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Home , Lake Nyos, Limnic eruption, Mount Nyiragongo, Pyroclastic flow

Hazardous

Mt Vesuvius Earth Page 6 Issue 7, July 2018

Lake Nyos Page 16

2005 Kashmir Page 9 Latitude 51° The Magazine of Sutton Grammar School Geography

The 2011 Fukushima approaching the coastline of Tohoku region, Japan. 15,895 fatalities were reported, 45,700 properties destroyed and an estimated overall cost of $188 billion.

Contents Page 3 The Central China Page 6 The Ominous Threat of Page 9 Kashmir Earthquake 2005 Page 11 Hurricane Katrina—The World’s Worst? Page 13 Flooding in Bangladesh Page 16 The Limnic Eruptions of Nyos Page 19 Yellowstone’s Page 21 Eyjafjallajökull: The Icelandic Page 23 Haiti vs Japan: Earthquake Resilience Page 25 Hazards of the Future

Editorial We welcome you to the seventh issue of Latitude 51°, Sutton Grammar Geography department’s magazine. This issue investigates a wide va- riety of hazards which cause havoc, destroy lives and bring prosperity to different communities of people around the world. The hazards dis- cussed throughout this issue cover a diverse range from flooding to , volcanic eruptions to tropical , concluding with an overview of future hazards which will challenge the human race. We hope that you enjoy the issue.

The Latitude 51° editorial team. The Central China Christopher Payne 8Greyhound

In 1931, a natural rocked China and However the increasing growth of water lev- indeed the world. The Yangzi, Huai, The Yellow els surpassed the limits of sustainability for River, The Great Canal, The Pearl River, Song- the dykes and they fell under immense pres- hua and Yalu rivers all burst their banks; af- sure. Low-level water control problems be- fecting the lives of 52 million people and came more and more prominent until eventu- claiming the lives of 2 million others. ally this led to catastrophic flooding. Only once money was reinvested in the dykes did The Cause: the cycle start afresh. The Central China Ultimately the cause of this flood was human’s flood proved to be part of the hydraulic cri- relationship with the river basins in central Chi- sis which had been unfolding in the Yangzi na. The over-extension of dyke networks and basin since the nineteenth century. The flood excessive deforestation triggered many flood also reflects the poor governance of the pulses. However, despite this, humans’ manage- Yangzi area and China at the time. The funds ment of river systems led to a thriving agricul- set for the hydraulic system were often redi- tural economy and stable society. Yet when rected to military spending, and this combi- there were periods of excessive rainfall and nation of system neglect, poor governance extremely poor hydraulic governance, rising and high levels of precipitation, especially water and neglected ‘Dyke’s’ meant plains re- the winter before the disaster, spelled the developed by humans were reclaimed by the end for the dyke system’s water resolves; savage waters. central China flooded. Throughout the second millennium, the Chinese province of Hubei saw a repetitive pattern of “A dyke is an embankment of earth growth collapse, this was described as the Hy- draulic Cycle. At the beginning of this cycle, the amount spent on dykes was increased; these and rock built to prevent flooding.” networks would then provide protection for communities against flooding. The Consequences: tions, causing outbreaks in malaria, a disease taking the lives of an estimated 300,000 Come early August 1931, one of the world’s people. Growing numbers of freshwater sails most populous regions was under water. An caused and outbreak of an endemic wetland estimated 150,000 people drowned in the disease called schistosomiasis. The flood, and first phase of flooding. Those who survived the the outbreaks of disease and malnourishment flood were forced upon with severe conse- which it brought with claimed the lives of an quences. The flood had washed away all the estimated 2 million people. summer’s harvest and cleared the area of vast amounts of stored grain, the total economic The floods of 1931 proved to be the first ma- losses were equivalent to one and a half jor test for the Nanjing Government, but also year’s net income per family and in many are- a chance to prove their efficiency and gov- as the indentation continued well into the au- ernmental prowess. The decade before the tumn; survivors were left famished. Also, lands disaster had been spent by many militarists value plummeted, as well as that of labour trying to gain land and power. The flood pro- and animals. It was described as an vided the Nanjing Government with a chance “Entitlement Failure.” to prove their worthiness to the Chinese but also to establish their government’s name as As well as short term problems, the damage one renowned for their ef- the flood left was equal- ficiency and overall excel- ly dire in the long term. “When water coursed its way lent governmental skills Those who retained ac- and that the party truly cess to food, grain and through the landscape of Wuhan, deserved to be the gov- money were able to pur- ernment in power. chase assets from their poorer neighbours at 400,000 people were forced to The government employed deflated prices and numerous specialists, Chi- terms and, worse still, leave their homes and became nese and foreign, to con- sold back these assets duct aerial surveys of the and highly excessive and flood zones and to pro- inflated prices. The flood homeless.”. vide support and comforts led not only to malnour- to those whose lives were ishment but also to destitution and inequality. affected by the flood. The flood gave rise to Despite malnutrition terminating the lives of generous charitable donations as well as in- many, disease held the record for the highest ternational charitable campaigning and fund- number of kills by far. The destruction of sani- ing. Eventually, after long and tedious negoti- tation systems and population displacement ations, Central China was loaned flour and provided the perfect conditions for many dis- wheat from the US Government. Workers re- eases. Many of the population affected by built 2000km of dyke Networks and farming the floods were forced to leave their homes communities were re-inserted in a land even- and many more became refugees. tually stabled in the aftermath of the horren- dous flooding. When water coursed its way through the land- The Central China Flood, despite not being a scape of Wuhan, 400,000 people were famous , provides insight into forced to leave their homes and became the how atrocious events like this can manipu- homeless. Sanitation systems destroyed and late lives in a way which cannot be expected overcrowding of areas of dry ground led to or prepared for. It shows the authority, effi- perilous conditions such as Cholera and Ty- ciency and Machiavellian nature of the Nan- phoid and measles and smallpox soon also jing Government and the bravery of survivors, became prolific in highly overcrowded areas. saviours and heroes. The flood also caused many mosquito infesta- Refugees of flooding, China 1931 The Ominous Threat of Vesuvius PG 6 James Quayle 9Manor "On the 24th of August, in the early afternoon, Mount Vesuvius lies on the Gulf of Naples, on my mother drew [my uncle's] attention to a the south-western coast of Italy. It is the only cloud of unusual size and appearance. Its gen- active volcano on the European mainland, eral appearance can be best expressed as being and is part of the Campanian ; like an umbrella pine, for it rose to a great this is a line of volcanoes that have formed height on a sort of trunk and then split off into from the convergence of the African and Eur- branches, I imagine because it was thrust up- asian plates. The cone of Mount Vesuvius be- wards by the first blast and then left unsupport- gan to grow in the of the Mount ed as the subsided, or else it was borne ; the remnant of a large vol- down by its own weight so that it spread out and cano that last erupted about 17,000 years gradually dispersed. Sometimes it looked white, ago. Rocks that erupt from Vesuvius are most- sometimes blotched and dirty, according to the ly , a that – as – amount of soil and ashes it carried with it." can produce eruptions on a variety of scales, making Vesuvius very dangerous and unpre- This is an extract from a letter written by Ro- dictable. man Historian Pliny the Younger. It describes the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, one The eruption of AD 79 was a , of the most deadly volcanic eruptions of all the largest and most violent of all types of time. eruptions, which releases an enormous

