERG IS DIE VREDEFORT KOEPEL”

Figure 9: The abandoned granite quarry with the koppie in the background.

44 Whitfield (2001) confirms that something immediate must be done to save geoheritage sites like these from neglect before it is too late, and at the same time to educate the public. There is no doubt many other similar sites throughout South Africa that need to be conserved and promoted. The question arises as to whether these and many other sites are being adequately documented and conserved, and more importantly promoted both nationally and internationally as educational and geoheritage sites. Unless this happens, these and other sites will sadly be vandalised and deteriorate.

7.2 Problem of signposting

Sterkfontein According to Durand (2001a) there are very few signposts to indicate the location of the world famous Cradle of Humankind. One signpost leading to Sterkfontein Caves is tucked away somewhere in Roodepoort, with no further indication of where to turn to get there. Another signpost was erected at the turnoff to the caves itself, but is now also hidden behind a bigger sign about a conference and wedding venue (Figure 10). One of the roads leading to the Sterkfontein Caves is a dirt road, and again there is no indication of where to turn.

Swartkrans Almost directly across the road from the Sterkfontein Caves lies the Swartkrans site. This is the discovery site of the oldest proof of the deliberate use of fire – 1.3 million years ago (Figure 11). Despite the fact that this site is also a National Monument, there is absolutely no signpost to indicate this site, neither is there any access route to the site. Potential visitors must walk to the site, crossing an almost permanently flooded bridge by foot. The water flooding the bridge is polluted by a pig farm upstream, which also causes a bad smell in the area (Durand, 2001a).

45

Figure 10: The red signpost indicating Sterkfontein Caves is hidden behind another (Durand, 2001a).

Figure 11: Swartkrans: There is no signpost to indicate this National Monument (Durand, 2001a).

46 Makapans Valley The turn-off to Makapans Valley from the road between Potgietersrus and Pietersburg is also not marked. The signpost reads ‘Zwartkrans’ (Figure 12) and mentions nothing about Makopane’s Cave. According to Durand (2001a) the University of the Witwatersrand decided that the current Zwartkrans sign should replace the original signpost indicating Makapansgat. This was done to literally hide the access route to the caves from the public. If the original intention was to protect the site from vandalism, surely a more constructive approach like site development would be better than to hide it from everybody?

Vredefort Dome The Vredefort Dome is now also in the running for World Heritage status, since it is internationally recognised as both the world’s oldest and largest meteorite impact structure. The road from Parys (carrying the traffic from Gauteng) to Vredefort shows no indication of where the official centre site of the impact is. Once one drives past the site, one enters the town of Vredefort.

There is however an Afrikaans signpost on the opposite side of the road that reads ‘Vredefort Koepel’ (Figure 13). What is shocking is the fact that this sign is green and is supposed to indicate a road turn-off. Unfamiliar traffic from the west would expect to see a road leading into the Conservancy, while they are in fact driving past the official site of the centre of the impact (a granite koppie). The signposts indicating places of tourism and recreational importance are usually painted in brown. This sign is misleading, since it reads Vredefort Dome, while in fact it only indicates one of the sites within the Vredefort Dome Conservancy.

Tswaing Crater Although the Tswaing Crater is situated just outside of Tshwane (Pretoria), the nation’s capital, there are no signposts on the main routes in the city. Comparing the infrastructure of Tshwane with the desert of Arizona where the Meteor Crater annually attracts hundreds of thousands of tourists, one would expect a more deliberate marketing campaign for Tswaing Crater. The only signposts for Tswaing Crater are found in Soshanguwe, a township bordering Tswaing (Durand, 2001a).

47

Figure 12: The disguised turn-off to Makapan’s Valley.

Figure 13: A green (in stead of brown) signpost indicating the ‘Vredefort Koepel’. Note the potholes.

