Introduction 1 Mapping Independent Chinese Documentary

Home , 24 City, Ai Xiaoming, Hu Jie, Jia Zhangke, Jin Xing, River Elegy

Notes

Introduction

1. I recognize that this term is conceptually ambiguous, occupying a somewhat vexed position in the history of documentary due to its association with cinéma vérité. Brian Winston (2007, p. 298) has pointed out that initially cinéma vérité referred not to observational documentary – or cinéma direct in French, the ‘fly on the wall’ format in which the director scrupulously erases his or her presence from the cinematic image – but to the particular form of French filmmaking pioneered by Jean Rouch, in which the documentary director consistently inserts him or herself into the frame. However, the anglophone documentary tradition has, over time, tended to confuse the terms, attributing the central principle of cinéma direct to cinéma vérité. In consequence, the latter term is not applied with particular consistency to any single group of films, further dividing scholars over what distinguishes the two approaches. It is for this reason that Bill Nichols (1991, p. 38) has advocated doing away with the term altogether, and replacing it with the concepts of ‘observational’ and ‘interactive’ filmmaking. The situation is complicated still further in China, where different kinds of film practice have their own history and vocabulary, sometimes distinct from, sometimes inex- tricably bound up with, those we are more familiar with in Europe and the Americas. Nevertheless, the term vérité has acquired a less specialist currency associated precisely with the type of realism displayed in these films, a point often acknowledged by foreign critics of contemporary Chinese documentary. For this reason, I shall be using it as a general (non-Chinese) shorthand for the aesthetic that is the focus of this book.

1 Mapping Independent Chinese Documentary

1. In fact, the SWYC apparently composed a ‘Manifesto of the new documentary movement’ (‘Xin jilupian yundong xuanyan’), which was read out at the Beijing symposium. Both Shi Jian and Kuang Yang, another member of the group, maintain that the original was never consigned to paper. It was, however, recorded, and a blander version later published by the Broadcasting Institute (Li, Liu and Wang, 2006, pp. 250, 277). 2. Much of the literature on independent Chinese documentary takes the film as a critical point of reference. For example, Lin Xudong (2005) has remarked that ‘Bumming in Beijing [ ...] has long been considered the pioneer of the Chinese independent documentary movement’; Dai Jinhua (cited in F. Fang, 2003, p. 348) has argued that the film was seminal, and thus the point of origin for independent documentary as a genre in China; Chu Yingchi (2007, p. 91) has described the film as ‘a pioneering success’; and Lü Xinyu (2003a, p. 5) has credited the film with having an unprecedented impact on the traditional documentary scene in China.

160 Notes 161

3. The subjects of Bumming in Beijing were marginal in that they had delib- erately opted to work outside the state-run employment system, having neither danwei (‘work unit’) nor hukou (‘household residency’), much like the early independent documentary makers themselves. 4. In addition to Larsen, on viewing Bumming in Beijing for the first time at the 1991 Vancouver International Film Festival, Bérénice Reynaud (1996, p. 235) remarked that ‘the real subject of the tape was the struggle of an artist with the documentary form, his (re)discovery of cinema verité and “camera-stylo”.’ Later commentators have tended to replicate this discursive framework. 5. Following its initial screenings in 1973, Antonioni’s documentary was the subject of a public criticism in the People’s Daily, with the director accused of being overtly anti-China (H. Sun, 2009, p. 56). Ivens, despite being invited to film in the PRC by Zhou Enlai himself, saw only certain episodes of his multi- part documentary broadcast in the country, due to the change in political conditions following the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976 (J.-P. Sergent, 2009, pp. 65–6; T. Zhang, 2009, p. 41). 6. The NHK-CCTV coproduction The Silk Road [Sichou zhi lu], which started broadcasting in 1980; the Sino-British coproduction Heart of the Dragon [Long zhi xin] (1984); and The Great Wall [Wang Changcheng], shot by TBS and CCTV, and broadcast in the autumn of 1991, are the three television documentaries consistently cited as the most influential foreign coproductions in China during the late 1980s and early 1990s (c.f. F. Fang, 2003, pp. 311–26). Wu Wenguang and Duan Jinchuan have also both commented on how their shooting practices evolved through encounters with these foreign television crews in the 1980s (Berry, 2007, p. 125). 7. This latter characteristic is less obvious in the films of Wu Wenguang, who, despite acknowledging the influence of Wiseman, never translated this influence quite as directly into his filmmaking practice. 8. Gonggong may literally be translated as ‘public’. An equivalent term is hongguan, which means ‘macro’, or perhaps more colloquially ‘large scale’. This lends itself to further variations: hongpian juzhi, literally ‘a monumental work’, is one example. These terms have subtly different connotations, but are generally applied to similar works. For a brief discussion of gonggong and its significance in relation to these documentaries, see Zhu and Mei (2004, p. 7). For an example of the usage of hongguan and hongpian juzhi, see discussion of Wang Bing’s West of the Tracks in Zhang and Zhang (2003, p. 154). 9. A sustained discussion of one minority group that has been the focus of attention in these documentaries – the Chinese queer community – can be found in Chapter 4. Hu Jie and Ai Xiaoming’s work touches on highly sensitive topics ranging from the Cultural Revolution (In Search of Lin Zhao’s Soul [Xunzhao Lin Zhao de linghun] (2004); Though I am Gone [Wo sui si qu] (2006)), to village land seizures (Taishi Village [Taishicun] (2005)), the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) crisis in China (The Epic of the Central Plains [Zhongyuan jishi] (2006)), and the aftereffects of the Sichuan earthquake of 2008 (Our Children [Women de wawa] (2009)). 10. Examples of such films include Wang Fen’s Unhappiness Does Not Stop At One [Bukauile de bu zhi yige] (2001), about her parent’s relationship; Yang Lina’s 162 Notes