In the shadow of the mountain: Naples, Italy. An estimated 3 million people live within the urban region of Naples. PG 7 At midnight, a wall of volcanic mud swept away the town of and its citi- amount of energy and produces a column of zens as they tried to flee towards . gas and ash similar in shape to a mushroom But at 6:30 am the following morning, Pom- (like a nuclear explosion). Plinian eruptions peii too felt the destructive might of Vesuvius, are named after Pliny the younger, who as a cloud of and debris rolled wrote the letter above, describing the ash into the city. Superheated air burnt the lungs cloud above Vesuvius. of those in the city, killing many instantly and contracting their muscles to leave them in a Seventeen years before the eruption, on the semi-circular shape. The hot ash buried their th 5 of February AD 62, there was a powerful bodies, and eventually cooled to create plas- earthquake that caused widespread destruc- ter casts around them that have preserved tion around the Bay of Naples, especially to their bodies for hundreds of years. Pompeii. It is believed that this damage had still not been fully repaired by the time of the Meanwhile, back in Misenum (now known as eruption in AD 79. This earthquake is be- Miseno), Pliny the Younger and his mother too lieved to have been connected to new volcan- had to escape as earthquakes began to rock ic activity from within Vesuvius. Another small- their city. They witnessed “the sea retreating er earthquake oc- as if pushed by earth- curred in 64 AD, quakes” – probably a tsu- but these small “...the largest and most violent of all nami caused by the erup- earthquakes were tion and earthquakes. Ac- becoming more cording to Pliny, there were frequent. So when types of eruption” “black and horrible clouds, minor earth trem- broken by sinuous shapes of ors began to be felt on the 20th of August 79 flaming .” He described people wheez- AD, the Romans in the region were not con- ing and gasping due to the air being carried cerned. by the wind – the same wind that doomed Pompeii. The eruption may have killed In the next four days, the tremors became 16,000 people in Pompeii and Herculaneum more frequent and more powerful, yet these as well as in the surrounding area. warnings were ignored. Shortly after noon on the 24th of August, an explosion took place This large eruption was not the end of volcan- and the eruption of Vesuvius began. Nobody ic activity inside Mount Vesuvius. A period of had been prepared for this, so panic en- steady volcanic activity including lava flows gulfed the area. Pliny the younger, from the and ash erupting from the mountain began in town of Miseum 13 miles from Pompeii, wit- 1631, and lasted for the next couple of cen- nessed the eruption. According to him, “it re- turies. In this time, violent eruptions created sembled a pine more than any other tree. Like more lava flows and explosions. On the 18th a very high tree the cloud went high and ex- March 1944 during World War Two, a two- panded in different branches…. sometimes week long eruption began as lava flowed white, sometimes dark and stained by the sus- from the summit of Mount Vesuvius. The 340th tained sand and ashes.” In Pompeii, as people Bomber Group of the United States air force began to realise what was happening, ash were stationed at Pompeii airfield, an air- from the blast blocked out the sun at 1 pm field just a couple of miles away from the and started to fall upon rooftops at a rate of volcano. This eruption saw of hot ash about 6 inches an hour. Some tried to clear and small rock, causing the soldiers to wear the ash; others realised it was hopeless and leather jackets and steel helmets for protec- focused on their escape. tion. However, on the 22nd, the group were evacuated but left behind 88 Allied aircrafts. eruption has happened since. After the volcano subsided, the army re- turned to find all of the planes damaged. The possibility of an eruption has long been Ash had clogged the engines and small rocks in the minds of Italian officials, and with a had created holes in the planes. Unfortunate- population of over 3 million now living in the ly, these planes were densely populated re- now beyond repair, gion around the volca- and 26 people were “Plinian eruptions are named after Pliny the no, an evacuation plan believed to have was created. It includes died. Younger, who wrote [sic] a letter , describing plans to evacuate 700,000 people in the Since 1944, there the ash cloud above Vesuvius”. event of an imminently have been hundreds expected eruption of minor earthquakes from the volcano. around Vesuvius. In October 1999, there was Mount Vesuvius has an eruption cycle of eve- a magnitude 3.6 earthquake that was felt ry 20 years, as the volcano has not erupted more than 15 miles from the base of the vol- since 1944, this means that Vesuvius is over- cano. An earthquake of a similar magnitude due and has been building up almost four had occurred just before a massive explosion times that amount. The next eruption could from Mount Vesuvius that had devastated therefore be very powerful, and potentially Naples. This led some to believe that an catastrophic for the area and the city of Na- eruption was going to happen, but no large ples.

