Экологические аспекты рыболовства Environmental impact of fisheries
Sea birds and Bottom Longline Fishery in the Kamchatka Region
Moscow, 2006 Морские птицы и донное ярусное рыболовство в Камчатском регионе М.: 2006. – 56 с.
Ю. Б. Артюхин, А. В. Винников, Д. А. Терентьев
Фотографии: Ю. Б. Артюхин, Д. А. Терентьев
Sea birds and bottom longline fishery in the Kamchatka region
Yu. B. Artyukhin, A. V. Vinnikov, D. A. Terentiev
Photographs credit: Yu. B. Artyukhin, D. A. Terentiev
Editing: V. Spiridonov, P. Sharov
Translator: A. Nikolaeva
Представлен отчет о результатах проекта Всемирного фонда дикой природы, посвященного снижению прилова морских птиц при российском ярусном промысле донных рыб в Беринговом и Охотском морях. В условиях российских морей проверены приспособления и методы лова (стримерные линии, утяжеленная хребтина яруса), которые, с одной стороны, уменьшают попадание на крючки и гибель морских птиц, а с другой – повышают экономическую эффективность промысла за счет предотвращения потери схватываемой при постановке яруса птицами наживы. Дается обзор истории и современного состояния ярусного промысла в дальневосточных морях России, экологических проблем, связанных с ярусным промыслом, и предлагаются рекомендации по снижению гибели морских птиц при промысловых операциях. Для специалистов по добыче, капитанов рыболовных судов, руководителей рыболовных компаний, специалистов по рыболовству, охране природы, орнитологов, ихтиологов и морских биологов, а также преподавателей и студентов биологических факультетов и факультетов промышленного рыболовства университетов и технических университетов.
The studies were conducted as part of the project of WWF Russia 0098.01 02 (coordinated by K.A. Zgurovsky and the regional coordinator of the project in Kamchatka A.N. Yablochkov). All authors and coordinators are especially grateful to and emphasize the role of V.N. Burkanov and M. Williams in launching this project. We also express our gratitude to our colleagues who participated in collecting data in the sea, as well as to the administration of Federal State Unitary Company "KamchatNIRO" and the fishing companies "Acros", "Polluks", "Tymlatsky fishing and processing factory" for setting up implementation of this project, and also the crews of the long line fishing vessels for their invaluable assistance. We thank H. Hasegawa (Toho University), E. Melvin (University of Washington), G. Robertson (Australian Antarctic Division), R. Suryan (Oregon State University) for their consultations and materials they provided for our analysis. The streamer lines and the set of IW mainline, produced by "A. S. Fiskevegn", were obtained thanks to the assistance of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Branch, Anchorage. The producer of streamers provid ed the delivery of them to Russia assisted by the Federal Department and the USA Consulate General in Vladivostok. The equipment to measure the speed of the long lines sinking, including Mk9 sensors was pro vided by E. Melvin. The Sea Biodiversity Conservation Alliance and North Pacific Association of Long line Fishermen, uniting big and small fishing companies of the US provided their assistance in publishing a book let on identification of North Pacific albatrosses. The field work was financed by the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF), KamchatNIRO, and Kamchatka Branch of Pacific Institute of Geography Far Eastern Department of Russian Academy of Sciences. The National Ocean and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA) US is planning to finance continuation of this work.
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© Ю. Б. Артюхин, Д. А. Терентьев, фотографии, 2006 © Н. Д. Очагов, верстка, 2006 © WWF России, 2006 Contents
Preface ...... 4 Abstract and recommendations ...... 6 Introduction ...... 8 1. History of longline fishing in the Northern Pacific Ocean and Kamchatka waters ...... 7 2. Present condition of fleet and fishing gears ...... 9 3. Features of longline fishing and condition of Kamchatka marine fishery ...... 11 4. Material and methods of research ...... 15 5. Species of killed seabirds ...... 19 6. Behavior of seabirds at the process of setting commercial fishery longlines ...... 22 7. Some indicators of seabird mortality ...... 23 8. Seabird mortality assessment ...... 25 9. Impacts of longline fishing on seabird populations ...... 27 10. Impacts of seabirds on longline fishing ...... 30 11. Ways of solving the problem of "longline fishing and seabirds" ...... 31 11.1. Tests of streamer lines use in Kamchatka longline fishing ...... 32 11.1.1. Settings and use of streamer lines ...... 32 11.1.2. Attacks of seabirds on bait on fishing hooks at the setting of longlines . . . . .33 11.1.3. Catches of fish ...... 34 11.2.Tests of weighted mainline use in Kamchatka longline fishing ...... 35 11.2.1. Features of tested gear ...... 35 11.2.2. Attacks of seabirds on bait on fishing hooks at the setting of longlines . . . . .37 11.2.3. Catches of fish ...... 39 11.2.4. Features of sinking longlines ...... 40 11.2.5. Exploitation features of mainline ...... 42 Conclusion ...... 45 Acknowledgements ...... 46 References ...... 47 4 Environmental impact of fisheries
Abstract and Recommendations
This present work summarizes the results of the mon seabirds in the North Pacific. The percent of ful World Wide Fund for Nature project on reduction of mars among dead birds in East Kamchatka waters in incidental by catch of seabirds in Russian demersal 2003 and 2004 was 65.1 % and 27.8 % respectively, long line fishing in the Bering Sea and Sea of in the Sea of Okhotsk 66.7 %. According to obser Okhotsk. The main objective of the project was to vations in 2003 another common victim was short test in the Russian Far East the equipment and tailed shearwater (Procellariiformes). This species is methods of fishery that can both minimize the num a trans equator migrant that travels in large groups ber of hooked and killed seabirds as well as provide to the North up to the Chukchi Sea. The second big economical benefits for fishermen by preventing group of killed seabirds includes big white headed caused by seabirds losses of bait. gulls (Larus). The most abundant and wide spread At present there are approximately twenty long among big gulls the slaty backed gull in Kamchatka line fishing vessels operating in Kamchatka. The region was the most numerous in that group. On demersal long line fishery provides up to 40 60 % of 10th of August 2003 there was a single record of by the annual harvest of cod in the main commercial catching Short tailed albatross, a rare species listed fishery marine areas of Kamchatka. The halibut and endangered by IUCN. rockfish are second to cod as valuable target At the setting of long lines in Kamchatka region a species of long line fishery. mainline with hooks is released from ship's stern on In 2003 most attention was paid to collecting data the water surface about several meters behind the on seabird mortality from demersal long line fish vessel and slowly sinks staying at depth of few ing. Tests of streamer lines were conducted in 2004 dozens of meters. Before the line sinks deep and in the beginning of 2005. There were four expe seabirds attempt to get pieces of bait off the hooks ditions and three types of settings were used: one both at the surface and under water. The examina with no deterrents, another with a single streamer tion of dead birds revealed that only small percent line, and with double streamer lines. Tests of the age of birds (15.6 %) gets hooked by beaks while weighted mainline (Integrated Weight IW) were trying to take the bait. The majority of birds get done in April 2005. Our observations included mon caught with hooks by other body parts like wings or itoring changes in seabird bycatch and impacts on legs. setting the mainlines. The long line fishing in Russian waters is a proven In the Western Bering Sea and East Kamchatkan factor of mortality of short tailed albatrosses. By fishery zones the long lines were monitored by itself long line fishing in Russian or American waters observers and 343 dead seabirds were registered in probably couldn't change significantly the abun 2003 and 108 in 2004. During the operations in the dance of this species or threaten its existence. Sea of Okhotsk from November 2004 till April 2005 However, together with other factors the impacts of only 12 dead seabirds were registered. fishing could be significant and slow down restora In the Bering Sea and waters of the Sea of Okhotsk tion of this bird population. and Pacific Ocean adjacent to South Kamchatka the The assessed economic losses of long line fleet relative mortality of seabirds killed by long line fishing from wasting bait because of seabirds were about in 2003 was higher than in 2004: on average $840,000 in 2004. Most of the losses occur in the 0.132±0.023 birds per 1000 of hooks (variation from Bering Sea and Pacific waters of Kamchatka, 0 to 6.0) against 0.051±0.012 of birds per 1000 because those are the main fishing areas. hooks (0 to 3.3). In the Sea of Okhotsk the seabird Observations in 2003 and comparisons with data mortality was lower and on average was 0.011±0.004 for adjacent waters of the Bering Sea showed that of birds per 1000 hooks. The killed seabirds belonged issues of seabirds and demersal long line fishing to nine species of four families including are very similar for both Russia and the US. Diomedeidae (albatrosses), Procellariidae (fulmars) Therefore it is reasonable to try adopting in both families belong to Procellariiformes, Kamchatka foreign (primarily American) experi Phalacrocoracidae (cormorants), and Laridae (gulls). ence resulting from years of special research rather The most frequent victims were fulmars and other than developing some new and likely expensive Procellariiformes species as they are the most com methods. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 5
The tests of streamer lines and weighted mainline mortality, saved bait, and even lead to some were done on two type of fishing vessels in 2004 increase in catch (for instance catch of cod and 2005 in order to assess the possibilities of introduc Pacific halibut). ing the most efficient deterrents of seabirds in The comparison between regular and IW main long line fishing practices on Kamchatka. Under lines showed that on average 9.3 % of hooks on reg control conditions without use of deterrents the ular mainline and 7.0 % of hooks on increased seabirds attacked bait 12.6±2.0 times per minute. weight (IW) mainline were attacked by seabirds. The The deterrents (streamers) used decreased the volumes of catch were similar for regular and IW number of attacks substantially: on average down mainlines, which could be also related to differ to 9.3±1.1 and 2.4±0.4 per minute for single and ences in types of hooks. The obtained results indi double streamer lines respectively. The difference cate that not only IW mainline is in no way inferior to between the figures is highly reliable (p<0.0001). regular mainline, but even has some advantages. Taking into account the average speed of setting Regular use of streamer lines requires some long lines (149 hooks per minute), one could see preparation work and special skills that operating that seabirds attacked on average about 8.5 % of crew needs to learn. The use of streamer (particu hooks if streamers weren't used, 6.2 % of hooks if larly double) lines has some limitations mainly relat single streamer used, and only 1.6 % in case if pair ed to weather conditions. In Alaska it is recommend streamers were applied. These data demonstrate ed to set only single streamer lines if the wind is over quite high efficiency of double streamer lines and a 30 knots (15 m/sec) and if wind is over 45 knots it is little lower efficiency of single streamer lines for recommended for safety reasons not to set any reduction of bait losses and seabird mortality. The streamers. As mentioned above the single streamer pair streamers decreased the number of seabird is substantially less efficient than the pair streamer. attacks on bait by 81.9 % and the seabird mortality The efficiency of single streamer lines could be by 90.2 %. From this we infer that double streamer increased by combining its use with the IW mainline lines proved to be very efficient. Use of this equip that sinks faster than the regular mainline. ment provided substantial reduction in seabird 6 Environmental impact of fisheries
Introduction
Fishing with hooks on long lines is a popular kind companies producing long lines develop various of fishing in many parts of the world. The long lines devices to prevent access of birds to hooks. The as "passive" fishing gear are used for fishing in all fishermen themselves sometimes use some self parts of water column and are divided into the fol made devices. This proves that optimization of inter lowing main groups: pelagic, vertical, demersal, actions between the seabirds and long line fishing and bottom. It is a wide spread notion that long line would be beneficial for both fishermen as they method is one of the most environmentally safe recover economic losses and nature conservation ways of fishing as it almost does not damage as it makes possible to prevent death of birds. marine habitat and is highly selective catching usu In the Russian Far East the large scale demersal ally just big mature fish (Yermakov 1981; Tsukalov and bottom long line fishing occurs mostly in the 1988; Kokorin 1994). However the long lines often western part of the Bering Sea, the Pacific Ocean do catch animals other than fish. For instance waters of Kamchatka, and in the Sea of Okhotsk. seabirds get hooked while attempting to feed on There were very limited data on the seabird mortali bait at the setting of long lines. At present about 60 ty before implementation of this project. In 2002 a species of seabirds are known in the world to be the WWF project was started and researchers gathered victims of long lining. The maximum diversity of and analyzed available pieces of information from species and particularly high mortality of seabirds Kamchatka Research Institute of Fisheries and is observed in the southern hemisphere (Brothers Oceanography (Vinnikov, Terentyev 2003). Then in et al. 1999). As a matter of fact several albatross 2003 there were special studies in the western part and petrel species were put under threat of extinc of Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean waters of tion by long line fishing operations. That is why in Kamchatka to assess the levels of seabird mortality the recent decade the problem of bycatch of and interactions between seabirds and long line seabirds in long line fishing attracted significant fishing. The analysis of the obtained data and simi international attention (Cooper et al. 2001). The UN lar data from the adjacent waters of the Bering Sea FAO (FAO 1999) called the states where long line and other parts of the world made it possible to draft fishing is present to undertake measures to reduce some ways to attempt solving the problem in Russia mortality of seabirds. (Artukhin et al. 2004; Vinnikov et al. 2004). There is also another important side of the seabird At the next stage in 2004 beginning 2005 two and long lines interactions: the seabirds reduce vol types of devices that are considered the most effec umes of catch by interfering with fishing. The fisher tive were tested streamers and IW mainline. Also men lose both bait eaten by seabirds and the fish the collection of data on mortality of seabirds was they could catch with it. To solve this problem the continued. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 7
1. History of longline fishing in the Northern Pacific Ocean and Kamchatka waters
