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University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences Invasion ecology of Glyceria maxima in KZN Rivers and wetlands Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Lutendo Faith Mugwedi Johannesburg May, 2012 Declaration I declare that this dissertation is my own, unaided work. It is being submitted for the Degree of Masters of Science at the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. Lutendo Faith Mugwedi 11th day of May 2012 ii Abstract The occurrence of the emerging weed Glyceria maxima (Reed sweet-grass) in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga Province is possibly a threat to aquatic ecosystems. The aim of this study was to determine if G. maxima exhibits traits that indicate its potential for invasiveness. Additional aims included determining environmental factors that influence G. maxima establishment, preferred habitat and its impacts on plant species diversity in the invaded sites. The study was carried out at a dam at Mt. Shannon, Boston, and the Luhane River, Bulwer, both in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands. The littoral zone was divided into five elevational sampling zones in relation to water depth (i.e. from the terrestrial to aquatic habitat). Vegetation sampling was carried out twice in the 2008/09 and 2009/10 growing seasons. Water depth was found to be the major factor that determines the distribution patterns of G. maxima. Glyceria maxima‟s preferred habitat was found to be semi-aquatic and aquatic habitats with a water depth of 130 cm. An unplanned fire event at Mt. Shannon Dam resulted in an increase in G. maxima vegetative recruitment. Glyceria maxima‟s mode of spread within the study sites was found to be mainly vegetative reproduction as no seedlings were found. This was supported by a very low seed germination percentage (0.3-2%) in the laboratory germination tests although tetrazolium test showed that a considerable percentage of seeds was viable (25-89%; 53% av.). In the 2009/10 season G. maxima tiller density, percentage basal cover and height increased relative to 2008/09 which corresponded with a decline in the abundance of other species growing in the G. maxima stands. This shows that the habitat in which G. maxima is growing is ideal for its spread. Water depth, fire and vegetative reproduction are the main factors that influence G. maxima invasiveness in the littoral zone. Immediate attention should be given to the eradication of G. maxima while the number of the known infestations remains relatively small and fragmented, rather than waiting until the species is having a noticeable impact on riparian and wetland functioning. Glyceria maxima is likely to pose a threat to montane wetlands, which are generally regarded as biodiversity hotspots and water production regions. iii Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank God my creator for His protection when travelling from Johannesburg to KwaZulu-Natal and during field work. Without Him I don‟t know where I would be today because everything is in his hands. To God be the Glory! The Agricultural Research Council is greatly acknowledged for recruiting me into the Professional Development Project and for funding this study. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my mentor, father and friend Jeremy Goodall, my supervisor Prof. M.J. Byrne and my co-supervisor Prof E.T.F. Witkowski for their firm support, endless patience, advice and guidance since the inception of this project until its final stage. To Mr. Goodall, you are the best mentor that I will always treasure; your great passion and knowledge on invasive alien plants inspired me to focus my research interests on them. You allowed me to be independent and feel responsible for this project. To Prof. Byrne, you are one of the best supervisors that I wish for any post-graduate candidate to have. Your passion for aquatic weeds, understanding, wise supervision and always open for consultation whenever I needed to see you, that made working with you enjoyable. I also thank you for paying all my expenses to attend: the 37th and the 38th Weeds Workshop. To Prof. Ed Witkowski, for your constructive comments and for always being open for consultation. Research committee members Prof. D. Mycock and Dr. V. Williams are thanked for helping shape my research proposal. A special thanks is also due to the following people; a brother and a friend Khumbudzo “KG” Manyaga for assisting me with field work and encouragement throughout this project, a brother and a friend Tshamunwe Ralineba for accommodating me during my stay in KwaZulu-Natal, my friend Tshigudu Malaka for assisting me with field work, Mz. Sigrun Ahmann for her great advice on the set up of plant vernalization experiment, Prof. D. Mycock for his advice on the set up of seed germination experiment, Lesley Henderson for providing me with G. maxima‟s current distribution map, Mondi News Print Company at Mt. iv Shannon for allowing me to use their site and accommodating me in their resort, The ARC-PPRI staff at Cedara and Rietondale (especially Marlene Binedell, Dr. Angela Bownes, Derrick Nkala and Ida Jacobs) for their assistance, encouragement and friendship. The help of the following people as well as many other not mentioned here has been exceptionally important in the completion of this project: Obed Phahladira and Alta Gildenhuys (Department of Agriculure Forestry and Fisheries -Gene Bank), Xitshembiso Tshaka, Mbedzi Mashudu, Ndivhuwo Tshisudzungwane, Enos Mugwedi, Tapiwa Wanenge, Naweji Katembo, Lisebo Motjotji, Vhulahani Thaphathi, Wakshim Newete, Samalesu Mayonde, Lael Buckham, Ewa Wojtasik, Aifheli Rabambi, Tapfuma Sasa, Vhahangwele Malogwa, Muano Manyaga, Ntevheleni Tshivhase, Maria Makhado, Mr. B. Patterson, Mr. V. Schneiderman, Mrs. A. Singo & Rev. M. Mukansi,. Finally, a very special thanks to my family; my father Elelwani, my mother Nngidimiseni, my sisters Mudalahothe and Mishumo, my brother Andani, and my grandmother Masindi for the love and support throughout this journey- I really love you guys. One day is one day! v Table of contents Declaration...............................................................................................................ii Abstract...................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements.................................................................................................iv Table of contents.....................................................................................................vi List of Figures..........................................................................................................x List of tables.........................................................................................................xvii Chapter 1: General introduction...............................................................................1 1.1 Biological invasions (Background) ...................................................... 1 1.2 Biological invasions in South Africa .................................................... 2 1.3 Invasion of the aquatic ecosystem ........................................................ 3 1.4 Invasive alien grasses............................................................................ 6 1.5 Emerging alien invasive weeds............................................................. 6 1.6 Glyceria maxima ................................................................................... 7 1.7 Impacts of alien invasive plants on native plant diversity .................. 12 1.8 Establishment and invasion of alien invasive plants .......................... 14 1.8.1 Mechanism of spread ................................................................... 14 1.8.2 Fire ............................................................................................... 17 1.9 Study area ........................................................................................... 18 1.10 Study aims ....................................................................................... 20 1.11 Study objectives .............................................................................. 20 1.12 Dissertation structure ...................................................................... 21 Chapter 2: The Influence of environmental factors on Glyceria maxima establishment in the littoral zone............................................................................23 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 23 vi 2.1.1 The influence of water depth on G. maxima establishment in the littoral zone................................................................................................ 23 2.1.2 The influence of fire on G. maxima vegetative recruitment in the littoral zone................................................................................................ 25 2.2 Materials and methods ........................................................................ 28 2.2.1 The influence of water depth on G. maxima establishment in the littoral zone................................................................................................ 28 2.2.2 The Influence of fire disturbance on G. maxima vegetative recruitment in the littoral zone .................................................................
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