Pompeii and Vesuvius, Naples, Italy. The town of Pompeii was destroyed by a in 79AD PG 9 Kashmir Earthquake, 2005

Hasan Sami 9Lenham A natural disaster could occur at any time, lapsing. The magnitude was measured to without any warnings and any signs that it be around 7.6 by the United States Geo- is going to happen. That is exactly what logical Survey (USGS), classified as a happened on 8th October 2005, when a "major" earthquake, with its epicentre huge earthquake of magnitude 7.6 shook (which is the point on the earth's surface Pakistani administered Kashmir and the sur- vertically above the focus of an earth- rounding areas. A devastating total of quake) about 19 km northeast of the worst around 86,000 people died, more than hit area, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan, and 100 69,000 were injured and a shocking 2.8 km north-northeast of the national capital, million people were displaced. This article Islamabad. will explore how the earthquake hap- pened, the damage it caused, and the af- The earthquake caused widespread de- termath. struction in northern Pakistan, as well as damage in Afghanistan and northern India. Kashmir lies in on the border of the Eura- After the first day of the initial quake, a sian and Indian tectonic plates, which are total of 147 aftershocks were recorded, known for having collisions. The actual one registered with magnitude 6.2. On Oc- earthquake itself was caused by the seis- tober 19, a series of strong aftershocks, micity (the frequency of earthquakes in a one with a magnitude of 5.8, took place region) and geological faults at the roots about 65 km northwest of Muzaffarabad. of the unstable region, the same activity As of October 27, 2005, more than 978 that produced the Himalayan mountain aftershocks with a magnitude of 4.0 and range. The seismicity in the region paired above continued to shake the region daily. with one of the faults giving way resulted in Different places within Pakistan such as Is- the devastating earthquake that struck at lamabad, major cities like Karachi and 8:50 am local time, and was responsible parts of Punjab all experienced minor af- for an estimated 780,000 buildings col- tershocks of magnitude around 4.6. A “pancaked” building following the 2009 earthquake in Kashmir

The relief effort for the survivors was ham- many areas power went out while people pered by numerous aftershocks, as well as by also lacked adequate food or water. The the constant and falling rocks, danger of disease spreading, including which damaged highways and mountain measles, increased dramatically. Distributing roads and rendered parts of the affected relief supplies to the victims became espe- region inaccessible for several days. Roads cially urgent as the victims, living at high al- buried in rubble prevented aid workers to titude and with the approaching winter, reach many remote villages and many af- faced the risk of exposure to cold weather. fected areas remained inaccessible. Rescuers Relief workers immediately appealed for lacked the heavy equipment needed to clear food, medicine supplies, tents and blankets the roads and to as essential items. rescue survivors buried under the From around the earthquake wreck- “...86,000 people died, more than 69,000 world, more than age. Many rescuers US$5.4 billion arrived picked the rubble injured and 2.8 million people were in Pakistan in aid. US with pickaxes and Marine and Army heli- their bare hands, displaced”. copters stationed in looking for survi- neighbouring Afghani- vors. . stan quickly flew aid into the devastated region along with five In a display of goodwill, five crossing points helicopters from the Royal Air Force that were opened on the line of control (the mili- were deployed from the United Kingdom, tary demarcation line between the Indian- and aid teams from different parts of Paki- and Pakistani-administered parts of Kashmir) stan and around the world came to the re- to facilitate rescue efforts and the flow of gion to assist in relief. relief goods. NATO troops and various inter- national aid agencies played significant roles By studying earthquakes like the 2005 in the subsequent relief and rescue efforts. Kashmir quake, researchers can find out more about what kind of tectonics can be Painting a complete picture of what hap- expected in Kashmir, in Nepal, in the Indian pened provides more accurate hazard maps Ocean, and beyond. and will help protect more people and their homes if another such earthquake strikes. In PG 11 Hurricane Katrina: The World’s Worst? Ivan Beresford 8Lenham

Today Hurricane Katrina is considered as one cane, mainly due to the warm water in the of the costly and devastating natural disas- gulf. The hurricane wreaked havoc for the ters that the world has faced in the past cen- next three days, before weakening to a cat- tury. 1,245 people were killed, and the US egory 3 hurricane when hitting the coast of government was faced southwest Louisiana. It con- with over $108 billion tinued like this for another worth of damage. 2 days, before dissipat- ing. Hurricane Katrina formed “The hurricane wreaked havoc on the 23rd of August The Hurricane caused se- 2005, over the Bahamas, for the next three days…” vere damage along the and dissipated on the Gulf Coast: from central 31st. It was created by Florida to Texas. This was the meeting of Tropical Depression 12 (an due to intensive flooding, where the water area of low air pressure accompanied by had extended its reach on the land in dis- with constant of up to tances between 12 – 19 km. Because of such 39 mph) and a Tropical wave (another area catastrophic flooding, 50 breaches were rec- of low air pressure). Early the next morning, orded in the New Orleans hurricane surge it intensified to form Tropical Katrina. system. This is the cause for the majority Next, the cyclone headed westward towards deaths, since around 80% of the area was Florida. Then, two hours before reaching the flooded, and the water stayed there for main landmass, it strengthened into a hurri- weeks. Two thirds of total deaths were rec- cane. Its first impacts were on Hallandale orded in Greater New Orleans. beach and Aventura. On August 26th, Hurri- cane Katrina reached the Gulf of Mexico, where it deepened into a category 5 hurri-