The beginning of cod hook fishing in northern catch of cod in coastal waters of Kamchatka was Pacific is dated approximately by the middle of 19th about 8,300 metric tons; the maximum catch (1947) century. The first successful attempts were made in was 13,900 tons. In late 1950s the long line rod 1857 by the American boat "Timandra" in Tatarsky fishing in Kamchatka waters (and in the Far East Straight (Moiseev 1953). Pravdin (1928) noted that region in the whole) was gradually driven out by by the second half of the 19th century "Americans more effective trawl Danish seine fishing. knew pretty well the Yazvinsko Ozerniye cod shoals Long line fishing was recovered in the Russian at the south west coast of Kamchatka and fished Far East in 1970s. At that time trawl Danish seine there". In the eastern part of Bering Sea the first fishing was well developed and in most areas documented catches were in 1864 when one boat received all quotas for cod, halibuts, rockfish, etc. brought 23 tons of cod. Since 1882 in the cod hook Therefore, the long line fishing had to be developed fishing has been well established in that area with maximum automatic processes in harvesting (Bakkala 1984). (including use of combined long line trawl gear) The first Russian attempts of commercial cod and searching for areas that could provide enough hook fishing (with long lines) were made in 1926 catch. 1927 near Kikhchik River in West Kamchatka In 1983 1988 STR and SRTM type ships (Derugin 1928; Moiseev 1953) and around the "Tungus", "Nazarovsk", and "Avtogenschik" were Karaginsky and Commander Islands in 1927 1929 used for testing Soviet mechanized long line sys (Navozov Lavrov 1927 1928) supported by the tems "Albatross" (project of 1976) and "Pomor" Japanese company "Luri." The results of that fishing (project of 1984). The technical faults of mecha were very modest, but that was a starting point for nisms, lack of equipment, and some other reasons the development of national cod long line fishing. hampered effective work of those ships. The eco Later it was found that almost anywhere around nomical inefficiency (even with some good indica Kamchatka long line fishing of cod could bring prof tors) led to removing of those long line systems its and it was feasible to fish during the whole navi from ships (Vinnikov, Terentyev 2004). That experi gation season. ment showed that at the current stage purchasing At the end of 1920s and beginning of 1930s the and using already tested foreign long line systems cod trawl fishing was developing at fast pace. For a is better than inventing new systems nationally. number of reasons the volumes of catch were so low Since 1986 the resources of areas with "heavy" that even led managers to the conclusion that trawl grounds unavailable for trawling were used by fishing had no future in the Far East. Instead the Japanese, Korean, and American fishing companies long line cod fishing was further developed. At first by permits from Russia. Those countries have long it was fairly weak, with insufficient equipment, used history of long line fishing development (Yermakov small ships, and occurred mostly near the east 1981; Semenov, Kokorin 1988; Tsukalov 1988; coast of Kamchatka. The Pacific cod was harvested Vinnikov, Dyakov 1990; Kokorin 1994). The active with long lines and rods with hooks and using long line fishing of cod near the north western "kavasaki" type wood boats and later MRS 80 type coast of Kamchatka and in the north western part of boats. The fishing season lasted for 6 7 months the Bering Sea was conducted by Japanese compa from May to October and boats of fishermen stayed nies that worked under contracts with "Sovrybflot" near shores at depth of 30 70 meters for catching and by several joint companies. The total quota of migrating cod (Polutov, Karakotsky 1956). cod of Japanese fleet in the Economic Zone of The results were quite promising and the volumes Russia in some years reached 15,000 20,000 tons. of annual catch of cod kept increasing. The fishing In 1990 1993 American long line ships also worked zone included waters of West Kamchatka, but up to by contracts in the north west part of the Bering Sea 80% of fishing was done on the East Kamchatka, harvesting mostly Pacific halibut and rockfishes. because the main base of fleet and consumers were The results of fishing of ships equipped with foreign in the regional center Petropavlovsk Kamchatski. gears showed the possibility of bottom long line From 1934 to 1954 there were no significant fluc fishing in the Russian Far East year round and in tuations of year to year catch volumes. The average almost all commercial fishing areas. 8 Environmental impact of fisheries
In 1990s "Аcros" company installed on their ships els for natural reasons. Nevertheless the bottom imported automatic long line systems and started long line fishing successfully competes with trawl using German YaMS 1440 freezer boats. This made Danish seine fishing. Today the bottom long line it possible to restore large scale home bottom long fishing contributes up to 40 60 % of annual catch of line fishing in Kamchatka waters and provide annual cod in main Kamchatka commercial fishery areas. catch of dozens of thousands metric tons. Some During the economic depression in the 1990s the other companies purchased used Japanese fishing number of small and medium size ships decreased, boats that were multi functional and could be but the use of long line ships maintained the vol equipped for fishing with long lines and drift, gill, umes of cod catch at stable levels. At present long and bottom trap nets. Most of Japanese boats are line ships are also fishing for Pacific black halibut in listed in the fleet as both long line and drift net type. the eastern part of Sea of Okhotsk and there drive Some ships made in Soviet Union Russia were also out environmentally unsafe bottom gill net fishing. equipped for bottom long line fishing. However, for The further development of long line fishing could some reasons on some of them long line systems go in directions of finding new targetstocks, extend were later removed. ing to new areas, modernization of fishing methods We need to note some main directions of the con (for YaMS 1440 type ships), using small size long temporary long line fishing development in the line systems on small boats in coastal areas (this Russian Far East. The abundance of the main object could develop fishing of Pacific halibut and blue of long line fishing the Pacific cod stays at low lev rockfish in coastal zone). Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 9
2. Present condition of fleet and fishing gears
Today there are approximately 20 ships in Kamchatka Region that are engaged in long line fishing. The owner of the biggest long line fleet in Kamchatka and Russian Far East is Acros company. It has 12 YaMS 1440 type and two STR 420 type long line fishing vessels. Two long line fishing ships (SRTM К "Кoryakskoye nagorye" and "Pogranichnik Zmeev") and STR "Avachinski zaliv" are owned by "Kamchatrybprom." Two companies possess one boat each: "Kammag" Ltd. (Ya/D "Rubinovyi") and "Polluks" Ltd. (SRTM K "Nuklon"). Two long line fishing boats SRTM К type "Bratsevo" and "Rumyantsevo" belong to "Tymlatsky rybokombinat" Ltd. Often long line fish ing fleet from other regions of RFE like Primorye (fishery collective farm "Vostok 1") come to fish in Kamchatka waters. The foreign (USA, Japan, South Korea and some other countries) long line ships used to fish in early 1990s near Kamchatka and the number of vessels SRTM K "Rumayntsevo" (photo by D.A.Terentiev) changed from 6 to 12. Their technical characteris tics were similar to the YaMS type "Antias" and SRTM К. The number of foreign ships has been steadily decreasing. In 2004 from April to August in the Western Bering Sea zone only few medium size bottom long line fishing ships of North Korea were fishing (mostly for cod and rays) by quotas allocat ed in accordance with international governmental agreements. The main long line fishing ships in Kamchatka waters are medium size freezers of YaMS type built in 1990s and SRTM K type built in 1980 1990s. Those ships have the following main technical char acteristics: displacement 1557 and 1500 metric tons, main engine power 1060 and 1160 kWt, max imum length 52.6 and 54.8 m, maximum width 11.6 and 9.8 m, draft 5.1 and 5.0 m, speed up to 14 and 12 knots, crew 28 and 26 people respec tively. In 2004 besides those vessels there were some other types (see Table 3) including medium size YaMS 1440 "Kalam" (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) freezer trawler "Vasily Yakovenko" type built in 1971 1975 (length 49.4 m, main engine power In Kamchatka waters fishermen use bottom hook 1850 kWt, speed 11.6 knots, freight carrying long lines for catching demersal species like cod, capacity 207 t, crew 31 people) and seiner halibuts, rockfishes, and other. Kamchatkan ships trawler "Alpinist" refrigerator type built in 1971 are mostly equipped with long line automatic sys 1975 (length 46.2 m, main engine power 1970 tems produced by Norway company "O. Mustad & kWt, speed 12.6 knots, freight carrying capacity Son AS" (Mustad) or similar systems with only two 100 t, crew 29 people). ships being exceptions (SRTM К "Bratsevo" and 10 Environmental impact of fisheries
Pic.1. Bottom long line scheme. 1 anchor, 2 buoy rope, 3 end buoy with flag, 4 mainline, 5 gangings with hooks
mainline (length 20 30 cm). The hooks YaMS 1440 "Gruper" (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) ("Circlematic" type № 6) are also directly attached to gangings. All ships usually employ polyester "Runyantsevo") as they use the long line systems mainline (diameter 9 mm). produced by the American company "Marco Marine The bait for hooks is normally cut frozen herring Seattle" (Marco). or less often squid. Placing of bait is automatic on The scheme of "Mustad" type bottom long line is most ships. With quality maintenance of the mech shown in Figure 1. The mainline (ground line) with anism and proper process about 90% of hooks gangings consists of several parts cassettes (usu carry bait. ally 2 7, on average 5) each 1 km long and tied to The long line is usually set from stern of the ship each other. Sinkers (2 5 kg) are tied to junctions of at the speed of 5 7 knots. On the YaMS 1440 type cassettes. Sometimes (like for bottom fishing of hal ships setting of the long line is done through a ibut) additional sinkers are tied between the junc hatchway on the right part of the stern about two tions. The long line edges are marked with buoys meters from the board and two meters above the and the system is anchored with two 30 40 kg water level. On SRTM К type ships setting of the anchors. The length of gangings with hooks is usu long line is done through a chute on the left part of ally 0.3 0.6 m with 1.2 1.4 m space in between. the stern about two meters from the board and two Traditional shape straight "Mustad" hooks № 13 are and half meters above the water level. In both cases usually used for catching cod and № 14 round the rotation of screw propeller creates water flow shape hooks are used in halibut fishing. that helps sinking of the mainline. The long line system "Marco" consists of 30 or 40 Lifting of long line takes place in the right part of (usually 30) cassettes and each 240 m long. When the ship's prow through a special opening with slid setting 9 sinkers (5 6 kg each) are attached manu ing part of the board. The caught fish is removed ally to the mainline. The beginning portion of the line from the hooks manually or using pneumatic pick. (first 5 cassettes) gets 3 plummets for faster sink The regime of operating long line (timing and depth ing. The number of hooks on each cassette is from of setting, timing of fishing) is determined by the 220 to 230. About 1 meter of space is allowed captain. Usually both setting and lifting long lines is between gangings, which are tied directly to the done incessantly 24 hours through. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 11
3. Features of longline fishing and present condition of Kamchatka marine fishery
Fishing companies conduct long line fishing in Kamchatka waters according to their quotas. Those quotas are allocated for particular areas (zones/subzones) listed in regulations of EEZ (Figure 2). In most areas fishing occurs year round and mostly on the shelf and the upper part of conti nental slope. The intensity of fishing depends main ly on distribution of fish (considering seasonal migrations of species). The fishing is limited by meteorological and hydrological conditions of the area. For instance ice can cut off the mainline at lift ing. For this reasons the number of fishing ship days from January to April in the Western Bering Sea zone and in Karaginskaya subzone can vary sub stantially from year to year. In recent years the long line fishing is also influenced by organizational eco nomical factors like late allocation of quotas, separation of resources between the off shore and Pic. 2. Fishery zones within Russian EEZ near Kamchatka: 61.01 – the exclusive economic zone of Russia, etc. West Bering Sea zone, 61.02 — East Kamchatka zone, 61.02.1 — In the Western Bering Sea zone in 2001 2002 the Karaginskaya subzone, 61.02.2 — Petropavlovsk Commander sub peak of fishing was in July August, in 2003 June zone, 61.03 — North Kurils zone, 61.05 — Okhotsk Sea zone, August, in 2004 May July (Table 1). More than a 61.05.2 — West Kamchatka subzone, 61.05.4 — Kamchatsko Kurils half of fishery efforts were spent beyond the state subzone boundary in the area adjacent the division line between Russia and the US. The long line fishing has decreased. The average catch per ship day within that zone is based on catching Pacific cod stayed at the level of 2002 2003 (Table 1). The max gathered for feeding (about 63 % of fishery). In imum catch of cod per ship day during the fishing 2004 the minimal catch of cod per ship day was season of 2004 was recorded in June (11.3 t), the recorded in September (5.9 t) and the maximal minimum in February (2.3 t). The maximum time (14.1 t) in April. The maximum number of fishing was spent by the ships of the YaMS "Antias" type, operations was carried out by STR "Alpinist" type but the ships of SRTM "Vassily Yakovenko" type ships. At the same time YaMS "Antias" type were were more effecient (Table 3). the most efficient with average catch of 10.6 t per In Petropavlovsk Commander subzone in 2001 ship day (Table 3). Despite some reduction in num 2004 the fishing was based mostly on pre spawning ber of fishing days compared to the previous years, and spawning gatherings of cod (78 % of fishing in 2004 the average catch per ship day increased operations). The peak of fishing intensity in 2001 and made 4.5 t, which was somewhat higher than in 2002 was in January March and in 2003 2004 it was 2001 2003. in October December. Since 2002 the number of In Karaginskaya subzone the main fishing object set hooks remains stable. After some improvement is cod (on average 52 % of all fishing operations). of fishery situation in 2003 the average catch per But in recent years there were attempts to establish ship day in that area in 2004 again decreased to the specialized fishing of Pacific halibut, particularly in level of 2001 2002 (Table 1). In 2004 the minimal Ozernyi Bay. In 2001 the peak of fishing in the sub catch of cod per ship day was recorded in zone was recorded in December, while fairly intense September (3.6 t), the maximum in January (11.7 fishing also occurred in May and June. In 2002 the t). The maximum number of fishing operations was maximum number of hooks was set in November carried out by the ships of the YaMS type "Antias", and December, in 2003 July September and in which work was the most successful (Table 3). 2004 August September. Compared to the period In West Kamchatka subzone in 2001 2004 the 2001 2003 the total number of set hooks in 2004 bottom long line fishing was based on cod and 12 Environmental impact of fisheries
Table 1 Total number of hooks (thousands) set during cod and halibut long line fishery operations in Petropavlovsk Commander subzone (61.02.2), Karaginskaya subzone (61.02.1), and West Bering Sea zone (61.01) listed by months in 2001 2004.