48 7.3 Problem of site accessibility

The Transvaal Museum The Transvaal Museum asks reasonable entrance fees of R8 per adult and R5 per child. The Transvaal Museum however is also the custodian of the original ‘Mrs. Ples’ skull found at Sterkfontein in 1947. Anybody can come and see this specimen on display, but at an additional cost of R60, more than seven times the original entrance fee. (Burger, 2001; Durand, 2001a and Wallmach, 2001). According to De Klerk (2002), the National Heritage Resources Act (Act No.25 of 1999) states that all fossils that are collected in terms of a permit, are curated by institutions on behalf of the nation. The purpose of the legislation is to ensure that the correct information is recorded and that the fossils are available in institutions for anyone to examine either now or in the future. Now if the Transvaal museum is the curator of Mrs. Ples on behalf of the nation, why do they charge extra if anyone can examine this fossil in terms of the National Heritage Resources Act?

Cradle of Humankind The other fossil, for which the Sterkfontein Caves site in particular is well known, is ‘Little Foot’. The author telephonically asked the management of Sterkfontein Caves about the possibility to see this famous fossil at the site, and what it would cost. The response was that “no money on earth could buy you that”. The responsible person went on to explain that the fossil is still in situ, and that visitors would damage the brittle bones by touching it. This is quite understandable.

The question now arises as to why foreign tourists have the privilege to see this specific fossil at Sterkfontein. During the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in 2002, some state delegates had the opportunity to see it. If Little Foot is curated on behalf of the nation, why is it kept hidden from the nation while being showed to the rest of the world? The problem of possible damage to the fossil could easily be resolved by putting a barrier between the visitors and the fossil, and to make sure that the tour guides keep a watchful eye.

49 According to Whitfield (2001) a new approach that incorporates education, conservation and self- interest, is needed. The answer lies in geotourism development by dedicated people and organisations with vision.

8 GEOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Because of the presence of a diverse range of geological features including landforms, structures, minerals and fossils, numerous areas in the world offer immediate opportunities for geotourism development. Several of these sites may already commend themselves to geotourism trips because of their unique geological features and climate (Patzak, 2001). However, a few factors need to be considered in geotourism development. One of these is the understanding of the nature of the geotourist.

8.1 The nature of the geotourist

For the development of successful geotourism, the general nature and characteristics of geotourists must be taken into account. According to Patzak (2001) an initial geotourist typology is: · The majority of tourists are casual arrivals; therefore the importance of road and pedestrian directional signs should not be underestimated. · Very few have any competence in geology. · Adults are usually over 30 years of age and in couples or small family groups with children aged under 14 years. · Adults want to satisfy the perceived educational needs of their children. · They are appreciative of interpretative provisio ns, 'hands on' facilities are important. · They generally prefer to remain within some 400-500 meters of their vehicles. · They arrive inadequately equipped. · They only view outdoor interpretative panels for about one minute; three quarters actually ignore or only pay scant attention to them.

50 · They only want to pay a moderate entrance fee. · They limit their purchase to inexpensive souvenirs such as postcards and pencils, rather than Earth Science-focused field guides, maps and books.

8.2 Interpretation media

In the development of geotourism, it is also important to understand the visitors’ interpretation of the site interpretative media. According to Patzak (2001), ‘much of what is considered as best practice in interpretative design has yet to be empirically examined’. A credibility gap exists between scientifically trained geoscientists and the people responsible for the design and interpretation of the site interpretative media. In some cases the production of interpretative material, appropriate to tourists, could be readily accomplished from existing published sources.

The initial promotion of sites could focus on updating and modifying the already existing field guides. The publication of leaflets with a brief description of some easily accessible sites would also be of assistance in opening up the geotourism market. Operators of coach-based excursion tours could be encouraged to use these leaflets and to include visits to geologically important sites as part of their tours. It is therefore also important to educate the tour operators in the importance of these sites, and to create an initial interest in them. Thereby geotourism can be combined with conventional tourism.

8.3 Geotourism combined with conventional tourism

Over the past few years an increasing number of South African tour operators and guides, museums and other specialists have begun marketing conventional tourism in combination with special interest and educational tourism. Overseas such niche-market special interest tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the tourism industry. The concept of geotourism has the objective of bringing together, in a multi-disciplinary fashion, the important aspects of geology, palaeontology, archaeology, the environment, cultural studies and natural history. It also aims at presenting and

51 interpreting such attractions to a variety of people at different levels. This is often used in thematic itineraries and is easily combined with conventional tourism (Van Tonder & Wallmach, 2001; Whitfield, 2001).