Flooding damage caused by the . New Orleans, Louisiana, USA PG 10

Satellite image: Hurricane Katrina (Gulf of Mexico)

Hurrican Katrina’s Aftermath, New Orleans PG 13 Flooding in Bangladesh Nathan Livingstone 11Warwick

Bangladesh, located in South Asia, is a low- fall a day. Bangladesh is vulnerable to cy- lying country with over 70% of its land under clones, which originate in the Bay of Bengal one metre above sea level. Bangladesh has and have an impact on . A the largest delta in the world, formed from the combination of natural factors and manmade alluvial plain of the Ganges-Brahmaputra riv- problems put Bangladesh at an increased risk ers. About 50% of Bangladesh’s land area is of flooding. For example, high levels of sedi- covered by a flood plain, surrounding three ment in rivers, caused by increased discharge, major rivers: the Ganges, Brahmaputra and due to the tectonic uplift of the Himalayan Meghna. All of these rivers are sourced from mountain range, can block river channels. the Himalayas, resulting in additional water Simultaneously, deforestation decreases the from snowmelt. interception of water and evapotranspiration, also leading to increased discharge. Most Bangladeshis are subsistence farmers, growing crops such as rice, cotton, wheat and The annual flooding does not always have a tea. As it is one of the poorest countries on negative impact on Bangladesh, with crops earth, Bangladesh had been unable to direct such as rice and jute thriving on the fertile soil sufficient finances for a robust flood defence created after flooding. Furthermore, these system, prior to the 2004 flood. Attempts by conditions make many areas of Bangladesh other countries to implement flood defence ideal for shrimp farming. schemes had failed due to poor local knowledge. In April 2004, flooding in the north-west dis- tricts of Bangladesh devastated most of the With a monsoon climate, the wet season lasts annual rice crop in this region, prior to har- from May to September, resulting in 90% of vesting. Three to four weeks of was fol- the yearly rainfall, with up to 500mm of rain- lowed by flooding, in both central Bangla-

Flood damage to homes, Bangladesh Infrastructure was overwhelmed by floodwaters, Bangladesh