Home Video [Jiating luxiangdai] (2001), also about her family; Zuo Yixiao’s Losing [Shisan] (2004), which is focused on his divorce; and Hu Xinyu’s The Man [Nanren] (2005), which takes place almost entirely inside the director’s one-bedroom flat in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, rarely straying outside the room, let alone the apartment block. Zhang Ming’s Springtime in Wushan [Wushan zhi chun] (2003) includes a scene of full frontal nudity, while Hu Shu’s Leave Me Alone [Wo bu yao ni guan] (1999) features one in which a prostitute stubs out a cigarette on her arm. More recent films follow this trend to its logical conclusion, with Tape featuring a scene of the director masturbating in bed. 11. The only woman attached to the first group of directors was Li Hong. In contrast, one of the first full-length DV documentaries, Old Men [Lao tou] (1999), was shot by a woman, Yang Lina, and, while women directors remain under-represented on the Chinese documentary scene, they are now more prominent than was the case in the 1990s. 12. Duan Jinchuan, for example, has argued that the more amateur and less professional documentary film becomes, the weaker its artistic power, and the less significant its impact (X. Lü, 2003b, p. 99). This problem he has in part ascribed to the lack of appropriate training programmes in China’s film schools and universities (J. Duan, 2005). 13. See, for example, X. Lü (2005a, p. 168). For further discussion of the violence of the digital, see Y. Wang (2005). 14. In reviews of Chinese independent film festivals, for example, both Chris Berry (2009c) and Markus Nornes (2009) have commented on the continued influence of direct cinema on independent Chinese documentary. This influence is identifiable in recent films such as Xu Xin’s Karamay [Kelamayi] (2010), Ji Dan’s When the Bow Breaks [Wei chao] (2010) and He Yuan’s Apuda [Apuda de shouhou] (2010). The latter won top prize in competition at the 2011 Yunnan Multi Culture Visual Festival (Yunfest), a major independent documentary film festival located in Kunming, Yunnan Province. 15. Jishizhuyi is also problematic as a way of assessing what was distinct about the new documentary because it was not a discourse unique to the 1990s. Including variants such as jishi meixue, it had been in use since at least the early 1980s, arising amid discussions among cinema directors about how to move beyond socialist realism, the dominant representational mode in feature film after 1949 (Berry, 2002; Lagesse, 2011, pp. 317–18). Arguably, the term’s re-emergence in the early 1990s was an attempt to clear a discursive space within which the documentary directors could operate in the immedi- ate post-Tiananmen period. Lin Xudong (2005) makes this point implicitly when he states that ‘Although film insiders spoke tactfully when debating the true nature of the new style documentaries – referring to the use of “true, on-the-spot” [zhenshi, jishi] filming as a means of subverting the slip- shod, grandiose narrative structures of 1980s documentary – it was tacitly understood that the new documentary movement was directed at certain conservative political dogmas threatening to stage a comeback in post-1989 China.’ In other words, both jishi and zhenshi – a term for ‘real’ or ‘authentic’ also in circulation during this period – were used to provide rhetorical cover for the early independent documentary directors, cloaking the innovations Notes 163

