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Notes on Religion Introduction Notes on Religion Introduction Religion is defined, according to Wallace, as belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces. So defined, religion is a cultural universal. Neanderthal mortuary remains provide the earliest evidence of what probably was religious activity. Animism Tylor first studied religion anthropologically, and developed a taxonomy of religions. Animism was seen as the most primitive, and is defined as a belief in souls that derives from the first attempt to explain dreams and like phenomena. Mana and Taboo Mana is defined as belief in an immanent supernatural domain or life-force, potentially subject to human manipulation. The Polynesian and Melanesian concepts of mana are contrasted. Melanesian mana is defined as a sacred impersonal force that is much like the Western concept of luck. Polynesian mana and the related concept of taboo are related to the more hierarchical nature of Polynesian society. Mana and Taboo Magic and Religion Magic refers to supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aims. Magic may be imitative (as with voodoo dolls) or contagious (accomplished through contact). Anxiety, Control, Solace Magic is an instrument of control, but religion serves to provide stability when no control or understanding is possible. Malinowski saw tribal religions as being focused on life crises. Rituals Rituals are formal, performed in sacred contexts. Rituals convey information about the culture of the participants and, hence, the participants themselves. Rituals are inherently social, and participation in them necessarily implies social commitment. Rites of Passage Rites of passage are religious rituals which mark and facilitate a persons movement from one (social) state of being to another (e.g. Plains Indians’ vision quests). Rites of passage have three phases: Separation – the participant(s) withdraws from the group and begin moving from one place to another. Liminality – the period between states, during which the participant(s) has left one place but has not yet entered the next. Incorporation – the participant(s) reenters society with a new status having completed the rite. Rites of Passage Liminality is part of every rite of passage, and involves the temporary suspension and even reversal of everyday social distinctions. Communitas refers to collective liminality, characterized by enhanced feelings of social solidarity and minimized distinctions. Totemism Rituals play an important role in creating and maintaining group solidarity. In totemic societies, each descent group has an animal, plant, of geographical feature from which they claim descent. Totems are the apical ancestor of clans. The members of a clan do not kill or eat their totem, except once a year when the members of the clan gather for ceremonies dedicated to the totem. See discussion of clans and lineages in Chapter 15. Totemism is a religion in which elements of nature act as sacred templates for society by means of symbolic association. Totemism Totemism uses nature as a model for society. Each descent group has a totem, which occupies a specific niche in nature. Social differences mirror the natural order of the environment. The unity of the human social order is enhanced by symbolic association with and imitation of the natural order. Sacred Cattle in India Ahimsa is the Hindu doctrine of nonviolence that forbids the killing of animals. Western economic development experts often use this principle as an example of how religion can stand in the way of development. Hindus seem to irrationally ignore a valuable food source (beef). Hindus also raise scraggly, thin cows, unlike the bigger cattle of Europe and the US. These views are ethnocentric and wrong as cattle play an important adaptive role in an Indian ecosystem that has evolved over thousands of years Hindus use cattle for transportation, traction, and manure. Bigger cattle eat more, making them more expensive to keep. Sacred Cattle in India Social Control The power of religion affects action. Religion can be used to mobilize large segments of society through systems of real and perceived rewards and punishments. Witch hunts play an important role in limiting social deviancy in addition to functioning as leveling mechanisms to reduce differences in wealth and status between members of society. Many religions have a formal code of ethics that prohibit certain behavior while promoting other kinds of behavior. Religions also maintain social control by stressing the fleeting nature of life. Revitalization Movements Religious movements that act as mediums for social change are called revitalization movements. The colonial-era Iroquois reformation led by Handsome Lake is an example of a revitalization movement. Syncretisms A syncretism is a cultural mix, including religious blends, that emerge when two or more cultural traditions come into contact. Examples include voodoo, santeria, and candomlé. The cargo cults of Melanesia and Papua New Guinea are syncretism of Christian doctrine with aboriginal beliefs. Syncretisms often emerge when traditional, non-Western societies have regular contact with industrialized societies. Syncretisms attempt to explain European domination and wealth and to achieve similar success magically by mimicking European behavior and symbols. Syncretisms A New Age Since the 1960s, there has been a decline in formal organized religions. New Age religions have appropriated ideas, themes, symbols, and ways of life from the religious practices of Native Americans, Australian Aborigines, east Asian religions..
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