desh and the Greater Dhaka region. By July, United Nations instructed a disaster manage- 35,000km2 of Bangladesh was flooded, in- ment team to coordinate aid from many other cluding 800,000 hectares of agricultural land, countries, including £21 million from the UK. and Dhaka- the capital city. As a direct result Furthermore, the Bangladesh Government of the flooding, around 30 million Bangla- contributed to emergency assistance by dis- deshis were left homeless and 760 were tributing free seed to the Bangladesh farm- killed. The deaths were the result of drowning, ers affected by flooding. One of the most disease and snakebites. 800,000 tonnes of significant secondary effects of the flood was rice were destroyed, with many shops and the $3 billion rebuilding cost. The flooding factories forced to close. In many areas of resulted in a 27% decrease in the agricultur- Bangladesh, slum housing was built on low- al sector. 100,000 Bangladeshis in Dhaka lying areas and as a result the poor were alone suffered from water-borne illnesses worst affected by the flooding. such as cholera. Further environmental im- pacts included , both of soil and of In the immediate aftermath of the flooding riverbanks, and waterlogging. All areas of many rescue boats were deployed to assist Bangladesh’s transport system were affected, with evacuation. From these efforts alone over with many roads and railways flooded and a thousand people were saved. However, all domestic and internal flights cancelled many people lacked essential supplies after throughout July. the flooding. Over 500,000 new-borns were left without baby food and a total of one mil- Between the 10th to the 16th September, a lion Bangladeshis became malnourished in the further period of intense rainfall caused yet following months. more flooding in Dhaka and the central and southwestern districts of Bangladesh. This The short term responses were coordinated further hampered the flood relief pro- with the Bangladesh Government, working gramme and damaged newly planted paddy alongside Non Governmental Organisations fields in the southwest that had not been af- (NGOs), including UNICEF and the Red Cross. fected by the earlier flooding. Immediate emergency relief comprised of rice, clothing and medicines. In addition, the The severity of the Bangladesh flood necessi- tated a well planned and well financed long cant secondary effects of the flood was the term response. Over 3,500 km of flood de- $3 billion rebuilding cost. The flooding result- fences were constructed, including seven ed in a 27% decrease in the agricultural sec- and fifteen floodwater storage basins. These tor. 100,000 Bangladeshis in Dhaka alone were possible due to a five year loan from suffered from water-borne illnesses such as the World Bank. In addition, the construction cholera. Further environmental impacts includ- of raised houses, the provision of radios and ed erosion, both of soil and of riverbanks, improved flood education have been imple- and waterlogging. All areas of Bangladesh’s mented. Radio, in particular, has benefited transport system were affected, with many areas where communications systems were roads and railways flooded and all domestic previously poor, not enabling sufficient flood and internal flights cancelled throughout July. warnings. Between the 10th to the Bangladesh will al- ‘100,000 Bangladeshis in Dhaka alone suf- 16th September, a fur- ways be vulnerable ther period of intense to flooding. Major rainfall caused yet floods have contin- fered from water-borne illnesses such as more flooding in Dha- ued to occur with ka and the central and alarming frequency, cholera’. southwestern districts most notably in of Bangladesh. This 2007, 2010, 2015 and 2016. It is hoped that further hampered the flood relief pro- in future sufficient funding will be available gramme and damaged newly planted paddy for the Bangladeshi people to construct more fields in the southwest that had not been af- robust flood defences and early warning sys- fected by the earlier flooding. The severity tems, to reduce the loss of life and impact on of the Bangladesh flood necessitated a well agriculture and infrastructure. was built on low planned and well financed long term re- -lying areas and as a result the poor were sponse. Over 3,500 km of flood defences worst affected by the flooding. were constructed, including seven dams and fifteen floodwater storage basins. These In the immediate aftermath of the flooding were possible due to a five year loan from many rescue boats were deployed to assist the World Bank. In addition, the construction with evacuation. From these efforts alone over of raised houses, the provision of radios and a thousand people were saved. However, improved flood education have been imple- many people lacked essential supplies after mented. Radio, in particular, has benefited the flooding. Over 500,000 new-borns were areas where communications systems were left without baby food and a total of one mil- previously poor, not enabling sufficient flood lion Bangladeshis became malnourished in the warnings. following months. The short term responses were coordinated Bangladesh will always be vulnerable to with the Bangladesh Government, working flooding. Major floods have continued to oc- alongside Non Governmental Organisations cur with alarming frequency, most notably in (NGOs), including UNICEF and the Red Cross. 2007, 2010, 2015 and 2016. It is hoped Immediate emergency relief comprised of that in future sufficient funding will be availa- rice, clothing and medicines. In addition, the ble for the Bangladeshi people to construct United Nations instructed a disaster manage- more robust flood defences and early warn- ment team to coordinate aid from many other ing systems, to reduce the loss of life and im- countries, including £21 million from the UK. pact on agriculture and infrastructure. Furthermore, the Bangladesh Government contributed to emergency assistance by dis- tributing free seed to the Bangladesh farmers affected by flooding. One of the most signifi- The Limnic Eruptions of PG 16 Sami Abdeldaim 13D pocket of which exists beneath the lake causes volcanic gases (including CO2) to When we think of natural hazards, usually seep through the rock and turn the deepest the first images that pop into our minds are waters of the lake into carbonic acid. Two that of earthquakes (such as the ones in Chi- characteristics of lake bottoms is their ten- na and Japan), or (like the one in dency to be very cold and very pressurized; 2004 which claimed 230,000 lives across both of these features make them very good Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand). at dissolving gases. Alternatively, we might even think about ma- Most similar to Lake Nyos, in the sense jor volcanic eruptions, such as the one in Grí- that they lay above pockets of magma or msvötn, Iceland (2011) which spewed masses low-level volcanic activity, tend not to ex- of into atmosphere, and caused plode for the following reason. Seasonal multiple day long disruptions to air travel changes in would cause the wa- across Northwestern Europe. What you most ter to mix (as a result of density changes likely don’t think of is the rare phenomenon and resultant convection currents causing the known as a ‘’ – like that which circulation of water to occur) and a lot of occurred in Lake Nyos, in 1986, the CO2 would be released from the lake killing over 1,700 people in nearby villages, into the atmosphere. The problem with Lake as well as 3,500 livestock. Nyos is that it is located in Cameroon; an Lake Nyos is a crater lake – in other words: African country which is hot all year-round. a lake that forms in the crater of a volcano As a result, Lake Nyos is described to be –contained due to the volcanic dams sur- thermally stratified (i.e. with layers of rounding the lake, holding the water in. A ‘warm, less dense water’ near the surface

Lake Kivu, ‘floating on the colder, denser water layers miles (25 kilometres) from the lake. The few near the lake's bottom’ which are infused with survivors awoke after being unconscious for gas). It is estimated that the magma pocket up to 36 hours, only to find, to their horror, which lays beneath Lake Nyos causes approxi- members of their family, friends and neigh- mately 90 million tonnes of CO2 to accumulate bours dead on the floor. People from sur- and become sequestered at the bottom of the rounding areas also entered the valley a lake. All it takes for these masses of seques- couple days later to find the area to be tered CO2 to explode out of the lake bottom is scattered with the bodies of farmers and a little geographical trigger (such as a heavy livestock. All in all, 1,700 people lost their rainfall or a minor earthquake). lives due to asphyxiation, as well as 3,500 A in the southerly side of Lake Nyos livestock and many wild animals. is believed to be what triggered the cata- To prevent a catastrophe of this magnitude strophic limnic eruption, however others believe occurring in Lake Nyos again, extensive re- that a small earthquake was the cause. This hy- search was conducted to identify methods pothesis is unlikely however seeing as surviving that could be implemented to reduce the chances of another witnesses ‘did not re- limnic eruption. Sci- port feeling any trem- “A frothy spray of water and foam shot entists estimated that ors on the morning of outgassings like the the disaster’. Regard- one in 1986 could less of what caused out from the lake, hundreds of feet into occur at a rate of the rapid , once every 10–30 the consequences were the air…” years. To reduce the catastrophic and un- chances of outgas- fortunately fatal. sings as much as possible, pipelines called ‘degassing columns’ were installed in 1995 On the day of the catastrophe, some scientists by a French team, which essentially pumped believe about 100,000–300,000 tons of CO2 the heavily CO2-saturated water out from were released by the outgassing, however oth- the bottom of the lake. In 2001, the U.S. Of- ers state as much as 1.6 million tons. A frothy fice of Foreign Disaster Assistance funed a spray of water and foam shot out from the ‘permanent installation’ at lake, hundreds of feet into the air before Nyos. Another lake which is potentially in crashing back down. The resulting turbulence danger of experiencing limnic eruptions is caused a 25 metre wave to glide across the – a lake which lies on the border surface and scour the shore on one side. A between the Democratic Republic of the 100m tall, white cloud of gas collected over Congo and Rwanda. The reasons why the the water, before flowing down the sides of the potential for limnic eruptions in this lake is so volcano (due to it’s composition, i.e. CO2, be- much more severe, is that is 2,000 times ing heavier than air). The heavy cloud sunk into larger than Lake Nyos and is much more a valley, engulfing the nearby settlements. Peo- densely populated (with a population of ple in the settlements immediately lost con- over two million people living along its sciousness, some dying right away after taking shores). Furthermore, as well as having a a few short breaths. The cloud continued to very high level of CO2 saturation, the water spread and killed people as far away as 15.5 is also experiencing dissociation. Limnic eruptions in Lake Kivu would mean PG 18 an enormous potential death toll, massive damage to economic infrastructure and eruptions in Lake Kivu, however the proce- vast damage to the environment, as well as dures have been very expensive. Due to the great disruption to local habitats. Further- vast size of the lake and sheer volume of gas more due to the methane disassociation in sequestered in the lake bottom, a degassing Lake Kivu’s waters, another hazard on top operation like the one in Lake Nyos could po- of CO2 gas clouds would be massive bursts tentially cost millions of dollars. Luckily for the of flames as the methane combusts. Re- surrounding residents however, a scheme was search has been conducted in Lake Kivu initiated in 2010 to extract the trapped me- and it has been found that its surface tem- thane at the bottom of the lake, and use it as peratures are increasing by approximately a fuel source to generate electricity in Rwan- 0.12 °C per decade. In addition to this, it is da. Several power stations have been fuelled located very close to a potential trigger: using the flammable gas extracted from Lake , “an active volcano that Kivu. Only time will tell though whether the erupted in January 2002, in an active amount of gas being extracted from Lake Ki- earthquake zone and close to other active vu will be enough to save it from experienc- volcanoes”. Measures have been put in ing a catastrophe similar, or much worse than place to reduce the potential for limnic that in Lake Nyos.