of their practice in the language of an established theoretical debate ongoing since the death of Mao. 16. Chu Yingchi (2007, pp. 84–5) has argued that a poetic mode has existed as an alternative to Leninist-influenced documentary in China since the 1950s, although only barely. Nevertheless, although this mode departed from the dogmatic formula aesthetically, Chu gives little indication that it relied primarily on anything but a studio-based production practice. 17. The old documentary newsreels, for example, were rendered redundant by the speed and reach of new television news programmes such as Net- work News [Xinwen lianbo], which started broadcasting in 1978 (X. Lin, 2005). 18. Fang Fang (2003, p. 321) has noted that the use of long takes in the series shattered the traditional televisual representational convention of long shot-medium shot-close up. The two longest takes in The Great Wall were, apparently, 5 minutes 10 seconds and 3 minutes 40 seconds. 19. Wu Wenguang and Duan Jinchuan have both commented on how watch- ing these same films helped to broaden their understanding of documentary practice (Zhu and Mei, 2004, pp. 63, 103). Other figures less closely associated with independent documentary, but nevertheless central to CCTV’s experiments with the zhuantipian, have made the same points. See, for example, the producer Chen Zhen’s discussion of these films (Li, Liu and Wang, 2006, pp. 10–15). 20. Zhang Zhen (2002, p. 116) has translated ‘xianzai shi’ he ‘zai chang’ as ‘a cinematic operation in the “present tense” by virtue of “being present on the scene” ’, using the same terms that Bill Nichols (1991, p. 40) employs to describe observational documentary filmmaking. 21. For example, Malcolm Le Grice (2001, p. 155) has categorized the shooting of film as an act conducted in ‘ “real” TIME/SPACE’, or ‘now and here’, while Steve Wurtzler (1992, p. 89) has defined live performance as requiring the ‘spatial co-presence and temporal simultaneity of audience and posited event’. Whether the emphasis is on the relationship of director and event, or viewer and event, depends on whether the act is one of documentation or of performance. 22. Tina Chen (2003) has written about the film units sent down to the countryside after 1949, in order to bring cinema to the rural population. When screening films, these units would usually circulate handbooks that instructed the audience how to respond to key dialogue and scenes (p. 178). This was all part of the process of educating the people in the ways of socialism, but also indicates a deep-seated unease on the part of the establishment that films might actually be open-ended texts, and a concomitant desire to pre-empt any audience interpretation other than that authorized by the CCP. 23. Shi Jian, for example, has suggested that one of the reasons documentary filmmaking became so popular in the wake of 1989 was precisely because its multiple layers of meaning facilitated a more indirect form of personal expression (X. Lü, 2003b, p. 152). The implication appears to be that a plau- sible degree of deniability was useful during a period of intense political surveillance. 164 Notes

2 Metaphor and Event

1. These two terms are often used interchangeably, and the distinction between them is sometimes hard to grasp. Lü Xinyu (2005b) has suggested that geren should be more specifically associated with an individual mode of production, while siren is related to subject matter and outlook. Nevertheless, geren is also used to convey a sense of the latter, as in the term geren lichang,or ‘individual/personal outlook’. For the purposes of this chapter, I will use the term siren, while acknowledging that geren could, in many instances, be substituted. 2. The concept of the personal film or documentary incorporates a number of different genres of non-fiction film, ranging from the video diary to the essay film. Michael Renov (2004, pp. xviii–xix) has traced its roots back to Joris Ivens’ experiments with the ‘I’ film in the early decades of the twentieth century, although in the form of what Laura Rascaroli (2009, p. 107) has defined as ‘first-person documentary’ it is also strongly associated with the post-World War Two American avant garde. 3. For a cogent overview of these developments, see Evans (1997, pp. 1–32), J. Dai (1999, pp. 259–83) and J. Wang (2001). Such a transformation is, of course, partly related to the events of 1989, and the question of what constitutes the public in China is not unconnected to the academic debates about civil society and the public sphere that emerged in the wake of Tiananmen Square. For a brief overview of the problems involved in translating public and associated terminology into Chinese, see Wang, Lee and Fischer (1994). For references to the academic debates, see Davis et al. (1995) and P. Huang (1993). 4. The archetypal qualities of socialist culture in the PRC are perhaps best captured in socialist realism’s use of models, the most famous of which were the model characters who peopled revolutionary operas. Derived from the concept of dianxing, or the ‘typical’, outlined by Mao in his Talks at the Yan’an conference on literature and art (1942), such characters were broadly imitative in that they were intended for emulation: they were a key way in which individuals could be instructed in the basic categories of Maoist political thought. But in consequence they were also archetypes, images fashioned from material that was already understood as present within the body politic, but presented in an idealized form. It was through such images that broader social and political issues could be articulated. At their most extreme, socialist realist characters could therefore become stock figures in an allegorization of social processes, the outcome of which was predetermined. Hu Xinyu’s rejection of the metaphorical quality of documentary could therefore be understood in light of this history. 5. In her discussion of similar issues surrounding early film and photography, this is precisely how Mary Ann Doane (1997, p. 142) defines the contingent. She draws implicitly on French poststructuralist theories of the event per se, most notably those of Jean-François Lyotard, who, in his exposi- tion of the concept in relation to the death of the Renault worker Pierre Overney (Lyotard, 1980, pp. 151–86), has ultimately appeared to suggest that – to quote Geoffrey Bennington (2005, p. 109) – ‘Overney’s death is an “event” not because of its causes and effects, but because of its senselessness Notes 165