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 Zone 61.02.2 61.02.1 61.01 61.02.2 61.02.1 61.01 61.02.2 61.02.1 61.01 61.02.2 61.02.1 61.01 Catch. m.t. 6403.6 5812.9 15322.3 4112.6 3723.7 10220.1 5501.4 2742.1 12521.8 3660.2 2952.3 10998.4 Vessel days 1265 1119 4058 630 931 2721 641 1059 3720 671 888 2447 Average catch per 5.1 5.2 3.8 6.5 4.0 3.8 8.6 2.6 3.4 5.5 3.3 4.5 ship day. m.t. January 3687 0 162 2747 44 0 0 29 338 323 279 235 February 3728 0 191 720 0 0 0 499 984 1102 1234 1748 March 4073 529 470 2468 279 0 1072 1513 543 455 1204 837 April 2512 162 279 969 705 44 940 1542 485 455 1586 1660 May 1395 3672 3217 837 1058 4010 279 250 5009 250 411 5346 June 852 3731 6874 353 1175 6081 44 1131 10179 0 367 5185 July 88 911 13102 0 676 7932 220 1924 10135 15 749 6022 August 59 103 10928 29 1087 8196 308 2468 9929 0 3114 5111 September 176 529 9577 0 999 5655 1498 1998 8945 191 1763 4215 October 881 279 9342 107 1718 5258 1131 1601 5126 2071 1248 2144 November 617 1807 3745 989 3011 2482 1895 1469 1454 2938 867 2542 December 514 4715 1718 31 2923 308 2027 1131 1513 2056 220 896 Total 18582 16436 59604 9250 13675 39966 9415 15555 54639 9856 13043 35942
Pacific black halibut with halibut fishing dominating decrease of the number of set hooks after 2002. At (58% of fishing operations). The intensity of fishing the same time the average catch per ship day in in 2001 2002 showed two distinctive maximums in 2004 stayed at the level of previous years (Table 2). April May and in November December. In 2003 the In 2004 the maximum catch of cod per ship day was number of set hooks was at high stable level from recorded in December (5.4 t) and halibuts in January to May, and in 2004 the peak of fishing was August (4.0 t). The minimum catch of cod was recorded in April May. As to the year to year recorded in July (0.1 t), and halibuts in January dynamics of fishing the number of ship days in (0.3 t). The maximum number of fishing operations 2001 2004 and the catch per effort values were in cod fishing was accomplished by the ships of the quite stable (Table 2). In 2004 the maximum catch YaMS type "Antias", with average catch per ship of cod per ship day was recorded in September day 4.1 t (Table 3). In halibut fishing the maximum (13.4 t), and halibut in August (4.0 t). The minimum number of set hooks was done by the ships of the indicator was recorded for cod in June (2.3 t), and SRTM type "Vasily Yakovenko", although the ships for halibuts in January (0.3 t). The maximum num of the YaMS type "Antias" were the most successful ber of fishing operations was done by the ships of as they had the average catch per ship day about the SRTM type "Vasily Yakovenko" (Table 3). At the 2.8 t. same time the cod fishing of was carried out more The main object of bottom long line fishing in successfully by the ships of the YaMS type "Antias" Kamchatka waters is Pacific cod. In the region the (the average catch per ship day was 8.2 t), and fish contribution of long line fishing to the total volume ing of halibuts by the ships of the STR type of cod catch in 1990 2002 was 25 30%, and in "Alpinist" (2.5 t). 2003 2004 in some zones it increased up to 50%. In Kamchatka Kuril subzone the main fishing is Compared to middle of 1980s the abundance of cod also for cod and Pacific black halibut. The fishing of in all zones decreased and is presently at the level of halibuts dominates (79 % of fishing operations). In historical minimum. Although in 2003 2004 there 2001 the peaks of fishing in that area were in was some slight increase in abundance of cod, the December and April May, in 2002 2003 in poor condition of the resource base has negative January March, and in 2004 in March. Year to year impacts of the development of long line fishing in dynamics of fishing is characterized by stable the region and can cause a reduction numbers of Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 13 long line ships, forcing fishermen to switch to differ ent fishing methods or moving to more distant zones of high seas. The minor commercial importance objects of long line fishing are flounders and rockfishes. The Pacific halibut stock abundance in Kamchatka waters is satisfactory, but the specialized fishing is undeveloped. The similar situation exists for Kamchatka flounder and arrowtooth flounder. Both of these species do not require quotas but also do not has commercial interest. The Pacific black hal ibut specialized fishing is operating in the eastern part of the Sea of Okhotsk mostly in fall winter peri od. However as the information system "Rybolovstvo" currently does not provide informa tion about the catch of halibuts by species, the assessment of Pacific black halibut removal is diffi cult. Rockfish species (rockfishes and thornyhead) are usual by catch of long line fishing in the upper part of continental slope. Since 1995 fishermen observed a trend of decreasing by catch of this species almost everywhere in Kamchatka waters Lifting long lines on YaMS 1440 type vessel perhaps the result of overfishing. Today catching (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) rockfishes in all fishery zones is recommended only Also the volume and the species compositions of as part of control and research fishing. by catch depend on several other factors: season The catch structure of bottom long line fishing of fishing, range of depths, etc. (Vinnikov, Terentyev (like in any other type of fishing) depends on the 1998 1999 2001; Terentyev 1999; Balykin et al. marine communities and selectivity of fishing gears. 2003; Balykin, Terentyev 2004ab; Terentyev,
Table 2 Total number of hooks (thousands) set during cod and halibut long line fishery operations in West Kamchatka (61.05.2), Kamchatsko Kurils (61.05.4) subzones listed by months in 2001 2004.
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 Zone 61.05.2 61.05.4 61.05.2 61.05.4 61.05.2 61.05.4 61.05.2 61.05.4 Catch. m.t. 9023.4 6009.0 10021.1 7700.0 7180.5 3623.9 7198.0 3013.2 Vessel days 2594 1859 3381 2565 3054 1654 2293 1277 Average catch per 3.5 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.4 2.2 3.1 2.4 ship day. m.t. January 3364 1983 3055 3951 6389 4421 147 176 February 353 2233 5111 10311 7608 3011 2600 661 March 264 1366 3129 10267 6345 4803 5493 3099 April 5479 4127 12573 3246 5009 3334 6345 1572 May 6140 3569 7799 5200 6815 2629 6903 808 June 1102 2056 3804 940 3554 1204 1968 2644 July 455 397 632 705 867 808 1454 1880 August 514 1087 764 793 529 808 1248 1307 September 353 661 1116 823 984 896 1248 1807 October 2027 1498 1219 602 617 1028 808 1645 November 7946 3261 9812 764 1983 455 2394 1043 December 10105 5067 646 73 4157 896 3070 2115 Total 38101 27305 49660 37675 44857 24294 33680 18757 14 Environmental impact of fisheries
Table 3 Cod fishery of Kamchatka in 2004 and types of vessels
Number of vessel days Catch per vessel day, m.t. Vessel type* 61.01 61.02.1 61.02.2 61.05.2 61.05.4 61.01 61.02.1 61.02.2 61.05.2 61.05.4 MmYaM 8 0.5 MmDS 4 0.4 SRTM "Vassily Yakovenko" 502 EM 274 157 123 77 367 7.2 6.9 4.1 1.5 3.7 SRTM "Zhelezny potok" 502 E 6 3.6 STR "Nadezhny" 420 129 3.6 STR "Alpinist" 503 360 47 47 261 8.1 5.6 1.3 3.0 SYaM 61 31 21 122 9.7 1.1 2.3 4.0 SYaM "Antias" 339 320 294 114 193 10.6 3.8 9.0 4.1 8.2 TR "Raduzhny" 1350 28 2 3 4 4.2 7.5 1.7 8.0 * Types of vessels listed according to the Statute… 1996 Vinnikov 2004ab; Balykin, Terentiev 2004; species long line catches included species of Terentyev et al. 2005). Cottidae and Rajidae families. According to the data of the information system In cod fishing of West Kamchatka and Kamchatka "Rybolovstvo" in 2001 2004 (Table 4) the cod was Кuril subzones the contribution of main object was dominating in catches of bottom long line fishing in 70.3 and 71.3 % respectively. The contribution of the Western Bering Sea zone (69.1 %). Flounders flounders was higher in the West Kamchatka sub and grenadiers made a substantial part of the catch zone 15.1 %; in Kamchatka Кuril subzone the con (11.2 and 11.1 % respectively). In Karaginsky sub tribution of Rajidae family species was high 12.0 %. zone the contribution of cod to the total catch was The halibut fishing in the subzone 61.05.4 had higher (78.9 %). Grenadiers and flounders con 61.0 % of halibut in catches. The contribution of cod tributed to 8.7 and 7.8 % respectively. The catches was 26.6 % and skates 9.1 %. In the subzone in Petropavlovsk Commander subzone mostly 61.05.2 the contribution of cod was 59.5 %, while included cod (95.0 %). Besides above mentioned the contribution of halibuts was 30.1 %.
Таблица 4 Структура уловов на донном ярусном промысле (% по массе) по данным информационной системы "Рыболовство" за 2001 2004 гг. по районам лова. Район 61.01 61.02.1 61.02.2 61.05.2 61.05.4 Вид (группа видов) / Треска Треска Треска Палтус Треска Палтус Треска направленность промысла Скаты1 3.8 0.4 0.6 4.3 6.6 9.1 12.0 Макрурусы1 11.1 8.7 0.1 3.1 0.6 0.1 3.2 Навага + 0.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 + Треска 69.1 78.9 95.0 59.5 70.3 26.6 71.3 Минтай 3.7 2.2 1.4 2.5 0.6 0.6 5.3 Окунь морской1 0.3 1.7 0.9 0.2 1.3 0.2 0.4 Ерш длинноперый3 + 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.2 0.0 Терпуг4 0.2 + + 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Угольная рыба 0.1 + 0.1 + + + + Бычки1 + 0.0 0.0 + + + + Палтусы1 11.2 7.8 1.3 30.1 15.1 61.0 7.8 Камбалы1 + 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 Прочие2 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.1 5.5 1.2 0.0 Примечание. 1 группа промысловых объектов, включающая в себя несколько близкородственных видов, 2 группа промысловых объектов, включающая в себя несколько разных видов, 3 длинноперый шипощек, 4 терпуг северный одноперый, знак "+" означает менее 0,1 %. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 15
4. Materials and methods
The data were collected in the sea by permanent settings (15 in Karaginskaya subzone and 6 near the and temporary staff of KamchatNIRO on ships using Commander Islands). commercial or research quotas. The studies were Testing streamer lines was done in 2004 early done on ships of YaMS and SRTM К types, 2005 in four expeditions on ships of YaMS 1440 equipped with long line complexes with automatic type "Alanett" and SRTM К type "Bratsevo" and bait placing on hooks by "Мustad" and "Мarco" "Rumyantsevo". The work was done in the Bering companies. The main forget of fishing was cod and Sea from 4th of July till 3rd of August and from 12th relatively small number of long lines was set for big of October till 16th of December, in the Sea of depths for catching halibuts, sablefish, and rock Okhotsk from 10th of November till 9th of January fishes. (Figure 3). In each expedition three types of long In 2003 the observations were carried out in lines settings were studied: streamer free, with sin Western Bering Sea and East Kamchatka zones in gle streamer line, and double streamer lines provid four expeditions between the 10th of June and the ed The behavior of seabirds and their abundance 29th of December. The main attention was paid to near boats were observed. According to the obser observation of seabird mortality. During the study vations program during 10 minutes after the first about 2.4 million hooks were examined (379 long hook sank all the attacks of seabirds were counted. lines), which made approximately 3.0 % of the long The "attack" was defined as any attempt to take line fishing total volume in 2003 in these two zones. away the bait from the hook within the stripe 1+1 m The percent of hooks controlled at lifting varied from from the mainline. Feeding on bait that fell off the 4.8 to 100.0 % (46.2 % on average) of the total num hooks and stayed on the water surface were not ber of set hooks. The observers determined the counted. For each attempt we noted the species species of dead birds and wherever possible noted and the distance from the stern with 10 m intervals. by which part of the body the bird was hooked (beak, The assessment of seabird abundance was done wing, leg, neck, or body). Besides, in one expedition twice at each setting: at the beginning (before there were visual observations of behavior and counting seabird attacks) and immediately on finish abundance of seabirds at standard setting the long ing count, i.e. in approximately 10 minutes (further line (see below). Our observations monitored 21 analysis used the average of these two counts). Bird
Double streamer lines (photo by D. A. Terentiev) 16 Environmental impact of fisheries
study the influence of streamer lines on quantity and composition of catch we monitored all caught organisms (fish, birds, invertebrates, etc.) at lifting of the lines. We monitored 71 long lines without streamers (511,000 hooks) and by 35 of single and double streamer equipped lines (201 and 289,000 hooks respectively). Testing of the weighted mainline was carried out between 1 and 18 April 2005 aboard the YaMS-1440-type "Kalam" in the Sea of Okhotsk (Figure 3). The depth range for the long lines was from 461 to 605 m. The bottom in the fishing area was flat with minor variation of depth and silted. The main object of fishing was Pacific black halibut. According to the research plan each ship day there were two control long lines settings. At one setting a standard one mainline was used with traditional set of external sinkers (the total weight of the sinkers was on average 15 g per one meter of mainline). At another setting the experimental mainline with inter nal weights and no external sinkers was used Attachment of the left streamer line on vessel of SRTM K type (50 g/m). The observations program included filling (photo by D. A. Terentiev) out standard protocols similar to those done in test counts included observing species composition and ing of streamer lines. On every setting observations noting birds within 100 m radius of the stern. The of abundance of seabirds and the frequency of their results were recorded on a voice recorder. There attacks on bait were made. We also monitored per were 75 streamer free, 42 single streamer line, and formance of mainlines by their technical features as 36 double streamer lines observations. In order to percentage of proper placing of bait of hooks, num
Pic. 3. Bering Sea locations. Distribution of fishery efforts in Kamchatka waters in 2004. Red dots indicate locations of streamer lines tests and red squares indicate location of IW mainline tests. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 17
Setting increased weight mainline (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) ber of couplings between adjacent hooks or the mainline and the data from them were loaded between hooks and mainline, created loops, etc. onto computer. Such monitoring was done for 30 settings (by 15 for First we placed 3 4 (usually 4) sensors onto the both normal and heavier mainlines). No deterrents control order of the long line with normal (15 g/m) for seabirds were used in setting the control long or heavier (50 g/m) mainline. The sensors were lines. At lifting of control long lines we counted the placed on the second part of the long line, as during catch and recorded cases of long line entangling the setting of the first part we observed seabirds ("beard"). This way we observed 965000 hooks on and monitored placing bait on hooks. On standard normal mainlines and 99800 hooks on experimental long line with external sinkers we put sensors by heavier mainline. one per cassette in the middle of the second sec The speed of sinking in relation to the type of tion. This way we studied sinking of 10 long lines (by mainline was examined with "Wildlife Computers" 5 of both normal and heavier mainlines). Than we Mk9. We had eight such sensors. These sensors began tying sensors onto the combined long lines recorded depth at each second with 0.5 m preci consisting of both traditional and heavier mainline sion. Before setting we checked the timing each of cassettes. We studied four such settings of com the sensors by electronic clock for registering the bined long lines. Then we calculated average values start of sensor sinking. In order to increase the from data of several sensors on particular type of accuracy of sensors they were cooled to the tem mainline. perature of surface water before use. For that an Additionally during all expedition in 2004 2005 activated sensor was placed into a plastic bag with the observers continued collecting data on back seawater and then into a bucket with running sea ground mortality of seabirds. The dead birds were water and held there for 30 minutes or more. At the counted upon lifting the control long lines and also setting of long lines the sensors were tied to main on other long lines, as fishermen agreed to keep all lines with a double loop 15 cm long approximately hooked seabirds for examination by observers. 15 30 sec before sinking of mainline. Then we reg Later for assessment of the total seabird mortality istered time of sinking with one second accuracy. At we used all available data on settings without use of lifting the long line the sensors were removed from streamers: 464 long lines (2.7 million hooks) for the 18 Environmental impact of fisheries