The Lake Nyos Caldera, Cameroon Yellowstone’s Adil Walji 9Warwick

The Yellowstone Caldera, also known as the Yel- tists studying the area should be able to predict lowstone supervolcano, has not erupted for how soon the volcano is likely to erupt, based 174,000 years. The last lava flow was around on current levels of activity. At this moment in 70,000 years ago. It is located in Yellowstone time, scientists do not have any idea how to National Park, which is in Wyoming, in the north- stop the future eruption, so the only option is to west of the United States of America. It is a vol- evacuate the people in the radius as soon as canic caldera, which means it is a large cauldron they see rises in activity of the volcano. -like depression that forms from the clearing of a magma chamber or magma reservoir. Super- There is a degree of controversy and disagree- volcanoes are so called because they are large ment over the impact of the Yellowstone super- volcanoes having the potential to produce an volcano, were it to erupt. Some people believe eruption with major effects on the global climate it will cause mayhem and destruction, whereas and its ecosystems. It also must have an eruption others have more trust in early warning systems of more than 240 cubic miles of magma. In the and signals and therefore are led to believe past two million years, episodic volcanic erup- that there will be orderly, controlled and or- tions have occurred in the Yellowstone area. ganised evacuations before the eruption. Even However, only three of these many eruptions though the Yellowstone magma source is enor- have been major, meaning they have by no mous it is believed that this will not actually means fulfilled Yellowstone’s huge potential for cause significant damage. This is because at least a third of the liquid rock ejected falls back destruction. into the volcano’s mouth. The rest will go into the It is believed that the supervolcano should erupt atmosphere or the very immediate surroundings. in the next thousand or even 10,000 years. You The liquid rock that goes into the environment may wonder why there is so much fuss over a should only cover the rest of the park, meaning volcano that is extremely unlikely to erupt any the radius would only spread to 30 or 40 miles. time soon, but scientists are trying to limit the im- The main damage comes from the airborne pact of the volcano’s eruption in an attempt to ejecta; material that is spewed out. Most of the preserve the future of the beautiful land and damage would come from “cold ash” and pum- lives at risk. It is also believed that in the future ice (a very light and porous volcanic rock the scale of the lava radius may increase. formed when a gas-rich froth of glassy lava so- lidifies rapidly), spread by the wind. It is con- For the past quarter-century years scientists sidered “disastrous” when the ash rain creates a have been monitoring the level of activity of the layer of around ten centimetres on the ground. volcano, which means that they know when there This ash would be incredibly widespread, as is an increase in activity, and therefore when an even people in New York may even see a fine eruption may be coming, allowing them to evac- layer of dust on their cars. Air traffic would be uate the people in the expected radius. Scien- Supervolcano

Toxic thermal pools, Yellowstone National Park (Wyoming, USA)

grounded and the ash rain would pollute farms years there may be another significant eruption from the Midwest of America to the Mississippi in the Northeast of America. River. The worst consequence would be the de- struction of food supplies and waterways, simi- There is no exact date for the eruption of the lar to the effects of a serious industrial acci- Yellowstone volcano but some scientists (based on patterns, research and volcanic activity) have dent. said that there is a 99.9% chance that the volca- When a super eruption like this takes place, it no will not erupt in the 21st century. always begins with an earthquake. This must happen as it will break the rocks and allow In conclusion the Yellowstone supervolcano is a magma to get out to the surface. Huge earth- growing threat to the environment, and less of a quakes would be seen leading up to the erup- danger to us humans. While there are many dif- tion, acting as warning signs for the main erup- ferent theories to the time of which it will take to tion. After this, gigantic fissures in the Earth erupt, it is strongly believed by many scientists would break open near the caldera, possibly in that it should take place in quite a long time a ring around it, or maybe as far as ten kilome- from now. Even after the eruption of the volcano tres away. Lava and superheated gasses would the danger will still not be definitely cleared, as shoot out of these vents very rapidly, draining another volcano could form in another place in the magma reservoir underneath the caldera, the USA due to the continental plates shifting. and consequently causing the caldera to start This means that there could be more damage crumbling. After a while, the caldera should col- caused by this one volcano. I believe that the lapse into an oval-shaped that might volcano will cause lots of harm to the environ- be roughly fifty miles long by thirty miles wide. ment but I hope that by the time it does erupt It is likely that we would see a significant global they will have a to stop the "cold ash" cooling effect on after the vents from causing harm. have released their gasses and the ground has Old Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone collapsed. Climate change would follow this but the cool- ing of the atmosphere would only last for a few years. After the eruption, the volcano may go extinct, or even possibly cause eruptions in a different area, due to the continental plates shifting and volcanoes moving with the plates. The possible future eruption in this turn of events would be a lava flow, which is a less dangerous eruption, but nonetheless in a couple of million Eyjafjallajokull on , Iceland