or inanity.’ Of course, the logical conclusion of this train of thought is that an event is only an event when it is absolutely contingent, and that the concept of the ‘contingent event’ is therefore technically an oxymoron. This hints precisely at the issue I wish to address in this chapter – namely, the problems posed by standardizing the unexpected so that it can actually become meaningful. 6. These tensions are perhaps best captured in discussions of early actualité films, the dominant genre of early cinema, and how they dealt with the process of shooting on location. See, for example, Gunning (1990), Vaughan (1999, pp. 1–8) and Doane (2002). 7. This reflects the fact that The Square was of course shot over a period of considerably more than 24 hours, and that the activities we see are effectively selected highlights of this longer footage. 8. Mao’s Tiananmen portrait recurs as the dominant focus of at least six shots over the course of the film, and appears in the background of countless more. In addition, the film includes footage of the police chief discussing his time as a Maoist red guard with the CCTV crew outside in the square. 9. Nichols (1981, p. 38) has argued that the expository mode takes as its formal premise the posing of a problem followed by its solution. However, he has also suggested that this presents parallels with the ‘classic unity of time’ in narrative, where events occur within a fixed time period, and move towards a conclusion under the pressure of temporal urgency. While the resolution of a problem is sometimes used as a structure within individual scenes in No. 16 Barkhor South Street, as previously suggested, it is never used to link sequences, and cannot be said to form a compelling structure for the documentary as a whole. 10. The titles of many of Wiseman’s films – for example, Hospital (1970), High School (1968), Central Park (1989) – give a clear indication of the director’s preferred subjects and modus operandi, while arguably his most famous, and controversial, film, Titicut Follies (1967), is literally about the workings of a (mental) institution. 11. The possibility of such speculation, as suggested by Duan Jinchuan, seems in practice to be tied to this metaphorical structure. For example, with reference to Wiseman’s Basic Training (1971), Thomas Benson and Carolyn Anderson (2002, p. 179) have suggested that the film’s structure is as much retrospective as consecutive, ‘each scene helping us to make sense of what we have seen before, but not seeming to obligate the filmmaker to any particular scene in what follows.’ The lack of a linear causality thus makes us think harder about the relationship between different sequences in the film, a mode that Nichols (1981, p. 234) has described as ‘supplemental and associative’. 12. This point is neatly made by the director himself, who recalls screening The Square to an audience of people in the Beijing arts scene, only to be asked what it meant (Li, Liu and Wang, 2006, pp. 213–14). This I think encapsu- lates the differences between the documentaries of the pre-1989 period and those of the 1990s, a difference that I am in no way trying to minimize. 13. As Zhang says of his subjects, ‘in all the scenes, I was simply one of them. They never saw me as a filmmaker [paishezhe]’ (Zhu and Wan, 2005, p. 176). This is presumably why they also allowed Zhang to record the explicit 166 Notes

images and behaviour that have earned the film the label of private, and have also placed it outside wide public circulation (Springtime in Wushan is not commercially available). And yet, as his friend Zheng jokes at the very beginning of the documentary, ‘We return to our home town as tourists.’ Although the individuals at the centre of the documentary are all close friends and family, the fact that both men have long been resident outside Wushan, and that their former hometown has now mostly been torn down, also places them slightly outside the community of their childhood. 14. For a concise discussion of the Sun Zhigang case, its implications and its coverage in the Chinese media, see Y. Zhao (2008, pp. 246–70). 15. This is not the only way in which one could consider how Wang Bing gen- erates emotional identification with his subjects. Li Jie (2008) has suggested that the use of the composed close-up in Rails introduces a degree of emotional charge less immediately obvious in the rest of the film. Of course, this is not incompatible with the contingent as a conveyor of intense personal emotion, as the scene in which Lao Du’s son breaks down suddenly while looking at the family photo albums makes abundantly clear. 16. With Fuck Cinema, this was actually the case. The subject of the documentary originally approached Wu to help him find a director or producer for a screenplay he had written. Wu agreed, and ended up shooting a documentary about the process. 17. This is illustrated by the harassment that activist filmmakers such as Ai Xiaoming, Hu Jie or Hu Jia consistently face for their documentaries on social and political inequality, and by the treatment meted out to as high profile an individual as Ai Weiwei following his attempts to document the death of children in the Sichuan earthquake of 2008. This harassment is often extended to organizations that seek to screen films by these individuals. In 2007, for example, Yunfest was forced to relocate from Kunming to Dali by the local authorities for including Hu Jie’s Though I am Gone,which deals directly with the consequences of the Cultural Revolution, in their programme line up (Y. Zhang, 2010, p. 138).