Bering Sea and 155 (1.1 million hooks) for the Sea number of set hooks per ship day 14688. of Okhotsk. Multiplying the number of ship days by average num The assessment of fishing efforts of long line fleet ber of set hooks per day we could estimate the was accomplished not only for 2003 2004, but for monthly fishing efforts for each zone (Table 1 and 2). two previous years as well. That was made to get an To get the estimate of the total seabird mortality for insight on whether the commercial fishery situation each long line setting we calculated the frequency of during our studies was similar to the general situa hooking seabirds (number of dead birds per 1000 tion of several recent years. For the assessment we hooks); then grouped the obtained values by months used the number of set hooks by all long line ships and got the average values for each month of obser and official statistics data from the information sys vations. All data obtained for three commercial fish tem "Rybolovstvo". These data included daily ery zones/subzones of the Bering Sea and the Pacific reports from ships saying how many ship days were Ocean waters near Kamchatka were united. For the spent for fishing particular species. At present long time periods outside the frame of our observations line fishing is mainly cod fishing on the shelf and we used the average value of relative mortality calcu upper part of the continental slope and halibut fish lated from the results of all settings in a year in certain ing on the continental slope. Other species are usu area (0.132±0.023 and 0.051±0.012 birds per 1000 ally the by catch. For this reason we didn't use the hooks in 2003 and 2004 respectively). Multiplication number of ship days spent on fishing other species of the average monthly values of mortality and the to calculate the total time of fishing. fishing effort (the total number of set hooks by all At the first stage we calculated the total number of ships per month in the area) we obtained the values of ship days of cod and halibut fishing by month and the absolute mortality for every month, and then sum year of fishing in each commercial zone of the region: marizing the values we assessed the total number of in the Western Bering Sea zone, Karaginskaya, birds killed during the year. Petropavlovsk Commanders, Kamchatka Kuril, and In further analysis we used the standard statistical West Kamchatka subzones. As the majority of long methods of processing the results, including the line ships were equipped with "Mustad" systems, for method of disperse analysis (ANOVA). Some other purposes of our analysis we used the average techni details of data collection and analysis are provided cal characteristics of YaMS 1440 type ships: number below in the "Results" section. The common and of hooks per cassette 816; average number of the Latin names of birds and fishes were used accord set cassettes per ship day of fishing 18; average ing to the "Catalog… 2000". Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 19
5. Species of killed birds
Our long line fishing observers counted 343 dead Similarly to other areas of long line fishing in the seabirds in 2003 and 108 dead seabirds in 2004 in world (see the review by Brothers et al. 1999) in the Western Bering Sea and waters of Eastern Kamchatka waters the most frequent victims are Kamchatka. Twelve cases of seabird kills were representatives of Procellariiformes. Among them recorded during observations in the Sea of Okhotsk the most common victims were fulmars, which num from November 2004 to April 2005 (Table 5). bers in the waters adjacent East Kamchatka were Among dead birds we found representatives of nine 65.1 and 27.8 % of the total number of killed birds in species from four families, including two families of 2003 and 2004 respectively. In the Sea of Okhotsk Procellariiformes (Diomedeidae and Procellariidae), their share was 66.7 %. The fulmar is an abundant and also families Phalacrocoracidae and Laridae. species that follow long line ships year round and Table 5 Number of killed birds and average hooking rate (birds per 1000 hooks) during long line fishery operation in the Eastern (61.01 and 61.02) and Western (61.05.2 and 61.05.4) zones of Kamchatka Eastern Kamchatka, Eastern Kamchatka, Eastern Kamchatka, 2003 2004 2004–2005 Species Hooking rate Hooking rate Hooking rate Number of birds Number of birds Number of birds (n = 379) (n = 464) (n = 155) Albatrosses Diomedeidae Laysan Albatross 1 0.002 –** – Diomedea immutabilis* Shearwaters Procellariidae Fulmar 190 0.069 30 0.010 8 0.007 Fulmarus glacialis Short tailed Shearwater 24 0.009 – – Puffinus tenuirostris Cormorants Phalacrocoracidae Cormorant 1 0.001 – – Phalacrocorax sp. Seagulls Laridae Siberian Gull 13 0.005 19 0.011 – Larus heuglini vegae Slaty backed Gull 57 0.020 38 0.021 2 0.002 Larus schistisagus Glaucous winged Gull – 2 0.002 – Larus glaucescens Glaucous Gull 2 0.001 – 2 0.002 Larus hyperboreus Seagull 4 0.005 11 0.004 – Larus sp. Black legged Kittiwakes – 8 0,003 – Rissa tridactyla Unidentified birds 51 0.021 – – All birds 343 0.132 108 0.051 12 0.011 * as a result of genetic research all Pacific albatrosses are classified as belonging to a separate genus Phoebastria (Robertson and Nunn 1998). ** at the monitored long ling setting birds of this species were not observed. 20 Environmental impact of fisheries
Fulmar – light morph (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) Fulmar – light and dark morphs (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) often create large feeding flocks. For this reason According to our observations in 2003 another this species usually dominate among the victims of common victim is also representative of long line hooks both in our study area and in the Procellariiformes the short tailed shearwater. This adjacent American Bering Sea waters (Melvin et al. species is a trans equator migrant that travels in 2001 2004; Stehn et al. 2001) or in North Atlantic large groups to the North up to the Chukchi Sea. In Ocean (Løkkeborg 1998; Cooper et al. 2000). For Russian waters of the Bering Sea its abundance is instance, the portion of fulmars among killed especially high in late summer and fall (about 1.7 seabirds in the eastern Bering Sea is on average million birds together with sooty shearwater Puffinus 69 % (the data for 1993 1999; Stehn et al. 2001). griseus relatively rare in this area; Shuntov 1988а).
Slaty backed Gull (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) Slaty backed Gull (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 21
All dead seabirds of this species recorded in our study were observed exactly in that period from August till November. In December 2003 the short tailed shearwater were still observed in the sea but on rare occasion. In 2004 we regularly met these birds in the sea around the ships, but there were no cases of killing these birds by long line hooks. The recorded in our observation portion of this species (8.2 %) among dead seabirds was similar to the value obtained by American scientists for dark col ored shearwater in the adjacent Bering Sea waters (6 %; Stehn et al. 2001). The next most abundant group of killed birds includes big white headed seagulls of Larus sp. The most common species of this group is slaty backed gull that is the most abundant and wide spread species among big seagulls in Kamchatka (Shuntov 1998; Yudin and Firsova 2002). The portion of other seagulls was considerably smaller (see Table 5). The herring gull and glaucous gull nest only in the north of the study area. During migrations they occur in all long line fishing zones, but their abun Short tailed albatross – immature bird (photo by Yu. B. Artukhin) dance in the sea is much lower than the slaty backed gull. The glaucous winged gull nest mainly was most likely the pelagic cormorant on the Commander Islands, but during migrations Phalacrocorax pelagicus because the northern and wintering is quite common in Kamchatka waters boundary of the nesting range of the second cor (Lobkov 1986 2003; Shuntov 1998; Yudin and morant species inhabiting Kamchatka red faced Firsova 2002; Artukhin unpublished data). Most cormorant Ph. urile southward is farther south going dead gulls were observed in the fall when through the Stolbovoy Island (Vyatkin 2000). (Kischinsky 1980; Firsova et al. 1982; Lobkov 1986 Another pelagic cormorant was hooked near 2003), these species migrate after nesting around Kamchatka in June 2004 observed during the mon Kamchatka. itoring of the experimental setting of the long line As to the glaucous winged gull we believe this with single streamer. In that same area there was species is a common victim of long line fishing in the also recorded the case of hooking Laysan albatross vicinity of the Commander Islands, where this on 10th of June 2003. species is the most common among seagulls. For Several other species could be victims of long instance in April May 1996 in a study conducted line fishing in Kamchatka waters. For instance, in near the Bering Island 80 control long lines were October December 2003 and 2004 red legged kit observed and 78 dead glaucous winged gulls tiwakes Rissa brevirostris were observed regularly recorded (Sheyko 1996). According to our observa at setting long lines and attacked the bait. We tions from December 2003 near the south eastern believe birds of this species could get hooked part of Medny Island, the glaucous winged gulls sometimes. This is supported by the existing data always stayed near ship in numbers from 100 to 400 on catching relative kittiwake species. American and constantly attacked the bait. observers working in the adjacent waters regularly The total portions of big seagulls among killed observed killing of such species as black footed seabirds in areas east of Kamchatka were 26.4 and albatross Diomedea nigripes, sooty shearwater, 64.8% in 2003 and 2004 respectively. In adjacent loons, and representatives of Anseriformes and American waters the portion of the gulls was on Alcidae (Stehn et al. 2001). average 21% (Stehn et al. 2001). We should add that during our study we received Several black legged kittiwakes (another seagull information from a long line fishing ship about species) were observed in by catch in 2004. Other hooking a short tailed albatross Diomedea albatrus species of birds are rarely present in the long line in August 2003 in the Bering Sea, which is the first fishing bycatch. In 2003 one case of hooking a cor recorded incident of killing bird of this species by morant was recorded. Considering where and when long line fishing in the Russian Far East (Artukhin, it happened (Ozerny Cape, 11th of June 2003) it Vinnikov 2003). 22 Environmental impact of fisheries
6. Behavior of seabirds at the process of setting commercial fishery longlines
Usually large numbers of different species of The frequency of seabird attacks varies greatly seabirds stay near operating long line fishing with substantial seasonal, year to year, and geo ships. In Kamchatka waters those species are graphic variations. It depends on different factors mostly fulmars and big white headed gulls Larus and especially on species and abundance of spp. In summer time kittiwakes are also common seabirds gathered near the ship. During our studies followers of long line fishing ships in the coastal in 2004 2005 at observing 90 long lines (streamer areas of the Bering Sea. In the open sea in late free) settings the average frequency was 2.6 summer and fall the short tailed shearwater also attacks/min, varying from 0 to 80,0 attacks/min. approach ships. In some areas (mostly open sea) The maximum frequencies of seabird attacks were the long line fishing ships regularly meet Laysan observed in areas of large seagull and kittiwake albatrosses. gatherings as these birds are very mobile and are Staying near ship the seabirds feed on the waste highly maneuverable, which enables them to attack from fish processing and also attack and the baits the bait more often than other birds like fulmars for off hooks during at the setting of long lines. The instance. The increase in number of birds near the mainline with hooks is released from the stern, falls ship, does not necessarily positively corresponds on the water surface several meters behind the ship, with the frequency of attacks. Some studies (Boggs and slowly sinks remaining in the top water layer 2001; Sanchez, Belda 2003) report statistically reli (tens of meters) for some short while. Before the able correlation while others (Brothers 1991) show long line sinks deep enough the seabirds try to take no correlation. The analysis of our data collected in the bait off the hooks on or under the water surface. winter 2003 in Karaginskaya subzone has not The examination of dead birds revealed that only revealed positive correlation between the abun small percentage of birds (15.6 %) gets hooked by dance of seabirds near the stern at the setting of beaks while trying to take the bait. The majority of long lines and the number of attacks on bait (r = birds get caught by hooks by other body part like 0.17, p = 0.551). At the same time there was reliable wings or legs. correlation in control settings (long lines without The seabirds are capable of attacking hooks from streamers) in 2004 2005 (r = 0.49, p < 0.05). The the 70 90 m distance from the stern, but the major correlation was also reliable in testing the weighted ity of attacks occur at the 40 50 m distance from the mainline (see below). ship when the mainline is still near water surface. In general the average frequency of seabird The seagulls, kittiwakes, and fulmars usually attack attacks on bait in Kamchatka waters was similar to closer to the ship, while shearwaters stay a bit far cod and sablefish fishing in the Alaska waters (4.5 ther as they are good divers. 27.3 attacks/min; Melvin et al. 2001). Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 23
7. Some indicators of seabird mortality
In the western part of Bering Sea and near east than in the areas east of the peninsula (Vinnikov and ern Kamchatka we observed dead seabirds at 97 Terentyev 2003). settings out of 379 (25.6%) in 2003. The number of In the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean waters of dead birds varied from 1 to 48 per long line, though Kamchatka the average values of seabird hooking in most cases (76 from 97) it did not exceed 3 birds. frequency varied by months in our observations In 2004 in same areas the bycatch was lower: killed from June to December (Figure 4), but those varia birds were present in 39 out 464 long line settings tions were not statistically significant for both 2003 (8.4 %) and the number of killed birds per long line (p = 0.932) and 2004 (p = 0.061). In general much ranged from 1 to 13, while killing more than 3 birds less seabirds are caught in summer months during was observed in 10 cases. In the Sea of Okhotsk the reproduction period when birds are "tied" to dead seabirds were found only in 8 out of 155 long their colonies, and more the bycatch of birds is line settings and there were by 1 2 kills per long higher in the fall when they migrate after the nesting line. season. In the Bering Sea and the South East Kamchatka In the Sea of Okhotsk the dead birds were record waters the number of killed seabirds of all species in ed only in late December and first half of April. The 2003 was much higher than in 2004. On average it number of the victims was too small to allow analy was 0.132±0.023 birds per 1000 set hooks (range sis of seasonal differences in seabird relative mor from 0 to 6.0) against 0.051±0.012 birds/1000 tality. hooks (from 0 to 3.3). By species the highest mor Several studies showed that the frequency of hook tality was observed for fulmar and slaty backed gull ing seabirds depends on the timing of setting the (Table 5). In the Sea of Okhotsk killing were less fre long lines (Melvin et al. 2001, Manly et al. 2002). For quent 0.011+0.004 birds/1000 hooks on average. studying it we analyzed the data on 182 cod fishing The substantial differences in the indicator values long lines monitored from 20th of August to 25th of (regional and year to year) are difficult to explain. December 2003. The data on seabird mortality and The frequency of hooking seabirds by long line fish catches were divided in four groups depending on ing has wide range and the causes are largely unknown. For instance in American waters of the Bering Sea from 1993 to 1999 the frequency varied every year from 0.06 to 0.14 birds/1000 hooks. In some years the birds got hooked in that area 2 3 times more frequently compared to the data for adjacent Alaska Gulf waters (Melvin et al. 2001). We suppose the results could be influenced by distribu tion of long lines settings: in 2003 in East Kamchatka waters the observations were done far ther in the open sea, unlike in the following season. That could explain the dominance of Procellariiformes representatives in by catch in 2003 and seagulls in 2004, which influenced the total numbers. Some other reasons are also possi ble, for instance, unusual meteorological situation in winter 2004/2005 that was characterized by fre quent storms. As to the low relative mortality of seabirds in the Sea of Okhotsk, we do not exclude, that it reflects the real situation in the area. At least judging by fragmental observations of scientists from Pic. 4. Monthly averaged frequency of seabirds hooking (±SE) at KamchatNIRO, the seabirds get hooked several the bottom long line fishery in the western Bering Sea and the times less often in the subzones of West Kamchatka Pacific waters of Kamchatka in 2003 and 2004 24 Environmental impact of fisheries
hour intervals (one hour before and one after the sun touches the horizon line). It turned out that in Kamchatka waters the number of hooked birds and caught fish (for birds: p = 0,006; for cod: p = 0,003)varies depending on time of the day (Figure 5). The smallest number of killed birds was observed in day time (on average 0.109 birds/1000 hooks). Almost same frequency (0.125 birds/1000 hooks) was observed at night (the difference between the day and night time was insignificant, p = 0,219). Several studies showed that relatively high mor tality of seabirds at night time could exist in the Bering Sea. According to the data of American experts (Melvin et al. 2001) that carried out their research in August September 1999 and 2000 in Alaska, birds were hooked more often at night and sunrise than in day time or at sunset. That phenom enon is explained by the feeding behavior and diet of fulmar, the most frequent victim of long line fish ing in northern latitudes. Fulmars often feed on squids, mesopelagic fish, and crustaceans come up Pic. 5. Bycatch of birds and catch of cod depending on season in from the depth to the water surface only in the night Western Bering Sea and Pacific waters of Kamchatka, 2003 time (Schneider and Shuntov 1993; Hatch and Nettleship 1998). That is why in American and time of setting: dawn, daytime, dusk, and night. The Kamchatka waters the long lines set at night in periods of sunrise and sunset were determined as two 2003 2005 had only fulmars in bycatch. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 25
8. Seabird mortality assessment