Eyjafjallajökull—The Icelandic Volcano Miles Searle 8Manor

The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull was volcanic fruit, flowers and items such as Ipads or com- events at Mount Eyjafjallajökull in the south puters were reported in the first days after of Iceland. The eruptions effected many the eruptions. The medicine industry was people and places across the world including badly effected in Europe as the medicine they the commercial airline industry, TV and music. stock was expiring very quickly and there was In this article we will look at how the erup- no way that they could send the medicine that tions affected the economies across the there overseas customers needed. This lead to world. thousands of pounds worth of medicine expir- ing and going to waste this lead to the econo- Firstly, we need some background infor- my losing all of that money. Many business mation about what happened during the officials were worried about the importing of eruptions. From 14–20 April, ash from the fresh fruits and other essentials into the United volcanic eruption covered large areas of Kingdom. Parcel companies such as FedEx northern Europe. About 20 countries closed were unable to transport their goods by air. their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it This meant that they had to send goods to affected about 10 million travellers. Nobody other places by boat or train and then send was killed during the eruption but inhabitants them the rest of the way by road. Many trav- of the nearby villages had to be evacuated. el firms were reported to have lost five to six Europe: million pounds per day from travellers being unable to return home from wherever they Companies that relied on their products be- were staying on holiday. ing imported or exported through air freight from other countries were effected during The car company BMW had to stop produc- the eruptions as there was no way that they tion at three of its largest factories in Germa- could get there products to the countries they ny due to shortages of parts for their cars. In wanted them to get to. This was due to the the United Kingdom alone thirteen travel com- fact that no commercial jet traffic could fly panies collapsed during the summer of 2010 about most European countries. Shortages of and the ash cloud was found to be the largest factor of this. Although the eruption of Ey- two plants due to not having enough parts. jafjallajökull had mostly bad impacts, travel- Honda also had to partially postpone produc- lers across the world were scrambling to find tion to. Factories in China's Guangdong prov- last minutes modes of transports and conse- ince saw a delay in air shipments of clothes and quently the railway and ferry industries were jewellery. In South Korea, Samsung and LG experiencing a large surge in income. This were unable to send more than 20% of their did affect some countries’ economies but in a daily air freight shipment due to the ash cloud very good way. and the Federation of Hong Kong said that res- taurants and hotels were facing shortages of : their European products. Due to Kenya being unable to ship them into the UK on the 19th and 20th of April 2010, Oceania: they lost 400 tonnes of flowers. The Kenyan The New Zealand fisheries company was economy was losing 3.8 million dollars each helped by the disruption of flights in Europe. day and the Fresh Produce Exporters Associ- Salmon could not be brought to Oceania due to ation of Kenya called the situation the fact that it mostly came from Norway and “disastrous”. Thousands of Kenyan farmers therefore the New Zealand Salmon was were told to go home as the harvesting of brought rather than stuff from Norway. This vegetables and flowers were stopped due to definitely helped the New Zealand’s economy. the grounding of flights. New Zealand also helped as the Zambia’s flower and vegetable industry lost could not supply orchids for the Wedding Flow- $150,000 (£98,000) a day during the ash er show in North America. plume and other African industries, such as Uganda’s fish businesses, lost money due to In conclusion, the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull the lack of air freight. definitely impacted the world’s economy mostly in a bad way. Although, there were some posi- Asia: tive impacts. Nissan had to postpone production from their

Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland PG 23 Haiti vs Japan: What Makes A Country

Thomas Clapp 11Warwick Resilient to an Earthquake?