Tourists to and from Gauteng that are taken to the Cradle of Humankind by tour operators, experience this combination of thematic and conventional tourism. Here, from fossil evidence, one considers the life of our hominid ancestors, who lived and died in ancient caves that formed within the permeable dolomite by geological and geohydrological processes. One also learns about the many and varied other species that co-existed in the palaeo-environment millions of years ago. Later during a game drive, one can compare these to the present day indigenous wildlife and flora. In the same area one can see the existence of gold mineralisation in specific rock formations and its exploitation through a mine visit, and learn of the pioneer mining developments leading towards the discovery of the Witwatersrand gold mines (Whitfield, 2001).

8.4 Geotourism Interest Group

According to Whitfield (2001) part of the solution could be through activities of the Environmental, Conservation and Archives Committee of the Geological Society of South Africa (GSSA). In particular through the recently formed Geotourism Interest Group (GIG) of the GSSA, which has decided on an initiative to develop and promote geologically based special interest and educational tourism in South Africa. The vision and stated mission of the GIG is to recognise the need for promoting and raising awareness of the earth science component of South Africa’s unique natural heritage, through tourism and education. The main goals of the GIG are to: · Promote awareness of local and national heritage resources. · Compile and manage a database of natural heritage sites. · Assist in training of educators in earth science at an introductory level. · Set and maintain standards for basic geological education for guides and teachers. · Establish a network of interested parties to accomplish these goals. · Generate funding to drive and accelerate the above processes. · Provide ongoing funding to maintain geological sites until they are self-supporting.

52 The GIG can also consider converting geoheritage sites like the Cradle of Humankind or the Vredefort Dome Conservancy into a theme-specific geopark.

8.5 The Geoparks proposal

As a means of promoting Earth Sciences and enhancing recognition of geoheritage, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) is planning a feasibility study on the development of a Geoparks Programme. A geopark is a dedicated area enclosing special features of geological significance, rarity or beauty, representative of the geological history of a particular area in terms of the events and processes that formed it. It is specifically aimed at Earth Science education by preserving and developing selected areas of local or regional geological importance. This idea came after numerous requests to the Division of Earth Sciences by geoscientists from all over the world, since there is no existing programme that is focused on enhancing the value of geoheritage sites. A geopark would fall under the exclusive legal authority of the government in that particular country.

Besides the possibilities in terms of scientific research and education, a geopark may contribute towards local sustainable development. New employment opportunities are associated with tourism, not only directly, but also in terms of trades in arts and crafts. Since geotourism is a special interest field of tourism, such handicrafts can focus on the theme of geology and palaeontology. These might include for example rocks, fossil casting and other souvenirs (Derbyshire, 2000).

Governments, Geological Surveys and local communities are increasingly beginning do discover the benefit geotourism could bring to a region (Patzak, 2001). That is why South African authorities are so keen to develop places of geotourism value.

53 8.6 Current geotourism development in South Africa

Cradle of Humankind As an example of success, consider the geotourism development in Gauteng: For a start there is great development planned by the Gauteng Provincial Government (GPG) for the Cradle of Humankind. According to the Department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and Land Affairs (DACEL) of GPG, a comprehensive tourism plan has been set up to successfully develop the area. DACEL has been given the responsibility to develop and manage the site in a way that fulfils GPG’s objectives of job creation and sustainable economic development for the area. Because of the uniqueness of the site from various perspectives including scientific and research, as well as conservation and environment, it is recognised that all development that is to take place, must be carefully planned to ensure sustainability in the long term (DACEL, 2001).