3 Time, Space and Movement

1. Early silent cinema, particularly the physical burlesque of, for example, Buster Keaton, exemplifies this system most completely. D. N. Rodowick, in his study of Deleuze’s writing on cinema, uses Keaton’s Sherlock Jr. as an example of the movement-image. In this film, released in 1924, Keaton plays a young projectionist who enters the space of his own dream: the rectangle of the cinema screen. In the series of shots that follows, ‘Keaton’s moving figure provides a stable foreground against a shifting background of increas- ingly unlikely and dangerous locations: a garden, a busy street, a cliff side, a jungle with lions, train tracks in a desert. When Keaton finds himself on a rock by the ocean, he dives, only to land headfirst in a snowbank’ (Rodowick, 1997, p. 3). Thus, the logic of the film’s progression across a range of eclectic places is maintained by the constant physical presence of the protagonist on the move. 2. Hence Deleuze’s association (1989, p. xi) of the time-image with the ‘tired- nesses and waitings’ of the human body, rather than its incessant activity. Notes 167

3. Although it is its most accessible manifestation, the action-image is in fact only one of several forms of the movement-image described by Deleuze. Others include the relation- or mental-image and the affection-image, as well as the more intermediate forms of the impulse- and reflection-images. Deleuze reads these different manifestations through Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiological categories: firstness, secondness and thirdness. Secondness is related to the action-image, while thirdness is connected to the relation- image. According to Deleuze (1992, p. 197), ‘thirdness gives birth not to actions but to “acts” which necessarily contain the symbolic element of a law (giving, exchanging); not to perceptions, but to interpretations which refer to the element of sense; not to affections, but to intellectual feelings of relations, such as the feelings that accompany the use of the logical con- junctions “because”, “although”, “so that”, “therefore”, “now”, etc.’. Hence the relationship of the relation-image to the act of symbolizing. 4. I would therefore argue that the temporality of River Elegy is different from that of, for example, No. 16 Barkhor South Street. While the zhuantipian’s symbolic qualities are clearly related to the metaphorical mode, Duan is not overtly invested in temporal teleology, and No. 16 Barkhor South Street proposes no theory of historical development. Furthermore, because the documentary was shot live and on location, it articulates the relationship between time and space in a far more concrete manner, through specific people and places. Its time is that of the everyday: River Elegy’s is arguably that of myth. 5. For example, in the initial journey down the hutong to the front door of the house, the cut from shot one to shot two clearly skips a segment of the journey. Nonetheless, continuity is maintained by the focus on the couple. By matching their activity from shot to shot, it is clear that the second is an extension of the first, in terms of both time and space: thus, the two shots are chronologically positioned via the physical movement of the couple. Similarly, in the series of shots that capture the protagonists washing their clothes, Wu cuts from an outside shot of the doorway, an image that we have in effect seen before when Mou and Du entered the courtyard from the hutong, to a second exterior space that is not immediately recognizable. But by following Mou round a corner to the doorway, where he starts to hang the clothes up to dry, the camera makes apparent the relationship between this new space – clearly a corner of the courtyard that was previously hidden – and the other outside space with which we are already familiar. Thus, the viewer’s sense of these spaces, their size, function and inter-relationship, is formed in no small part through observation of the couple’s activities within them. 6. Defining the precise meaning of the term ‘long take’ is fraught with compli- cations, not least of which is that determining what constitutes ‘long’, and in what cultural or industrial context, is an extremely complex process. In relation to my analyses in this chapter, I have, for the sake of simplicity, followed Donato Totaro’s (2001, p. 4) suggestion that ‘the lowest numerical duration at which a shot [can be] referred to as a long take is in the twenty-five to forty second range.’ 7. In 1980, for example, the scholars Li Tuo and Zhou Chuanji published an article on ‘long take theory’ (chang jingtou lilun) in the journal Film Culture [Dianying Wenhua] (Lagesse, 2011, pp. 316–17), while the technique featured 168 Notes

centrally in Li and Zhang Nuanxin’s (1990) famous call for Chinese film language to be modernized, published a year earlier. 8. For example, Dudley Andrew (1976, p. 138) has argued that, to Bazin, cinema operated as an extension of the real because it registered ‘the spatiality of objects and the space they inhabit’. 9. Wu (2001b, p. 218) makes this clear in his description of the previously mentioned four-minute take in Ogawa’s film, which he argues captures ‘the confrontation of flesh and steel, warmheartedness and iciness, language and silence, hope and hopelessness: from this one can tease out so, so much meaning.’ Meaning emerges through tensions captured within a single extended shot, rather than between multiple shots. 10. Chinese critic Li Tuo and the historian Wang Hui, for example, have argued that Jia’s cinema represents a combination of the aesthetic traditions of Hou and Ozu Yasujiro with the social conscience of what they too term the ‘New Documentary Movement’ (J. Ouyang, 2007, pp. 263–8).