According to our calculations based on the of Alaska (14.8,000 birds for the period from 1993 monthly values of seabird hooking frequencies and to 1999; Melvin et al. 2001), though in American fishing efforts the total number of birds killed by waters the fishing efforts of long line fleet are sub long line fishing in the Bering Sea and Kamchatka stantially higher (on averagely 151.6 million set waters in 2003 was 9883±4447 birds and in 2004 2745±785 birds. Extrapolating from the data we col lected we assessed the mortality of seabirds by species/genera (Table 6). The absolute values of mortality were the highest for fulmar and Larus spp., followed by short tailed shearwater and black legged kittiwake. And about few dozens of Laysan albatross and cormorants die each year. The distribution of the number of killed birds by month during the year is very uneven. This is related not only to the seasonal variation but also to the dif ferent levels of long line fishing activity, which is clearly visible in comparison of the data for 2003 and 2004 (Figure 6). The total number of dead birds also varies substantially between these years because of the differences in relative mortality (fre quency of getting hooked) and the total volume of fishing efforts (number of set hooks in 2004 was less by 34.1% than in previous year). Our assessments show that the seabird mortality in the East Kamchatka waters is less than the aver age annual mortality of seabirds in the adjacent American part of the Bering Sea not including Gulf
Table 6 Number of seabirds killed in bottom long line fishing operations in Western Bering Sea and Pacific waters of Kamchatka (zones 61.01 and 61.02) in 2003–2004
Number of killed birds Species 2003 2004
Short tailed albatross +* ** Laysan Albatross 34 Fulmar 6520 763 Short tailed Shearwater 824 Cormorants 34 + Seagulls 2471 1779 Black legged Kittiwakes 203 All species 9883 2745 Pic. 6. Monthly fishing efforts and estimates of bird mortality in * A case of killing by long line is known, but it was not used in calculations long line fishing operations in Western Bering Sea and Pacific ** At the monitored long line settings the species was not observed waters of Kamchatka in 2003 (above) and 2004 (below) 26 Environmental impact of fisheries hooks per year). A substantial observed difference seabird mortality from long line fishing in the Bering exists only for Laysan albatross. This species mor Sea region (Stehn et al. 2001; Dietrich et al. 2002). tality is 10 times higher in American waters. Our data are not sufficient to assess the number of It is important to note that in the North Pacific birds killed the Sea of Okhotsk during the year. Our assessments of seabird mortality from fishing vary observations there covered mostly winter period in wide range from year to year even in same areas. from October to January and April. The assessment It was shown many times for long lines (Melvin et al. of the total number of dead seabirds for this period 2001; Stehn et al. 2001) and driftnet fishing does not exceed 500 birds (mostly fulmars). At the (DeGange et al. 1993; Melvin et al. 1997; Artyukhin, same time it is known that most of seabirds (mainly Burkanov 2000; Artukhin et al. 2000; and etc.). The Procellariiformes) gather on the West Kamchatka reasons for this are not quite clear. Probably it shelf area in late August and September (Shuntov depends on the climate and other ocean conditions 1995а, 1998, 2000; Shuntov 2000; Lobkov 2003). during fishing seasons, which influence the distribu This points out the need of doing a special research tion of seabirds (Shuntov 1995б, 1998). Keeping on seabird mortality from long line fishing in the Sea that in mind one should note that our assessments of Okhotsk. Another argument for the necessity of of seabird mortality more or less adequately such research is information on occurrence of describe the situation just for seasons of 2003 and migrant short tailed albatrosses (see below) in the 2004. Long term and thorough research is needed waters of West Kamchatka, which means risk of to determine spatial and temporal dynamics of hooking this species by long line fishing. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 27
9. Impacts of longline fishing on seabird populations
The assessment of negative impacts of long line long lines makes the smallest fraction of percent of fishing on seabirds is usually based on comparison the total abundance in the coastal colonies and of the total number of killed birds and abundance of islands of the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean (0.7 their populations. In our analysis we will mainly con million birds; Konyukhov et al. 1998; Artukhin sider the data on seabird mortality in the East 1999а; Vyatkin 2000; Kondratyev et al. 2000). Kamchatkan waters in 2003, as those values are the A special case is the influence of fishing on popu highest. lations of albatrosses. These birds are considered The most common victim of long line fishing in the most vulnerable to adverse impacts of long line Kamchatka waters is fulmar (Table 6). Up to 1.1 % of fishing (Brothers et al. 1999). The life cycle of alba the total population of fulmar nesting in the Russian trosses is characterized by late maturation and low coastal part of the Bering Sea was killed in 2003 recruitment. Both features are compensated by takes (582,000; Konyukhov et al. 1998; Artukhin longer life and higher level of survival. Because of it 1999; Vyatkin 1999). But the total number of fulmars albatrosses are very sesitive to both direct and indi in the sea is obviously higher, because it includes not rect factors that increase even slightly the natural only nesting but also immature birds and those from mortality level (Croxall, Gales 1998). Today all three the numerous American colonies nearby. The latter albatross species of the Northern Pacific Ocean was confirmed by satellite data (Hatch 2003). We (short tailed albatross, Laysan albatross, and also suppose that birds from Northern and Central black footed albatross) are in the IUCN Red List of Kuril Islands, where nesting population is about Threatened Species (2003). One of this species 650,000, also come to the waters of South Eastern (short tailed albatross) is also listed in the Red Data Kamchatka (Artukhin et al. 2001). Taking into Book of RF (2001) and the U. S. Endangered account all of this we conclude that the real mortality Species Act (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). of fulmars in the region is only some fractions of per In the Bering Sea region most attention is paid to cent of the total population inhabiting the region. the short tailed albatross. In the past this bird was The total mortality of short tailed shearwater is nesting in big colonies on many volcanic islands in also insignificant for the abundance of this species the Pacific Ocean south of Japan and in the East in the Russian part of the Bering Sea assessed by China Sea. At the beginning of 20th century the V.P. Shuntov (1988а) and the world population (23 populations of this species included millions of million birds; Everett, Pitman 1993). birds. For instance only on Torishima Island of Idzu Among all species of Larus genera, observed as archipelago from 1887 to 1903 about five million victims of long fishing, the annual mortality is sub short tailed albatross were hunted for feathers and stantial only for the most abundant species slaty fat. Massive extermination of these birds led to their backed gull (about 2,000 birds in 2003). During disappearance and this species was even consid reproduction season the abundance of this species ered extinct in late 1940s. However in 1950 a small on the coast of Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean is population of 50 birds was discovered on Totishima estimated 168,000 of nesting birds (Vyatkin 2000). Island. The conservation measures allowed the So in 2003 about 1.2 % of this population died. abundance of this species to grow. In 1971 another However the abundance of slaty backed gulls in the small colony of 12 adult birds was found on Minami open sea is substantially higher because it includes Kodjima Island of Senkaku Archipelago. The abun many immature birds (this species normally start dance of birds in that colony was also gradually reproduction at the age 4 5 years; Yudin and growing (Hasegawa, DeGange 1982; Hasegawa Firsova 1988). According to the data of marine cen 1991). As a result in 2004 the world population of sus of September October 1986 (Shuntov 1988а) short tailed albatross included some 1950 birds: the abundance of slaty backed gulls in the Russian 1650 birds on Torishima Island and 300 birds in part of the Bering Sea only (not including the Pacific Senkaku Archipelago (H. Hasegawa, pers. comm.). Ocean waters adjacent to Kamchatka) is about The reproduction season of short tailed albatross 138,000 birds. is from October till June. The rest of the year adults The cases of hooking black legged kittiwake are spend in the sea far from their colonies. The popu sporadic. The level of mortality of this species from lation has big portion of immature birds because 28 Environmental impact of fisheries albatrosses mature at the age of six years. Young albatross flew around the fishing boat and stayed birds stay in the sea year round, and start visiting near from 1:40 pm until dark. This entire time the nesting sites usually at the age of 3 4 years albatross followed the ship with other seabirds (Hasegawa, DeGange 1982; H. Hasegawa, pers. sometimes getting very close. At lifting of the long comm. in U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). Thus line the bird was feeding on the fish that fell off the most of their life albatrosses spend in the sea. They hooks and made several unsuccessful attempts to migrate everywhere in the Northern Pacific north of take the bait from hooks. the trade winds zone staying in both deep water These observations prove that long line fishing in and shelf areas and preferring the edges of seas Russian waters is another cause of death of short (Hasegawa, DeGange 1982; McDermond, Morgan tailed albatrosses. However we cannot assess the 1993; Shuntov 1998; and etc.). The combined data annual level of mortality because of the lack of data. from visual observations (Michaelson et al. 2001) American experts (NMFS 2001) estimate that on and satellite telemetry (Suryan et al. 2004, in prep.) average two short tailed albatrosses are killed by indicate that most albatross stay close to the edge bottom long line fishing in the Eastern Bering Sea of continental shelf and the underwater slopes 150 each year. The American long line fleet fishing 200 m deep. efforts in the area are two times higher than in The Russian Far East is definitely within the migra Russian in Kamchatka waters. We can assume that tion range of short tailed albatross. Recently we the long line fishing in our study area hardly causes summarized all records of visual contact with this more than one death of short tailed albatross per species in our waters for the period since it was "dis year. covered" in 1950 until 2004 (Artukhin et al. 2004). The long line fishing in Russian and American The majority of records (24 of 31) date to the last waters causes adds to mortality of short tailed alba decade, which is probably related to the quick trosses so little that most likely it can not influence growth of the population. The observations of the population significantly. However together with recent years are in agreement with the data other factors this influence could be meaningful as it obtained in 1996 2003 from the program of tagging surely reduces the rate of restoring population abun albatrosses with satellite transmitters (Suryan et al. dance. For this reason long line fishing is considered 2004, in prep.). The migrating birds spend a lot of to be among the main threats to short tailed alba time near the Kamchatka current area, near the tross (Birdlife International 2001; NMFS 2001; IUCN Commander Islands and in the waters of Kuril 2003; and etc.), despite the rareness of killings. Islands and the Oyasio Current. According to visual The most abundant albatross species in the study registrations, albatrosses regularly visit the Sea of area and the whole Far East is Laysan albatross Okhotsk and rarely the Sea of Japan. (Shuntov 1998). The world abundance of this Since albatrosses prefer shallow waters along the species is fairly high and reaches 2.4 million birds outer edge of shelf their migration patterns overlap but is steadily decreasing because of pelagic long well with usual long line fishing areas. As we already line fishing induced mortality in the Central North noted, in 2003 there was a record of killing a short Pacific (NMFS 2001; Birdlife International 2004). tailed albatross by Russian long line fishing. It hap The cases of death from bottom long line fishing in pened on 29th of August 2003 in the Western Bering the Bering Sea and adjacent waters also occur but Sea (60,63° N. Lat.; 179,08° E. Long.). At lifting the the average annual level is ten times lower than in long line on a ship of YaMS1440 type "Antias" central part of the Pacific Ocean. Every year about ("Acros" company) a big bird was discovered with a 900 albatrosses are killed in the American part of metal tag on the leg with Japanese mark "№ 13А the Bering Sea and Alaska Gulf (1993 1999; NMFS 1499 Kankyocho Tokyo Japan". According to the 2001) and several dozens of birds die in Kamchatka information from Japanese colleagues waters (Table 6). Therefore the mortality of Laysan (K. Yoshiyasu, Bird Migration Research Center, albatross from Russian long line fishing is some Yamashina Institute for Ornithology; H. Hasegawa, small fractions of percent of the world population. Toho University) the caught bird was a short tailed The third species is black footed albatross that albatross tagged as a chick on 25th of April 2000 in was never identified among victims of long lines or Torishima Island colony. alive among the birds staying near the fishing boats. During our project there was one direct observa The world abundance of this species is much lower tion of a short tailed albatross. On 29th of than other albatross species (300,000 birds; E. December 2003 south east of Medny Island Flint, pers. comm. in Lewison, Crowder 2003). Also (Commander Islands) one of the authors (Yu.B. during migrations to the North Pacific this species Artukhin) observed a young 2 3 years old bird. The obviously prefer the warmer north eastern part of Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 29 the ocean (Shuntov 1968 1998). In the middle of last listed in the Red Data Book of Russia and IUCN. century black footed albatross often visited the These birds were regularly met in long line fishing western part of the Bering Sea and even were abun areas in the Bering Sea during their fall winter dant (Sleptsov 1959). However in recent decades migrations in October December. It is likely that the birds visit this area very rarely. The observations during reproduction season these birds approach in Kamchatka waters since 1980s (Shuntov 1988ab, the long line fishing ships near the Commander 1992, 1995b; 1998; Artukhin 1995, 2003, unpub Islands, where the nesting colonies are located. lished data) list several records of black footed According to our observations kittiwakes similarly to albatross occurrence in the region. This is an most other seabirds not only pick up wastes of fish oceanic species that rarely enters the waters of the ing, but attack the bait at the setting of long lines, Sea of Okhotsk near Kamchatka (Shuntov 1998). which puts the birds at risk of getting hooked. An The extremely rareness of visits lets us believe that indirect confirmation of that is provided by the data the chance of killing by Russian long line fishing is on the mortality of very similar species black very low for this species (probably it is comparable legged kittiwake. At the same time such risks are with mortality of short tailed albatross). actually minimal and can not significantly influence Talking about the impacts of long line fishing on the Commander Islands red legged kittiwake popu seabird populations we should note the risks of red lation, which presently includes 16,200 pairs (Byrd legged kittiwake, the Bering Sea endemic species et al. 1997). 30 Environmental impact of fisheries
10. Impacts of seabirds on longline fishing
Another important aspect of interactions between the the Mediterranean Sea (Sanchez, Belda 2003) as we seabirds and long line fishing industry is the caused by had no data on Kamchatka and adjacent waters. The birds losses of bait, which reduces efficiency of fishing as data on the average coefficient of fish production from fishermen catch less fish. In places of big seabird gather the catch (cod), the prices for bait (herring), and prices ings the losses of bait could be high enough to substan for final products were kindly provided "Acros" compa tially decrease profits of fishing. For instance during ny. The value of average catch of fish per hook were experimental settings of the bottom long lines in the obtained based on data of the total fishing efforts of Barents and Norway Seas it was found that birds (mostly long line fleet and the total catch of cod and halibuts in fulmars) succeeded in taking away the bait (mackerel) Kamchatka region in 2004 (see Tables 1 and 2). from 15% of all hooks (Løkkeborg and Robertson 2002). Our assessment revealed that the probable econom In experiments where the percent of hooks without bait ical losses of Kamchatka long line fishing fleet induced was calculated without accounting for losses incurred by by seabirds in 2004 made about 840,000 US dollars. the automatic system of bait placing (5 20 %) this value Most of the losses occurred in the Bering Sea and the was 20 70 % (Løkkeborg and Bjordal 1992; Løkkeborg Pacific Ocean waters near Kamchatka, because most 1998, 2001, 2003). quotas are allocated for that area. According to our To assess the impacts of seabirds on efficiency of data (Artukhin et al. 2004) in 2003 the likely economi long line fishing in Kamchatka waters we tried to evaluate cal losses of long line fishing fleet in that area were the economical losses induced by seabirds. For that we about 626,000 US dollars. estimated the value of the bait eaten by seabirds and the We presume that the actual losses real losses of fish that was not caught because of bait losses (Table 7). fishermen could be substantially higher than those In our calculations we used the average frequency of expert estimates. For instance in our calculations for seabird attacks, which data we obtained in 2004 2005 2004 we used the value of 2.1 % for the number of suc during our observations (n = 90) of long lines without cessful taking of bait from hooks by birds in Kamchatka streamers 12.6 attacks per minute or 84.6 region (2.3 million successful attacks per 111.3 million attacks/1000 hooks (at the average speed of long line set hooks). But as was shown above on example of setting of 149 hooks/min). For calculating the total North America the losses of bait caused by seabirds number of successful attacks of seabirds we used the and therefore the economical losses could be much coefficient 0.249 from the data on long line fishing in higher.