DACEL is now planning an interpretation facility for the World Heritage Site. The proposed facility will include a world-class interpretatio n centre, which will offer: · Permanent and temporary exhibition spaces. · Visitor information and ticketing. · An auditorium and other audio-visual presentation facilities. · An education resource centre. · A field and site support facility, including a fossil preparation workshop, a fossil casting workshop and student accommodation. · An outdoor amphitheatre. · A premier conference centre. · A high-class themed restaurant. · Food and retail outlets. · A transport hub.

A site for the interpretation centre has been demarcated just off the World Heritage Site, but taking full advantage of a clear view of the World Heritage Site. In addition to that, the development of a hominid fossil interpretation centre at the Sterkfontein Caves is contemplated. This would be

54 subject to negotiation and a contractually binding agreement with the University of the Witwatersrand, since they would own it.

According to DACEL (2001), this unique facility should incorporate the following: · A cave tour. · An excavation-viewing site. · Permanent exhibition spaces. · An auditorium and audio-visual presentation facilities. · A restaurant and shop.

In 2001 the GPG’s budget allocated for the development of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site was R52 million (Lotriet, 2001). The most recent amount allocated towards this development is R184 million. This development is one of 11 projects that form part of the new Blue IQ initiative of the GPG. This initiative is a R7 000 million economic infrastructure development programme that focuses on three sectors: smart industries, high value-added manufacturing and tourism (Mbendi, 2003).

Recently a series of signposts were erected in and around the Cradle of Humankind. This was done after the identification of the signposting problem, and serves as a sign that the site is being developed and marketed according to the initiative.

West Coast Fossil Park Geotourism has already taken off in the Western Cape, South Africa's prime tourist destination. Under the Conservation Committee of the Western Cape Branch of the GSSA, ten ‘Geosites’ have been identified and attractively presented by means of descriptive pamphlets, ideal for the general public (Whitfield, 2001). One of these sites is the West Coast Fossil Park, a 14 ha fossil rich area that was declared a National Monument in 1996. This site serves as a good example of a successfully developed geotourism destination:

First of all the entrance fees are very reasonable. It ranges from R5 for learners and those going on a self-guided tour. For students and senior citizens it is R10 and adults pay R15. This includes a cup

55 of tea or coffee. They even cater for families by charging R35 for two adults plus one or more child. Children under the age of five enter for free (Haarhoff, 2001b).

Once inside, the general public will be given the chance to have an on-site fossil experience (Figure 14). People can learn about ancient environments: the animal life and the climatic changes that occurred in the Western Cape 5 million years ago. Lectures, displays and reconstructions will convey how palaeontology reveals environmental changes through time. A structure covering the proposed excavation site (Figure 15) will allow visitors to view in situ fossils and existing mine buildings will be converted into an education and scientific precinct.

According to Haarhoff (2001a), active marketing will ensure that the ecotourism value of the West Coast Fossil Park is fully developed. It is envisaged that fees charged for entrance and guiding will eventually exceed the operating costs to create a sustainable venture. However, educational programmes for schoolchildren will be offered at little or no cost.

Figure 14: Visitors having an on-site fossil experience at the West Coast Fossil Park (Durand, 2001a).

56

Figure 15: Artists impression of the proposed site museum and viewing deck (Haarhoff, 2001C).

Additional income will be generated by a curio shop and tearoom. Other attractions will include hiking trails, bird watching, unique displays and fossil animal reconstructions. This site will be linked up with other cultural and scientific attractions along the West Coast region as part of a co- ordinated network to promote tourism in this area. A conservative estimate of an average of 252 visitors per day on an annual basis beginning in 1998 will generate an operating profit of R1.4 million within 10 years.

Vredefort Dome Conservancy A strategic development and management plan has been set up for the Vredefort Dome Conservancy (VDC). The VDC is a 30 000 hectare area that covers a part of the Vredefort Dome Impact Structure, and it is this conservancy that is listed to become a World Heritage Site. The mission statement of the strategic development and management plan mentions that all policies, plans and actions must fully capitilise on the unique geology, international interest and tourism values of the area, while also conserving and promoting the geological significance, scientific value and archaeological, historical and natural assets of the area (Boonzaaier and Lourens, 2002).