4 Ethics, the Body and Digital Video

1. For a discussion of examples of both types of work, see Z. Zhang (2010, pp. 97–112). 2. Hu Shu’s response, ironically, is that he was too busy trying to prevent the camera from moving to be truly aware of what his subject was doing to herself (Zhu and Mei, 2004, p. 391). 3. See, for example, Vaughan (1999, pp. 181–92) for an exemplary discussion of these worries. 4. At a Beijing Film Academy screening of Leave Me Alone, for example, it was suggested that that the film was morally problematic because it ‘exposed some shameful secrets’ (Zhu and Mei, 2004, p. 391) about its subjects, thus raising questions of informed consent and directorial responsibility regarding the public revelation of the girls’ occupation and lifestyle. This could only have been underlined by the fact that Hu Shu uploaded Leave Me Alone to his personal website (Voci, 2010, p. 33). More recently, similar issues have been raised about Xu Tong’s Wheat Harvest [Maishou] (2008), another documentary focused on a prostitute (Nornes, 2009, p. 52). This suggests precisely how the dynamics of gender and class surrounding these films seem to provoke a very similar sense of unease across diverse audiences. In a separate discussion of the digital and its impact on Chinese documentary practice, Wang Yiman (2010, p. 219) points out that, in Mei Bing and Zhu Jinjiang’s 2004 collection Profile of independent Chinese documentary [Zhongguo duli jilupian dang’an], all the directors asked to comment on ethical questions broadly agreed that the critical issue was whether access to one’s subjects’ private space resulted in images that were voyeuristic and objectifying, or genuinely humanistic. 5. In English, the term ‘queer’ has particular theoretical associations. However, when I use ‘queer’ in this chapter, I am not necessarily invoking this theoretical category. I use the word because it is often the preferred self-description of many of the directors discussed here, even when in English the terms ‘gay’ or ‘homosexual’ might be more standardly substituted. Notes 169

6. The term fanchuan derives from the theatrical practice of male and female impersonation in Chinese opera, and literally indicates the performance of gender role reversal. 7. Examples here would include Miss Jin Xing, Michelle Chen’s The Snake Boy [Shanghai nanhai] (2002), Zhang Hanzi’s Tangtang [Tangtang] (2004), Han Tao’s Baobao [Baobao] (2004), Gao Tian’s Meimei [Meimei] (2005), Jiang Zhi’s Xiang Pingli (a.k.a Our Love)[Xiang Pingli] (2005) and Du Haibin’s Beautiful Men [Renmian taohua] (2005). Interestingly, this emphasis on performance does not extend to representations of lesbianism. For discussion of lesbian representation in independent Chinese documentary, see S. Chao (2010a). 8. For example, in a question and answer session at the Third Beijing Queer Film Festival (or Queer Film Forum) – captured in Cui Zi’en’s Queer China, ‘Comrade’ China – Gao Tian, director of Meimei, suggested that it was his subject who contacted him to initiate filming, rather than vice versa. While I cannot verify this claim, it does put the complicated power dynamics of documentary filmmaking into perspective, and should caution us against necessarily casting the subjects of these films as victims of the camera. 9. Tangtang, Xiang Pingli and Cui Zi’en’s Night Scene [Yejing ] (2004) are examples of documentaries on queer subjects that all make use of these techniques. 10. Zhang Yuan and Jiang Zhi were both established professionals in their fields when they made Miss Jin Xing and Xiang Pingli; Zhang Hanzi trained as a sculptor at the Central Academy of Fine Arts in Beijing; Gao Tian graduated from the Directing Department of the Beijing Film Academy; and Han Tao was educated at the Lu Xun Fine Arts Academy in Shenyang (the alma mater of Wang Bing, among others). Only Du Haibin was a professional documentary filmmaker, and even he trained at the Film Academy. 11. This is further underlined by Du’s frequent use of the split screen to simultaneously juxtapose the public and private lives of his subjects over the course of the film. Again, this seems to reproduce in screen space the ability of the camera to move seamlessly between different kinds of physical space. 12. This is not to say that heterosexual directors have stopped making films about the queer community. Madame would be an example of this. How- ever, my focus here is not on these films, precisely because in some respects they remain ethnographic experiments that replicate some of the problems of the earlier documentaries. 13. In 2007, for example, Cui released a feature-length documentary, We Are the ...of Communism [Women shi gongchanzhuyi shenglüehao]. 14. This is particularly true of a regular webcast such as Queer Comrades, although less of documentaries such as Queer China, ‘Comrade’ China, Chinese Closet or New Beijing, New Marriage. Wei Jiangang (2010) has maintained that one of the reasons for the longevity of Queer Comrades is its calculated refusal to directly criticize the government. Nonetheless, the webcast has faced disrup- tion from internet service providers, who have deleted past episodes from various websites, due to concerns about the sensitivity of the subject matter. The strong emphasis the series also places on health and education, which feature prominently in its online rationale (‘Guanyu women’, no date), also reflects its need to self-present in terms that are acceptable to the government, and also likely to earn it financial support from local and international NGOs. In contrast, Fan and Cui’s documentaries, which are simultaneously 170 Notes

too sensitive and too uncommercial for domestic cinematic release, have far less to lose by being more explicitly political in tone.