Table 7 Calculation of probable lost profits from bait losses and decreases of catch in 2004 г. А Average frequency of birds attacks on bait, number of attacks/1000 hooks 84,6 Б Fishing fleet effort (total number of hooks per year) 111 277 213 В Total number of bird attacks (АБ/1000) 9 414 052 Г Number of successful attack of birds on bait (В0.249*) 2 344 099 Д Average weight of one bait piece for one hook, grams 30 Е Total weight of bait lost from birds, metric tons(ГД/106) 70,3 Ж Cost of bait (herring), US $ per metric ton 500 З Total cost of lost bait, US $ (ЕЖ) 35 161 И Average catch per one hook, grams 250 К Weight of processed catch per one hook, grams (И0,579**) 137 Л Total weight of fish that was not caught because of bait losses, metric tons (ГК/106) 322 М Value of fish, US $ per ton 2 500 Н Total value of fish that was not caught because of bait losses, US $ (ЛМ) 804 397 О Total value of lost bait, US $ 35 161 П Total value of not caught fish, US $ 804 397 Р The total economical loss for the whole fleet, US $ (О+П) 839 558 * Ratio for bottom long line fishery according to Sanchez, Belda, 2003. ** Ratio of processing raw fish. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 31
11. Ways of solving the problem of "longline fishing and seabirds"
The data above shows that there is a serious prob in the US and other countries (Melvin et al. 2001) lem in interactions of seabirds and long line fishing instead of developing some new and likely expensive fleet in Kamchatka waters. Solving this problem devices. In the US the most effective tool for medium would bring benefits to both fishermen by reduction size ships is the so called streamer line that prevents of economical losses and to seabirds by preventing birds from reaching the hooks. A single streamer killings during fishing operations. The long line fish developed by American specialists is a line attached ing is widely spread in the world and always had at one end to the stern at seven meters height with a issues with birds, which required inventing ways to buoy touching the water at the other end at least 60 handle with the problem and lead to accumulation of m behind the ship. The line has bright colored dou vast experience in this area. Many especial devices ble ribbons on every 5 m of its length to scare away and modifications of traditional fishing tackle were the birds (Figure 7). A pair of streamers attached on developed and are used today to minimize the avail the sides of a long line creates sort of protective cur ability of bait for seabirds. Several published reviews tains that prevent access of birds to the hooks. provided detailed descriptions of deterring devices Today using the streamers in demersal long line and measures of fishery management to reduce fishing is wide spread in Alaska. The fishermen are seabird mortality (Alexander et al. 1997; Bergin even provided with free streamer lines (NMFS 2004). 1997; Brothers et al. 1999; Kokorin 2000аb; and Similar equipment also called "bird scaring lines" or etc.). The most important criterion for assessing the "tori lines" are well known and often used in many efficiency applied measures is by how much the by areas of Atlantic and South Ocean as they are effec catch of seabirds decreases while the catch of tar tive, cheap, and easy to handle (Brothers et al. 1999; geted species maintained (Melvin, Robertson 2001). Melvin et al. 2001). The deterrents similar to stream The results of our observations in 2003 and their ers were used by Japanese fishermen only for the comparison with similar data for the adjacent areas purpose of protecting the bait from seabirds long of the Bering Sea indicate that the nature of interac before it was suggested to use it for reducing tions between seabirds and demersal long line fish seabird mortality (Brothers et al. 1999). Our person ing fleet in Russian and American waters is almost al observations and the verbal data indicate that identical. This leads to the conclusion that we could Russian fishermen also invent and use their own try use in Kamchatka methods that proved efficient deterrents for reducing losses of bait on long lines.
Pic. 7. Streamer line scheme (CCAMLR 2004). 32 Environmental impact of fisheries For instance people release one (above the mainline) not recommend it and do not discuss here. At the or two ropes (with mainline in between) with tied same time we consider it necessary to comment on buoys on the end. The principle of work of these the proposal to reduce the bycatch of seabirds in deterrents is similar to streamers: the line released Kamchatka waters by setting long lines during the from the stern above the long line partially prevents night time. This method even in Russian literature attacks of seabirds and the buoys also scare birds (Kokorin 2000аb) is acknowledged as one of the away. Our observations indicate that the efficiency of simplest and most efficient and applicable even in such "home made" devices is relatively low, because high latitudes. On the contrary our observations (see the length is usually shorter than necessary and Figure 5) confirm the results of studies conducted in there are no ribbons. American waters of the Bering Sea (Melvin et al. It was documented that in Alaskan waters pair 2001) that the night time setting of the long lines streamers decreased the by catch of seabirds by does not reduce the by catch of seabird and there 88 100 % and never reduced the catch of targeted fore cannot be effective. That concerns not only the species (Melvin et al. 2001). In North Atlantic appli period of "white nights" but the whole year. As it was cation of single streamers decreased the by catch of described above this particularly relates to the fea seabirds by 98 100 % (Løkkeborg 2003). This means tures of foraging behavior of the abundant fulmars that use of streamer lines could substantially reduce that feeding actively round the clock. economical losses of fishermen, caused by losses of In order to assess the possibilities of using by bait and consequently result in lower catches of fish. Russian fishermen the most effective mechanisms Another proof of streamers benefits is statistically preventing seabird attacks on the long lines we test reliable data of many studies showing an increase of ed use of streamer lines and IW mainline on long line fish catch of the long lines equipped with streamers fishing ships of two types operated in Kamchatka (Løkkeborg 1998, 2001, 2003; Melvin et al. 2001; waters in 2004 2005. The main purpose the research Løkkeborg and Robertson 2002). was assess the impacts of the devices on behavior In recent years another promising direction of and mortality of seabirds, volume of catch of target solving the problem is use of new modifications of fish species, by catch, and volumes of spent bait. fishing gear and particularly a special factory made mainline with integrated weights. Such long lines 11.1. Tests of streamer lines use sink 2 3 times faster than normal one which decreas in Kamchatka long line fishing es the time for birds attacks (Robertson et al. 2003). The practice of using such weight integrated main 11.1.1. Settings and use of streamer lines line is now being widely introduced in the South On SRTM К "Bratsevo" fishing boat the pair Ocean within the zone of Convention on streamer line was attached to the trawl winch portal Conservation of Ocean Living Resources of (the height of the portal above the sea level is 10 m, Antarctica (CCAMLR 2004). the distance to the stern is 3 m). To install the right Here we do not analyze the possibilities of using side streamer a line of the length equal to the dis other technical solutions in Kamchatka waters that tance to stern was attached to the portal and the are used in long line fishing elsewhere. Some of the streamer was tied to it. Another 10 meter long rope most popular examples include long lines with extra was attached to the streamer line and the stern. sinkers and also use of underwater long line setting That rope was used for preliminary pulling the through a special funnel with a tube going underwa streamer off. ter. Such mechanisms were tested many times in On SRTM К type ships setting of the long line is demersal long line fishing in Alaska and Atlantic done through a chute on the left part of the stern Ocean waters (Løkkeborg 1998, 2001, 2003; Melvin about two meters from the board and two and half et al. 2001), but compared to streamer lines they meters above the water level. So for setting of the showed less efficiency in reducing by catch of second streamer line on the left side of the portal it is seabirds and keeping the bait safe. The work on necessary to install a 2.5 m pin to separate releasing improving these devices is continuing (Melvin, of the streamer line and the mainline set. The end of Robertson 2001) and we could expect in the future the pin carried a rope (of length equal to the distance appearance of new models that could be more effi to the ship stern) to which the streamer line and cient. In order to reduce the seabird by catch in pulling rope were tied. long line fishing it is also a common practice to use A buoy with 5 6 kg sinker was tied to the outer end some bans or regulations to control the location and of each streamer. Setting streamers was done after time of fishing and long lines setting time of the day releasing the buoy of the long line. The right (Brothers et al. 1999). In our opinion this way is the streamer was released from the stern and the left most difficult for implementation in Russia, so we do streamer from the left side. Lifting up the streamer Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 33 was done manually. The left streamer was picked up The use of streamer lines influenced not only the before releasing of the long line end buoy and the frequency of seabird attacks, but also their distribu right streamer after the long line is set. Every tion (Figure 9). It was especially noticeable that dou streamer line is stored in a special cylinder box (1 m ble streamer lines were limiting the access of birds to in diameter). the mainline and made them attack from farther dis On SRTM К type ships single right streamer line tance. The single streamer use did not have such could be just attached in the upper part of the stern obvious impact on behavior of seabirds (though it to the sleep portal hand rail that is at the height 7.5 m somewhat decreased the frequency of seabird above the water surface. This way streamers were attacks). used on SRTM К "Rumyantsevo". During our experimental tests of streamer lines we On YaMS 1440 type ships streamer lines can be recorded 41 dead seabirds (24 seagulls, 10 fulmars, attached on the stern to the board hand rail, which is 6 kittiwakes, and 1 pelagic cormorant). The relative 7 m above the sea level. This is also used in Norway mortality of seabirds under the control streamer free on ships of similar construction (Løkkeborg 1998, settings was 0.061±0.028 birds per 1000 hooks (29 2003). This way does not require any additional seabirds were caught), at the single streamer line devices as the handrail is already at the necessary settings 0.116±0.091 (11 birds), and at the double height and it is possible to attach both right and left streamer line setting 0.006 (1 bird; Figure 8). These streamers. Lifting the streamer lines is done by one differences, however, are not statistically significant person after the long line is set. The streamer line is (p = 0,336) as deaths of seabirds were rare and were then put manually into a special basket. Attempts of subject to wide range variation. using special rolling barrels for lifting up and storing The use of the streamer lines certainly influenced streamers were unsuccessful: the ribbons on the the species composition of dead seabirds: among 12 streamer line often got entangled and it complicated birds hooked by long lines with streamers there was the process. only one fulmar, whereas without streamers the por Use of streamers on STRM К type ships requires tion of this species was almost one third (9 out of 29 some technical preparation. Manual lifting of the line birds). This fact clearly indicates that streamer lines with a heavy sinker could be difficult even if the speed are most effective at deterring fulmars that have of the ship is slow. Some special devices like winch straight and simple flight. For gulls and kittiwakes es or dampers could be used to make lifting of with their quick and maneuverable flight a single streamers easier. streamer line is not a serious obstacle and they are still able to reach the mainline. 11.1.2. Attacks of seabirds on bait on fishing hooks The streamer lines also substantially reduce the at the setting of long lines number of incidents of passive hooking. As we During all observed long line settings except one already noted only small number of seabirds get there were many seabirds of different species hooked directly by beaks and most victims gets around the ship. Counting birds within 100 m behind hooked by different body parts, legs, and wings. the ship showed that the number of seabirds did not Examination of dead seabirds showed that when depend on whether streamers were applied or not. streamers weren't used the share of birds hooked by When streamers weren't used the number of beaks was 41.2 %, while if streamers were used this seabirds was on average 194.8±14.3, with single share went up to 72.7 % meaning reduction of pas streamer setting 192.2±20.8 and the pair stream sive hooking by 2.2 times. This probably relates to ers setting 185.3±12.6 (Figure 8). Most of the the fact that scared by the streamers birds mostly attacking birds were fulmars and big white headed attack hooks farther from the ship where the mainline gulls (Larus spp). Depending on the season and is underwater, so the risk of accidental hooking location we sometimes met kittiwakes, short tailed decreases. shearwaters, and rarely Laysan albatrosses. The average speed of the long line setting is 149 The frequency of seabird attacks on bait on the hooks per minute. Combining this value with fre opposite was strongly dependent on whether quencies of attacks we can say that on average the streamers were used. Without streamers the number seabirds attacked 8.5% hooks of the long lines with of seabirds' attacks was on average 12.6±2.0 per out streamers, 6.2% hooks on long lines with single minute. Application of streamers substantially streamers, and 1.6% hooks of long lines with double decreased the number of attacks: it was on average streamer lines. These data show high efficiency of 9.3±1.1 and 2.4±0.4 per minute for single and dou double streamer lines and slightly lower for single ble streamer lines respectively (Figure 8). The differ streamers in reducing both bait losses and the ence between those is statistically significant and seabirds mortality level. The double streamer lines reliable (p < 0.0001). decreased the number of seabird attacks by 81.9 % 34 Environmental impact of fisheries and the level of mortality by 90.2 %. Similar values were obtained in studies conducted in Alaskan waters where the seabird bycatch was decreased by 88 100 % (Melvin et al. 2001). Our tests showed that use of single streamer line had relatively low efficiency. The number of seabird attacks decreased by 25.6 %, but the by catch of seabirds did not decrease. According to some American studies (Melvin et al. 2001) using single streamers in Alaska had some good effect but could not solve the problem. We suppose that low efficien cy of the single streamer line in Kamchatka waters was because of the higher abundance of gulls and kittiwakes near ships as compared with the adjacent American waters. The share of those species near ships was on average 39.0 %, while those birds made 90.9% of bycatch. In Alaska on the opposite the number of seagulls around ships was fairly small, so only few of them were in the by catch. Most of birds were Procallariiformes (mainly fulmars) that are sensitive to single streamers. Same goes for the North Atlantics where the long line fishing ships are typically escorted by fulmars, so the use of single streamers there decreased the seabird by catch by 98 100 % (Løkkeborg 2003).