The primary objective is to conserve the area’s unique geology and to conserve the system’s present biodiversity and abiotic resources, the river ecology, biophysical processes and historical / archaeological sites. The secondary objective is to provide visitors to VDC with a highly marketable educational and nature based recreational experiences provided that this does not compromise the primary objective.

57 One of the key strategies identified in developing the VDC, is “to market and interpret VDC, its unique attributes and its products to identified target markets, so that VDC could be recognised amongst all the identified markets and could be optimally utilised” (Boonzaaier and Lourens, 2002). One of the first marketing campaigns of the new VDC development is the recent signposting that has been erected on the main roads into the area (this happened after the original identification of the signposting problem in the area). A signpost was also erected in Potchefstroom on the road turnoff to Parys.

The potential is definitely there to equal the success of these sites and to improve on that. All that is needed is the realisation of that potential, a common vision and proper geotourism development and management procedures.

9 CONCLUSION

The tourism industry showed constant growth over the past few decades and has also been resistant to economical and political changes. It is also now recognised as the world’s greatest generator of employment – creating one new job for every eight tourists in the total travel and tourism economy in South Africa. By the end of 2002 the total employment figure created by the entire travel and tourism industry in South Africa is expected to reach above the 1 million mark.

However, South Africa still needs to realise its full potential in terms of international tourism and especially the geotourism sector. By developing the tourism industry, the potential is there to achieve the objectives of the RDP programme since some of the benefits of tourism include additional employment opportunities, increased awareness of other cultures and concern about the environment. The Manila Declaration of 1980 states that the aim of tourism is to improve the quality of life and to create better living conditions for all people.

The supply of tourism in South Africa competes with the very best in the world. The diverse mix of attractions including the sunny climate, varied scenery, wildlife and other features, is just what

58 brings visitors here in the first place. The supply of geotourism is probably the best in the world. However, it is not only the supply of tourism that shapes the demand, but how it is developed, marketed and managed.

In developing geotourism in South Africa, we need to be aware of the limiting factors like funding, education, crime, and lack of infrastructure, service and a good public transport system. It is also very important to consider the environmental impacts of developing tourism – both on the physical and the social environment. The relationship between the tourist and the environment must also be sustainable, something that is recognised in the concept of ecotourism.

Since geotourism is regarded as a form of ecotourism, and there is no apparent conflict between geoconservation and tourism development, the potential is there to develop geoheritage sites sustainably. Geotourism ensures both the conservation and promotion of such sites for the use of students and recreationalists. Some of the benefits of geotourism development include the sale of local products, increase in the hotel and restaurant industries, support to transport systems and new employment opportunities.

The problems identified in this study regarding places of geological and palaeontological interest include neglect due to lack of funding or concern. This gives rise to secondary problems like insufficient sign posting, litter, vandalism and crime. All of these, together with the problem of some sites not being accessible by interested tourists contribute to the fact that our geoheritage cannot be marketed successfully – both locally and internationally. South African citizens are ignorant towards their geoheritage, and subsequently lack the pride necessary for international marketing.

Since tourism is now the world’s largest industry, South Africa has the potential to benefit greatly from its geoheritage. All that is needed are individuals and organisations with vision - willing to look beyond the problems and to develop and market our geoheritage, and in so doing, creating awareness, pride and unity. Both the current and previous governments invested in tourism. Already in 1996 the White Paper on the development and promotion of tourism in South Africa was published. The vision of the White Paper is to develop the tourism sector as a national priority

59 in a sustainable and acceptable manner, so that it will contribute significantly to the improvement of the quality of life of every South African citizen.

The change in the tourism industry is slow, however, considering the little change that has taken place since 1996. Only recently has the local and provincial governments genuinely realised the potential in this sector, and has plans been launched to unlock this potential. One of these plans is the development of the Cradle of Humankind through the GPG’s Blue IQ initiative. The Vredefort Dome Conservancy and Makapan’s Valley is also in line for World Heritage status. Hopefully this will act as a catalyst for the same level of development at these and other geoheritage sites by the responsible authorities.

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