5 Sound and Voice

1. I borrow the term ‘ambient sound’ from Michel Chion (1994, p. 75), who describes it as ‘sound that envelops a scene and inhabits its space [ ...]birds singing, church bells ringing. We might call them [these sounds] territory sounds, because they serve to identify a particular locale through their per- vasive and continuous presence.’ In addition to these sounds, Tiananmen features a zhuantipian-style voiceover and extradiegetic music, which Voci has also pinpointed as a further way in which the documentary extends the scope of its soundtrack beyond speech. 2. One of the sequences removed features Zhang discussing her breakdown. 3. I am not suggesting here that the category ‘ordinary’ is absolute, or indeed that the artists and students featured in Bumming in Beijing and I Gradu- ated! were anything less than elite by the standards of their contemporaries. Nevertheless, as Laura Grindstaff (2002, p. 71) has suggested, in media production, ‘ordinariness’ frequently accrues to those who come from outside the professional media apparatus. This holds true for all of the subjects of these early Chinese documentaries, regardless of their class status or professional background. 4. The obvious exception to these examples would be 1966: My Time in the Red Guards, which uses a far more traditional style of talking head to elicit memories of the Cultural Revolution from its subjects. 5. In a similar manner, Reynaud (2010b, p. 168) has located the moments of truth in Bumming in Beijing at those points when the ﬁlm’s subjects are either silent or engaged in non-normative use of language. 6. Smith (2008, p. 15) discusses these qualities with reference to laughter and early phonograph recordings, where the ﬂooding out of both performers and the audience ‘was an important index of authentic presence used to bridge the gap between recorded sound and the listener’. The same, however, could easily be claimed of documentary, where such moments frequently signify a similar experience. 7. This is formulated most directly by Ai Xiaoming, who has simply stated that ‘Documentaries are about memory – the importance of memory for individuals and for social change’ (Thornham, 2008, p. 183). 8. For discussion of the use of interviews in recent Chinese documentary in relation to oral history, see S. Cui (2010, pp. 10–13). 9. For example, in 2005, the year when the Village Video Project was initiated, a villager in Shengyou, Hebei Province, recorded a murderous attack on fellow villagers protesting the building of a power plant, and passed the digital footage to the Washington Post (Y. Zhao, 2007, p. 108). This agent was clearly produced less through the intervention of a media professional than through the interconnection of a number of other socioeconomic factors, one of which was obviously access to digital recording equipment. An inter- esting point of comparison can also be found in the records of the rural participatory documentary projects initiated by the Yunnan Academy of Notes 171

Social Sciences (Zhang and Zeng, 2009). In describing how they first came to pick up a camera, project participants stressed how members of their family had DV cameras that they had borrowed; how they saved up for a small camera themselves; or how their village invested in a camera for the pur- pose of particular communal projects, usually environmental. Again, these agents were only partly created through the intervention of professionals, being in most cases already partially pre-formed before such programmes were implemented: many of these participants traced their initial exposure to DV cameras back to the late 1990s, for example. In Yunnan, this picture is complicated by the fact that the first participatory video project was initiated in 1991, as part of the Ford Foundation’s women’s reproductive health programme (J. Guo, 2009, p. 6). Nevertheless, I would argue that the relationship between amateurs and professionals is still less top down than is sometimes implied. 10. This was illustrated during public discussions I attended at the 2011 Yunfest, at which tensions consistently arose between audience members and filmmakers. The former questioned the length of the documentaries screened, as well as their reliance on extended takes, muted rhythm and general lack of storyline; the latter often defended these features in terms of the necessarily artistic attributes of documentary, and their own right to experiment with these qualities. As documentary culture has become more broadly based, the question of what makes a good documentary has become more compelling, particularly for those traditionally responsible for such definitions. See S. Yi (2011) for the festival director’s own attempt to balance these competing demands while outlining a critical programme for contemporary independent Chinese documentary. Glossary of Key and Recurring Chinese Terms

Pinyin romanization Chinese characters

danwei duoyuanhua duli duli sixiang fanchuan gaige kaifang geren geren lichang gonggong hongguan hongpian juzhi (sometimes ) hukou hutong jilupian jishi jishi meixue jishizhuyi juweihui laobaixing minzhuhua paichusuo siren su ku xianchang xin jilu yundong zhenshi zhuantipian