11.1.3. Catches of fish There were 35 species of fish observed in the catch (Table 8). The catch of cod by long lines with out streamers was 83.3/1000 hooks, by long lines with single streamers 64.5, and with double streamer lines 101.8. The maximum catch of wall eye pollock (5.3/1000 hooks), Atka mackerel (3.6), and yellow Irish lord (40.2) were also recorded for the long lines with double streamer lines. The maxi mum catch of Pacific halibut (2.9/1000 hooks) was recorded for long lines with single streamers. The catches of long lines without streamers had maxi mum values for two species of sculpins (10.3 and 1.3/1000 hooks), rock greenling (5.0) and inverte brates (9.7). The long lines with double streamers had the lowest catches of invertebrates just 0.5/1000 hooks. The total catch of target species cod and Pacific halibut was on average 51.7+5.2, 44.7+7.6, and 64.3+7.3/1000 hooks for long lines without, single, and double streamers respectively (Figure 10). These differences however are not statistically sig nificant (p = 0,169). The catches of long lines without streamers con sisted mostly of Gadidae representatives 66.6% (Figure 11). The next biggest group was sculpins 19.1%. The invertebrates (crabs, scallops, octo Pic. 8. Abundance, frequency of attacks on hooks with bait, and pus, ophiurs, stars, urchins) were third 7.4%. The bird mortality (±SE) at setting long lines with and without streamer rest of the catch included greenlings, flounders, lines Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 35 birds, rhomb skates, rockfishes, giant grenadier, marbled eelpout, soft sculpin, searcher, Pacific spiny lumpsucker, salmon snailfish, and Bering wolffish (0.07 %). In catches of single streamer equipped long lines the portion of Gadidae representatives and inverte brates was 63.4 and 5.8 % respectively. The portion of sculpins increased up to 25.9 %. In catches of long lines with double streamers the portion of Gadidae and sculpins was 65.3 and 30.4% respectively with other species and groups yielding 4.3 %. Observations of hooks upon lifting the long lines indicated that the portion of hooks with some catch or untouched bait was: for long lines with double streamers and without any about 22%, for long lines with single streamers about 20%. The portion of hooks with some catch varied from 10.8 to 16.4 %. The bait returned untouched on 9.0 % of hooks on long lines without streamers, on 9.7 % if single streamers were used, and on 5.7 % if double stream er lines were used. Pic. 9. Frequencies of bird attacks on bait by distance from the We can conclude that during our experimental vessel at setting long lines with and without streamer lines tests the long lines with double streamers showed the maximum efficiency. Using these long lines length. The average length of such line is about 9180 results in substantial reduction of seabird attacks, m (carrying 6480 hooks). The long line has two which in turn reduces the by catch of seabirds and anchors 45 kg each. At setting of the long line addi losses of bait. In addition there was observed an tional sinkers (5.8 kg) are attached at junctions of increase in catch of target species (though below cassettes and 3.2 kg sinkers are placed at the junc statistically significant level). tions of sections within each cassette. The total The maintenance and regular use of streamer weight of such traditional long line is about 133 kg or lines requires some preparatory work and training of 15 g per meter of mainline (this type of long line is staff. Use of streamers and particularly double lines called "15 g/m"). could be limited by weather conditions. For instance, The tested experimental line is based on integrat in Alaska when the wind is 30 knots (15 m/sec) it is ed weight mainline with diameter 9.5 mm and 1.1 m recommended to set only single streamer lines on distance between gangings. The only producer of windward side of the ship, but when the wind gets such mainlines is the Norway company "A. S. over 45 knots it is recommended for safety reasons Fiskevegn" (Table 9). Such mainline along all its not set any streamers. As it was shown above the sin length bears an integrated lead core threads with gle streamer is less effective than the double. But the lead capsules interlaced with fibers. The weight of efficiency of single streamers could be substantially this mainline is 50 g/m (this mainline is called IW or increased if it is used in combination with the IW "50 g/m"). The ship used for research carried 40 mainline that sinking faster than a traditional main sections (coils) that were joined into one line (5 cas line. settes with 6 sections each and 2 cassettes with 5 sections each). The total length of this line is 7200 m 11.2. Tests of weighted mainline use (carrying 6400 hooks). No additional sinkers were in Kamchatka long line fishing used for setting this long line. The "A. S. Fiskevegn" company produced experi 11.2.1. Features of tested gear mental sets of IW mainline with different weights (25, The standard long line used on YaMS "Kalam" 50, 75, and 100 g/m). But it was found that the 50 vessel is based on "Mustad" mainline 9 mm in diam g/m mainline had the best characteristics eter the distance 1.4 m between gangings (see main (Robertson et al. 2002). Therefore it was selected characteristics in Table 9). The long line for fishing tests in Kamchatka waters. Pacific black halibut in the Sea of Okhotsk consists of For the fishing of halibut the standard long lines 9 cassettes and each includes four sections of equal are usually equipped with round shape hooks № 14. 36 Environmental impact of fisheries
Those hooks could not fit well onto the experimental The bait was cut semi frozen herring. Placing of long line so traditional shape hooks № 13 with a bait was automatic. The speed of ship during long strait forestock were used. line setting was on average 6.3 knots (139 hooks/min) for ordinary mainline and 5.2 (146
Table 8 Average catches of fish and invertebrates per 1000 hooks at the monitored settings of long lines with and without streamer lines.
Species No streamer Single Double Pacific Lamprey Entosphenus tridentatus +* ** 0.02 Alaska Skate Bathyraja parmifera 0.12 0.09 0.12 Okhotsk Skate Bathyraja violacea 0.02 0.02 + Aleutian Skate Bathyraja aleutica + 0.04 Dusky purple Skate Bathyraja matsubarai + Sockeye Salmon Oncorhynchus nerka 0.01 Popeye Grenadier Coryphaenoides cinereus 0.04 Arctic Cod Boreogadus saida 0.02 0.06 Navaga Eleginus gracilis 0.03 Pacific Cod Gadus macrocephalus 83.29 64.48 101.77 Alaska Pollock Theragra chalcogramma 3.81 3.66 5.29 Dusky Rockfish Sebastes ciliatus 0.02 0.01 0.02 Gray Rockfish Sebastes glaucus 0.04 0.03 0.05 Shortraker Rockfish Sebastes borealis 0.08 Multispined Rockfish Sebastes polyspines 0.02 Rock Greenling Hexagrammos lagocephalus 4.96 0.58 1.08 Atka Mackerel Pleurogrammus monopterygius 0.83 0.95 3.64 Yellow Irish lord Hemilepidotus jordani 9.41 14.24 40.21 Gilbert's Irish Lord Hemilepidotus gilberti 3.96 2.43 3.18 Great Sculpin Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus 10.31 10.30 6.34 Plain Sculpin Myoxocephalus jaok 1.26 0.82 0.01 Gymnacanthys galeatus 0.07 0.09 0.02 Antlered Sculpin Enophrys diceraus 0.01 Darkfin Sculpin Malacocottus zonurus + Pacific Spiny Lumpsucker Eumicrotremus orbis + + 0.02 Salmon Snailfish Careproctus rastrinus 0.01 0.01 + Searcher Bathymaster signatus + 0.01 0.02 Lycodes brevicaudus + Bering Wolffish Anarhichas orientalis 0.01 Pacific Halibut Hippoglossus stenolepis 2.10 2.93 0.80 Greenland Halibut Reinhardtius hippoglossides 0.01 0.03 0.06 Arrowtooth Flounder Atheresthes stomias 0.01 0.02 Rock Sole Pleuronectes bilineatus 0.34 0.55 0.72 Yellowfin Flounder Pleyronectes asper 0.04 0.06 0.02 Starry Flounder Platichthys stellatus 0.10 0.08 Invertebrates 9.67 6.09 0.48 * Less than 0.01%. ** Absent in catches. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 37 hooks/min) for the experimental IW mainline. The speed was different because of the differences in the gaps between the hooks on the line. The selected speed was the most appropriate for setting the long lines and allowed effective work of bait placing mechanism.
11.2.2. Attacks of seabirds on bait on fishing hooks at the setting of long lines Seabirds in large numbers were always accompa nying fishing boats. Our observations revealed that the number of seabirds within 100 m behind the ship did not depend on the long line type. On average about 219.2±30.7 and 246.1±41.7 seabirds followed the ordinary and IW mainlines respectively (p = 0,520). Those numbers were actually about 22 and 25% of the total number of seabirds that were seen around the ship. Big white headed gulls (Larus spp) were most abundant among birds attacking the bait. There were mostly slaty backed gulls, and also glau cous gulls and single glaucous winged gulls and herring gulls. The average abundance of seagulls Pic. 10. Average total catches of cod and Pacific halibut (±SE) at behind the stern was 141.0±22.7 and 151.4±25.5 setting long lines with and without streamer lines birds for the ordinary and IW mainlines respectively. The next most abundant group consisted of fulmars. The studies conducted on long line fishing of Their number was almost two times less than the sablefish Anoplopoma fimbria in Alaska and rockling number of seagulls. There were on average Genypterus blacodes in New Zealand (E. Melvin, 77,6±10,3 and 93,8±19,8 birds for the ordinary and unpubl. data; G. Robertson, unpubl. data) witness IW mainlines respectively. Some black legged kitti that seabirds usually attack less the bait on the quick wakes were also there (1 3 birds) from time to time. sinking IW mainline compared to the standard long No albatrosses or shearwaters were observed at that line that is lighter and stays longer near the water time of the year in the area. surface. The absence in our study of a significant dif Staying near the ship the birds were not only feed ference in frequencies of seabird attacks on two ing on wastes of fish processing, but also actively types of mainline is a rare thing. Our data show that attacked the bait on hooks at the setting of long under some circumstances the difference may not lines. The frequency of seabird attacks varied great exist or even show negative efficiency of the IW ly. The average number of attacks per minute was a mainline. This is also confirmed by similar data bit higher for the ordinary mainline, compared to the obtained during testing of IW mainlines in cod fishing IW mainline: 12.92±2.58 against 10.26±2.40. This in the Eastern Bering Sea (E. Melvin, unpubl. data). difference, however, is not statistically significant During our expedition on "Kalam" we believe our (p = 0,351). On average the seagulls attacked the results could be influenced by weather conditions. hooks 10.90±2.45 times per minute on usual main During our work stably high frequencies of seabird line and 8.85±2.35 on IW mainline; fulmars attacks were observed when in days when strong or 1.91±0.48 and 1.38±0.37 respectively. medium power winds were blowing in direction about Taking into account the speed of setting the long 90 degrees angle to the course of setting the long lines (139 and 146 hooks per minute for the ordinary lines. It was shown (Melvin et al. 2001) that such and IW mainlines respectively) and the frequencies winds increase the frequency of hooking seabirds. of seabird attacks we figured that on average 9.3 % Strong side wind favors seabird attacks as it allows of all hooks were attacked on the ordinary mainline the birds to stay in the air right over the mainline and and 7.0 % on the IW mainline. The frequency of search food when line just begins to sink. For this seabird attacks heavily depended on the number of reason advantages of fast sinking of the IW mainline bird behind the stern during long line setting. For 15 do not show up, if one would judge on by the fre settings of the usual long line r = 0.752 and p = quencies of seabird attacks. 0.001. For the same number of settings of the long At the same time there was one obvious difference line with IW mainline r = 0.726 and p = 0.002. (Figure 12). As the IW mainline sinks faster com 38 Environmental impact of fisheries
Pic. 11. Composition of catch (% of the total amount) of the monitored long line settings without streamers (above), using single (mid dle), and double (below) streamer lines. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 39 pared to the traditional long line, the seabirds had to 20) 187.37±6.64. The catch of the IW mainline was attack the bait staying closer to the ship. Most visibly more abundant on average 230.87±8.50 attacks took place at the distance of 8 to 30 m. At the fish/1000 hooks (184.38 to 307.03; n = 20; Figure setting of the regular long line most attacks 13). This difference is statistically significant (p = occurred within 12 45 m from ship. This could be 0.0004). The catch of the most abundant species in used for increasing efficiency of special devices pre the by catch the dipline eelpout had the most influ venting the seabirds from reaching the bait, which ence on that difference. The relative abundance of will be discussed below. this species in the catch of the IW mainline was on During our observations we recorded 10 seabirds average 46.6 % higher than in the catch of the regu that were caught by long lines in the total. Three lar mainline (Table 10; p < 0.0001). This is also birds were in the bycatch of the control lines (two reflected in the species structure of the catch result slaty backed gulls caught by regular mainline and ing in a higher percentage of Zoarcidae and lower one fulmar by IW long line) and seven (five fulmars percentage of Pleuronectidae flounders in catches and two glaucous gulls) were caught by the rest of of IW mainlines (Figure 14). The total catches of tar regular mainlines. Examination of those birds indi get species (halibuts) for traditional and IW mainlines cated that two fulmars and three gulls were hooked were almost similar: 53.70±7.15 and 47.54±6.65 directly by their beaks at attacking the bait. All other fish/1000 hooks respectively. The slight difference cases were incidents of passive hooking by neck between those values is not statistically significant (three times) and wing (two times). The seabird mor (p = 0.499). tality values for control long lines were: 0.028 birds We assume that in our research the differences of per 1000 of set hooks for regular mainline and 0.008 species composition in the catch were determined birds/1000 hooks for the IW long line. Because of not only (and perhaps not primarily) by the type of the small sample size we did not use these data to mainline used, but by the differences in shape of assess the differences between the two types of hooks and the distance between gangings. It is long line. known that in halibut fishing the catching ability of round shape hooks is 1.4 3 times higher than of tra 11.2.3. Catches of fish ditional strait hooks (Kokorin 1994; Seslavinsky In the catches of control lines (196,300 hooks) the 2003). These data are in accordance with what we total number of fish was 39851. We found 17 species observed in our expedition on "Кalam". Counting the belonging to 10 families (Table 10). The catch of all number of halibuts that fell from the hooks on lifting species by regular mainline varied from 143.06 to the long line showed that it is 1.65 higher for the 248.15 per 1000 of set hooks with average value (n = straight hooks on IW mainline. About 4.05 and 6.67 Table 9 Features of two types of long lines. Feature Traditional mainline IW mainline Producer O. Mustad & Son AS A. S. Fiskevegn Diameter, mm 9,0 9,5 Fiber Polyester Silverline* Proportionate fiber weight 1,38 1,1 Stretching, % About 20 About 20 Effort per tearing, kg 1303 1250 Load Outer (15 g/m) Inner (50 g/m) Section length, m 270 180 Section weight, kg** 20,6 21,3 Gangings attachment swivel / latch hook swivel / latch hook Stoppers polyurethane Steel Distance between gangings, m 1,4 1,1 Ganging length, m 0,4 0,4 Form and size of the hooks round, № 14 straight, № 13 * blend consisting of 50 % polyester and 50 % Danline (mix of polypropylene and polyethylene). ** including swivels, latch hooks, and stoppers. 40 Environmental impact of fisheries
% of fish fell from the traditional and IW mainlines made of polyester and equipped with external respectively. This difference is statistically significant sinkers. This influences the efficiency of long line (p = 0.002). If same trend were true for felling off fishing depending on distribution and foraging hooks underwater, than the catch of IW line was behavior of target species. The substantial increase actually much higher than what we registered. The of eelpouts in the by catch of the IW mainline was validity of our assumption is supported by the data more likely caused by that reason. It is known that from studies done by American experts in Alaska: eelpouts are typical benthophags that collect their felling of halibuts from round shape hooks is 47% food on the bottom. This is different from the Pacific less than from regular hooks (Kokorin 1994). black halibut that is one of the most active and We also believe that the difference in catches mobile predators on the continental slope and con depended on the type of mainline. The IW mainline sumes mostly bathypelagic and pelagic fish species lays on the bottom better than a regular mainline (Novikov 1974; Chuchukalo et al. 1999).