There is little that nature can concoct that is deadlier or acy rate of 61%, which means that much of the popula- more terrifying than an earthquake, which are caused tion does not learn about basic earthquake drills. Fur- by the constantly shifting tectonic plates rubbing and thermore, those less privileged also live in poorly built pushing against one another, until the pressure be- homes. Materials such as wood give no protection in a comes so great that one slips, which can occasionally strong earthquake, and as a result it was the poorer end cause an enormous earthquake. Within this article, I of the population that took the brunt of the casualties. shall be comparing the Haitian and Japanese earth- Japan has incredibly stringent construction rules, and all quakes of 2010 and 2011 respectively as case studies buildings after the turn of the millennium are required for the big question: what really makes a country resili- to withstand an earthquake of up to 5 on the Richter ent to an earthquake? Japan is a country that is world scale, with many strong enough to stand in a magnitude renowned for having earthquake prevention attached seven earthquake. to its culture. Forts from the age of the Samurai were Japan’s response to the earthquake has come under designed with sloping walls to deflect the immense scrutiny, after claims that the government was unwilling shockwaves, and their famous pagodas can outmatch to take control of the relief effort, partly stagnating the our best attempts at earthquake-proofing buildings. movement of personnel to the affected areas. The Haiti, on the other hand, does not enjoy the same level heavy damage to infrastructure also took its toll on the of resilience to earthquakes. Haiti has been subject to relief effort, because much needed food and water colonisation, invasion and revolution, and multiple po- were unable to reach the more remote areas of Japan. litical coups in the last century. Its poor infrastructure Despite this, 26 million meals, 8 million bottles of water and reliance on aid from developed nations meant that and 230,000 boxes of basic medicines were distributed the consequences of national are amplified, all over the country. This significantly reduced casual- and when the 2010 earthquake hit, there was little that ties from disease and lack of clean water which are ma- the locals could do. jor killers after a major natural disaster. Haiti is the The colossal ten metre high wave that swept over Japan poorest nation in the western hemisphere, and its reli- was caused by one of the largest earthquakes ever rec- ance on foreign aid and inadequate infrastructure orded – a 9.1 magnitude quake, 230 miles away from meant that disease was rife. After the earthquake, a Tokyo, and was caused by a subduction zone, where cholera epidemic threatened the whole island again the Pacific plate slipped more than 50 metres under the because of poor sanitation, raw sewage and no effec- Eurasian plate. This forced the Eurasian plate upwards tive means of filtering water. It was estimated that around 10 metres causing a tsunami with consequences 500,000 were infected and 7,000 died. Japan was not for large swathes of Japan. On the other hand, the Hai- bereft of long reaching consequences either – Fukushi- tian earthquake was 100 times less powerful – meas- ma was the nuclear power plant that suffered a serious ured at around at 7.0 on the Richter scale, but the shan- meltdown. Japan appeared robust seismically, but was ty towns and poorly built buildings contributed to unprotected from the tsunami wave that followed. The 230,000 deaths, to Japan’s 22,000. On paper, the Japa- earthquake that happened in April kept the power plant nese earthquake should have been much more devas- shut until December. tating, so why were so many more lives lost in Haiti? To conclude, I believe that wealth is the most significant Although there were many factors that saved lives in factor that contributes to whether a country will ride Japan, the umbrella that they all fell under was money out the worst of an earthquake, or collapse within the – Japan has a GDP (gross domestic product) of over $4 tremors. Japan has demonstrated that for a well pre- trillion, and with high earthquake education and vast pared MEDC even large earthquakes can be dealt with, investments into earthquake defences and warning sys- even if the loss of life was fairly large. In Haiti, one saw tems Japan is one of the best prepared countries in the a demonstration of the devastating effects an earth- world. Every Japanese schoolchild from a young age quake can have on a less developed country. knows “duck, cover and hold,” which is proven to sig- nificantly reduce the chance of injury from flying de- Image on opposite page: Artistic Interpretation of bris. Haiti on the other hand only has an average liter- Port-au-Prince, Haiti, January 12, 2010

PG 25 Hazards of the Future

The hazards discussed in this magazine are ones greater thought and focus than most people are which humanity has been facing for millions of willing to give. Dustbowl America of the 1930s years. Early hominins wandering the earth’s ex- will recall the impact that a dry and barren land panses had learnt how to adapt to climatic and has on a community. Skip forward 100 years and tectonic hazards. They became resilient to the we may well begin to see the same event on a dangers which living in the shadows of volca- global scale. The over use and over grazing of noes and in the paths of tropical storms can land, reliance on artificial fertiliser and alteration bring. They faced these dangers with determi- of the natural ecology means generations of nation, positivity and a resolve to recover after farmers have contributed to the catastrophic de- experiencing devastation and ruin. mise of soil nutrition. Why should we care? Be- cause the available land for agriculture is shrink- The dangers have always been something creat- ing. And thus the ability to feed an ever growing ed by the earth which one has to respond to. population is ever more challenging. Dangers which come with the physical geogra- phy of a place. But what happens when the haz- The loss of biodiversity as a consequence of hu- ards humans are facing are anthropogenic? mans may trigger numerous hazards for the fu- When the very things which threaten our exist- ture. Ecosystems, which took millions of years to ence as a species are a result of our own ac- perfect, are in danger when any species within tions. this system is threatened. The demise of the bee due to loss of habitat has manifold issues attribut- At some point along the way we lost sight of the ed to it. Bees are the key to food production be- fact that to harm the earth, is to harm ourselves. cause they pollinate crops. Bumblebees, other The perils of the future are the result of our pre- wild bees, and like butterflies, wasps, and sent. flies all provide valuable pollination services. A Take for example the oceans. November 2017, third of the food that we eat depends on pollinat- Sir David Attenborough captivated the viewing ing insects: vegetables like courgette, fruits like public by highlighting dangers of plastic within apricot, nuts like almonds, spices like coriander, the oceans. A danger which has been known edible oils like canola, and many more. In Europe about for some time, but only recently been alone, the growth of over 4,000 vegetables de- made visible to an impressionable audience. Im- pends on the essential work of pollinators. But cur- ages of turtles caught in fishing nets, albatross rently, more and more bees are dying. skewered by toothpicks and fish full of micro The hazards of the future are only a problem if plastics led to a public outcry over the damage no action is taken in order to overcome them. The caused by our own actions. These affecting im- response to the plastic epidemic has been enor- ages struck at the hearts of those watching and mous. Individuals and companies have sought to led to a plastic revolution that is beginning to minimise their plastic consumption significantly in gain momentum. the months following, with many others following And what of the other hazards caused by our suit. The future could look bright. The severity of own actions? the hazards humans face in future could be Let’s discuss soil erosion. I appreciate, not the thought of as very much in our own hands. most exciting topic, but one which deserves far Image on opposite page: Floating plastic pollution

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