11.2.4. Features of long lines sinking The time of long line sinking to the depth of 20 m, down to which the Mk9 sensors provide most reliable reading, strongly depended on the type of the main line and its weight (Figure 15). The IW mainline is heavier so it sank faster. On average it reached the depth of 1 m in 7.0 sec, 2 m in 11.7 sec, 20 m for 83.9 sec, whereas the regular mainline with traditional set of weights (15 g/m) sank to same depths in 15.1, 24.6, and 145.1 sec respectively. In the water the long line does not immediately have a stable sinking speed. At the surface it sinks slower because of the impacts of sea waves and tur bulence from engine screw rotation. Below 3 meter depth the speed of sinking overcomes these effects and becomes stable. According to our data the aver age speed of sinking from 3 to 20 m is 0.25 m/sec for the IW mainline and 0.15 m/sec for the regular main line. These values could be used in everyday fishery practices for figuring the time necessary for the long line to reach certain depth. The speed of sinking within the surface layer (0 3 m) is visibly lower than in deeper layers 0.19 and 0.09 m/sec for IW and regular mainlines respective ly. The sea waves have less impact on heavier main lines. The visual observations without any measure All species ments confirm that the standard mainline stays longer within the surface water layer. Sometimes when there are many waves they could even main tain on the standard mainline of the surface even 40 50 m away from the ship, which lets the seabirds take the bait from the hooks without diving. We never observed any of this with the IW mainline. Our data on features of IW mainline sinking general ly coincide with results obtained in two similar tests in New Zealand waters (Robertson, McNeill 2002; Robertson et al. 2002), where the speed of sinking of the 50 g/m line was assessed as 0.25 and 0.27 m/sec. The higher speed of sinking of the IW mainline pro vides several advantages for the demersal and par Pic. 12. Frequencies of bird attacks on bait by distance from the ticularly deep long line fishing. It is easy to calculate vessel at setting traditional (above) and IW (below) mainlines that during operations on the depth of 600 m the IW Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 41 mainline would reach the bottom almost 30 minutes depth could be calculated on the basis of the speed faster than the regular mainline (40 minutes and 1 of the ship, speed of the long line sinking, and the hour 7 minutes respectively). It is also known that the distance from the stern when the mainline lays on the bait attracts target objects of fishing mostly during water and starts sinking. the first two hours in the sea water and later the Our observations on the 16th and 17th of April attraction ability decreases (Bjordal, Løkkeborg employing digital photography and conducted under 1996). Therefore the faster the long line reaches on slow wind and calm water conditions indicated that the bottom, the better would be the attraction of the regular mainline falls on the water about 8.13+0.39 bait and hence the higher catch. m from the ship stern (n = 11). The IW mainline is The considerable difference in the sinking speed heavier so it falls on the water surface on average (especially at the beginning) between the two types about 25.5% closer to the stern (6.06±0.44 m; n = of tested long lines is significant for the issue of 11). This feature of the IW mainline could be also very reducing the availability of bait for seabirds at long helpful in winter time when mainline sometimes fall lines setting and thus decreasing the seabird mortal on ice floes that close together behind the stern. ity and losses of bait. In the North Pacific most birds That is very inconvenient and eats time as the ship attack the bait on the water surface and at depth of 2 has to come back to pick up the mainline. The IW m or less (Melvin et al. 2001). The distance from the mainline starts sinking closer to the stern and sinks ship to the mainline when it reaches the 2?meter faster so it decreases the chance of getting on ice. Table 10 Average catches of fish (per 1000 hooks) of monitored traditional and IW mainlines
Species Traditional IW family Squalidae – dogfish sharks Pacific Sleeper Shark Somniosus pacificus 0.02 * family Rajidae – Skates Okhotsk skate Bathyraja violacea 35.15 45.37 Family Macrouridae – Долгохвостовые Giant grenadier Albatrossia pectoralis 10.52 9.53 Family Gadidae – Cods Pacific Cod Gadus macrocephalus 0.25 0.16 Pollock Theragra chalcogramma 1.07 1.88 Family Sebastidae – Rockfishes Shortraker rockfish Sebastes borealis 0.01 Broadbanded thornyhead Sebastolobus macrochir 1.31 1.24 Cottidae – Sculpins Gilbert's Irish Lord Hemilepidotus gilberti 0.02 0.05 Plain sculpin Myoxocephalus jaok 0.18 0.33 Great sculpin Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus 0.25 0.19 Family Psychrolutidae – Психролютовые Darkfin sculpin Malacocottus zonurus 2.18 2.92 Family Liparidae Careproctus cypselurus 0.06 0.14 salmon snailfish Careproctus rastrinus 0.02 0.05 Family Zoarcidae Twoline eelpout Bothrocara brunnea 0.10 0.41 Lycodes soldatovi 82.54 121.03 Family Pleuronectidae – Righteye flounders Pacific Halibut Hippoglossus stenolepis 0.57 0.44 Greenland Halibut Reinhardtius hippoglossoides 53.13 47.09 unidentified 0.01 0.02 All species 187.37 230.87 * absent in catches. 42 Environmental impact of fisheries
At the setting IW mainlines with the speed 5.2 ing mechanism and selecting the most optimal knots (2.675 m/sec) the line reaches 2?meter depth speed of the ship. Observations of control lines indi on average at the distance 37.2 m from the stern. cate that couplings between hooks and between a This distance is almost 2.5 times shorter than the hook and the mainline (loops) appeared two times one for the regular mainline at the setting speed 6.3 more often on regular long line compared to the IW knots (3.241 m/sec) 87.7 m (Figure 16). Therefore long line. The difference is statistically significant (p the bait on IW mainline gets unavailable for seabird = 0.046). This could be caused by two reasons: use faster and closer to the ship. This is a factor that of the oval shape hooks on regular mainline or the makes it also easier to deter birds away by some other devices. In studying work of medium size ships equipped with standard long lines with auto matic bait placing and operating in the Bering Sea and adjacent waters it was found that streamers effectively scare the seabirds if they touch the water surface at the distance at least 60 m from the stern, as the regular weight long line does not sink below 2 meter at shorter distance (Melvin et al. 2001). The IW mainline sinks almost two times faster so the dis tance decreased. In this case streamer lines could be more efficient at preventing seabird attacks. The length of standard streamers (90 m) could be decreased, or single lines instead of double could be applied which would make the life of fishermen easier.
11.2.5. Exploitation features of mainline Though the tested long lines had hooks of differ ent types and gangings were placed at different intervals, the effectiveness of automatic bait placing system was on average similar: 90.14 and 89.27 % for the regular and IW long lines respectively (p = 0.310). This was reached through regulation of bait
Pic. 13. Average catches of fish (±SE) of monitored traditional and Pic. 14. Composition of catches (% of the total amount) of the tra IW mainlines ditional (above) and IW (below) mainlines Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 43
Pic. 16. Average distance from the vessel (±SD) when monitored IW and traditional mainlines reach water surface and sink to 1 and 2 meter depths. mainline was picked up on average by 1 3 m/min slower than the regular mainline in order to decrease the number fish felling from the № 13 traditional shape hooks. No negative impacts of the IW mainline weight on the speed of lifting were observed. Our observations witness that there are no signifi cant differences in exploitation characteristics of the regular and IW mainlines. The latter suits well the bait placing and picking up mechanisms, and is easy coiled up or repaired. As we already described the standard 9 cassette long line requires attaching 35 sinkers of the total weight 133 kg for operation. Picking up of each sinker requires stopping of the long line lifting. This operation requires about 2.5 min (on average 4 sec Pic. 15. Average timing of sinking (±SD) of IW (50 g/m, n = 9) and per one sinker release). Use of IW mainline makes traditional mainlines with external weights (15 g/m, n = 9). such operation unnecessary, which during 4 months could save enough time for setting one or two more IW mainline is more elastic and provides less entan long lines. gling. There were six incidents of regular mainline entan The results of our tests show that characteristics gling (forming "beard") per 20 lifts (15 times total, of IW mainline are in the least no worse and even the length of entangled parts varied from 1 to 50 m). provide some advantages over the regular main There were nine incidents of the IW mainline entan line. With that we need to note that the efficiency of gling per 20 lifts (12 times total, the length of entan demersal long line fishing depends not only on gled parts varied from 1 to 20 m). Forming of the technical characteristics of long lines, but also on "beard" usually occurred at the last part of the long many other factors related to the biology of target line. Also there was one incident case of tearing the species and their habitat. So the IW mainline can regular mainline. work with different level of success in different The speed of lifting the control long lines of both areas or target species. For instance there was a types varied in range 45 50 m per minute. The IW notion expressed in national literature that if the 44 Environmental impact of fisheries long line lies tight on the bottom, it decreases the example showing that objective conclusions catch as a result invertebrates feeding on bait require all available and most versatile data. More (Kokorin 1994; Seslavinsky 2003). At the same time information is needed for Kamchatka waters on cod recent tests of the IW mainline in Alaska and New and Pacific halibut fishing in the Western Bering Zealand indicated that use of IW mainline not only Sea and Eastern Kamchatka zones, where the main did not reduce the catch, but made it even increase long line fishing fleet is operating. It is important to (by statistically significant values) in some cases also test IW mainlines in those areas, which are (Robertson and McNeill 2002; Robertson et al. much different by their local conditions from the 2002; E. Melvin unpubl. data). This is just one Sea of Okhotsk. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 45
Conclusions
The studies conducted in 2003 2005 showed that is unavailable for seabirds) at the distance almost there is a problem of interactions between seabirds 2.5 times closer to the ship, which reduced the loss and long line fishing in Kamchatka. Thousands of es of bait and seabird mortality. The IW line also seabirds die every year from accidental hooking. starts sinking closer to the ship and that reduces the Most of dead birds belong to abundant and com chance of the mainline to get on ice floes in winter mon species and long line fishing does not substan time. The higher speed of sinking of the IW mainline tially impact their populations. However, some rare increases especially in deep water fishing the catch or endangered species namely short tailed and ing efficiency of bait. The results of tests showed Laysan albatrosses listed in the international Red that total catch of all fish species is substantially Data books could be victims of long lines. This type higher for IW mainline, compared to the regular of fishing also creates potential risks for two other mainline, though catches of main species Pacific Red Data Book species black footed albatross and Pacific black halibuts were not significantly and red legged kittiwake. It is clear that long line different. Use of IW mainlines does not require fishing in Russian waters by itself cannot be a dan external sinkers and saves time. ger to populations of those species, but together Use of double streamer lines and IW mainlines with other influencing factors the impacts of long reduces the number of seabird attacks on bait line fishing could be significant. thereby decreasing by catch of seabird and saving The attacks of seabirds on bait cause serious bait. At that catches of target species are not losses to fishermen by removing bait from hooks decreased. Compared to the double streamer lines and thus decreasing catches. According to our the single streamer is substantially less efficient. But assessment the induced by birds economic losses it can be used in combination with IW mainlines to of Kamchatka long line fleet in 2004 were about reduce the number of seabird attacks. 840,000 dollars. It means that solving the problems In conclusion we should note that introduction of of interactions of seabirds and long line fishing methods reducing seabird mortality can provide would be beneficial for both fishermen and nature fishing companies not only the benefit of reducing conservation. the direct economic losses. This could be also a The results of our research show that the problem good argument for more extensive use of long line could be for the most part solved by introducing in fishing as the most eco friendly fishery compared to Kamchatka special bird deterring devices stream other types present in the Russian Far East. er lines. Test use of streamers was monitored on Acceptance of these methods could also help com two types of ships operating in the region. panies in promoting their products in foreign mar Application of double streamer lines at setting of kets through ecological certification. long lines reduced the number of seabird attacks We also remind that Russia has signed a number on bait by 81.9 % and the level of seabird mortality of international conventions and agreements there by 90.2 %. With that the catch of target fish species by assuming certain responsibilities in nature con increased a little (though not statistically significant) servation including protecting migrating birds and while their portion in the catch remained the same. their habitats. The seabird mortality resulting from Another method of solving this problem is wide commercial fishing is one of the problems admitted introduction of a new modification of long lines the by the world community and solving of which falls integrated weight mainline with lead core. The con within some of the signed agreements. The studies ducted tests showed that compared with regular started in Kamchatka could be the first steps on our mainlines the IW mainlines sank almost two times way of preparing a national program on reducing faster and reached the 2 meter depth (at which bait the seabird mortality caused by long line fishing. 46 Environmental impact of fisheries
Acknowledgements
The studies were conducted as part of the project Fiskevegn", were obtained thanks to the assistance of WWF Russia 0098.01 02 (coordinated by K.А. of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered Zgurovsky and regional coordinator of the project in Species Branch, Anchorage. The producer of Kamchatka А.N. Yablochkov). All authors and coor streamers provided the delivery of them to Russia dinators are especially grateful to and emphasize assisted by the Federal Department and the USA the role of V.N. Burkanov and M. Williams in launch Consulate General in Vladivostok. The equipment to ing this project. We also express our gratitude to our measure the speed of the long lines sinking, includ colleagues who participated in collecting data in the ing Mk9 sensors was provided by E. Melvin. The Sea sea, as well as to the administration of Federal State Biodiversity Conservation Alliance and North Pacific Unitary Company "KamchatNIRO" and the fishing Association of Long line Fishermen, uniting big and companies "Аcros", "Polluks", "Tymlatsky fishing small fishing companies of the US provided their and processing factory" for setting up implementa assistance in publishing a booklet on identification tion of this project, and also the crews of the long of North Pacific albatrosses. The field work was line fishing ships for their invaluable assistance. We financed by the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF), thank H. Hasegawa (Toho University), E. Melvin KamchatNIRO, and Kamchatka Branch of Pacific (University of Washington), G. Robertson Institute of Geography Far Eastern Department of (Australian Antarctic Division), R. Suryan (Oregon Russian Academy of Sciences. The National Ocean State University) for their consultations and materi and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA) US is plan als they provided for our analysis. The streamer ning to finance continuation of this work. lines and the set of IW mainline, produced by "A. S. Seabirds and Bottom Long Line Fishing in Kamchatka Region 47
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