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No. 16 Barkhor South Street/ /Bakuo Nanjie shiliu hao (1997). Directed by Duan Jinchuan/ . Lhasa: Tibetan Culture Communication Company. 24 City/ /Ershisi cheng ji (2008). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: X Stream Pictures/Shanghai: Shanghai Film Studio. 1966: My Time in the Red Guards/1966: /1966: Wo de hongweibing shidai (1993). Directed by Wu Wenguang/ . Beijing. All About Gay Sex/Gay /Gay na huar (2010). Directed by Zhou Ming/ . Kunming. Along the Railroad/ /Tielu yanxian (2000). Directed by Du Haibin/ . Baoji. Apuda/ /Apuda de shouhou (2010). Directed by He Yuan/ . Yunnan. At Home in the World/ /Sihai weijia (1995). Directed by Wu Wenguang/ . Beijing: Dragon Films and Wu Documentary Film/Video Studio. Baobao/ /Baobao (2004). Directed by Han Tao/ .Jinan. Basic Training (1971). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. Beautiful Men/ /Renmian taohua (2005). Directed by Du Haibin/ . Beijing: Mirror Space Image Studio. Before the Flood/ /Yanmo (2005). Directed by Li Yifan/ and Yan Yu/ . Beijing: Fan and Yu Documentary Studio. Beijing Cotton Fluffer/ /Beijing tanjiang (1999). Directed by Zhu Chuanming/ . Beijing. The Box/ /Hezi (2001). Directed by Ying Weiwei/ . Bumming in Beijing: Last of the Dreamers/ /Liulang Beijing: zui- houdemengxiangzhe(1999). Directed by Wu Wenguang/ . Beijing: Wu Documentary Film/Video Studio. Central Park (1989). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. China Village Self-Governance Film Project/ /Zhongguo cunmin zizhi yingxiang chuanbo jihua (2005–). Directed by Wu Wenguang/ et al. Beijing: Caochangdi Workstation. The Chinese/ /Zhongguoren (1988). Beijing: China Central Television. Chinese Closet/ /Guizu (2009). Directed by Fan Popo/ . Beijing: China Queer Independent Films Production. Chung Kuo/Cina (1972). Directed by Michelangelo Antonioni. Italy: Radiotelevisione Italiana. Disorder/ /Xianshi shi guoqu de weilai (2009). Directed by Huang Weikai/ .Guangzhou. Dong/ /Dong (2006). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: X Stream Pictures.

184 Films and Television Programmes Referenced 185

East Palace, West Palace/ /Donggong xigong (1996). Directed by Zhang Yuan/ . Hong Kong: Ocean/France: Quelq’un d’autre Productions. Enter the Clowns/ /Choujue deng chang (2002). Directed by Cui Zi’en/ . Beijing: Cuizi Film Studio. The Epic of the Central Plains/ /Zhonyuan jishi (2006). Directed by Ai Xiaoming/ .Henan. Fengming: A Chinese Memoir/ /He Fengming (2007). Directed by Wang Bing/ . Hong Kong: WIL Productions/France: Aeternam Films. Floating/ /Piao (2005). Directed by Huang Weikai/ .Guangzhou. Fuck Cinema/ /Cao tama de dianying (2005). Directed by Wu Wenguang/ . Beijing: Caochangdi Workstation. The Great Wall/ /Wang Changcheng (1991). Beijing: China Central Televi- sion/Tokyo: Tokyo Broadcasting System. Heart of the Dragon/ /Long zhi xin (1984). Produced by Herbert Bloom, Alasdair Clayre, Nigel Houghton, Patrick W. Lui and Peter Montagonon. London: Antelope Productions/Hong Kong: Tianlong Motion Picture Com- pany Ltd. High School (1968). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. Home Video/ /Jiating luxiangdai (2001). Directed by Yang Lina/ . Hospital (1970). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. Houjie Township/ /Hou Jie (2002). Directed by Zhou Hao/ and Ji Jianghong/ . Guangdong. Housing Problems (1935). Directed by Edgar Anstey and Arthur Elton. London: British Commercial Gas Company. How Yukong Moved the Mountains/Comment Yukong deplaça les montagnes (1976). Directed by Joris Ivens. France: Capi Films/Institut National de l’Audiovisuel. I Graduated!/ !/Wo biye le! (1992). Directed by Wang Guangli/ and Shi Jian/ . Beijing: Structure Wave Youth Cinema Experimental Group. IWishIKnew/ /Haishang chuanqi (2010). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: X Stream Pictures/Shanghai: Shanghai Film Group Corporation. In Public/ /Gonggong changsuo (2001). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . South Korea: Sidus Corporation. In Search of Lin Zhao’s Soul/ /Xunzhao Lin Zhao de linghun (2004). Directed by Hu Jie/ . Jianghu: Life on the Road/ /Jianghu (1999). Directed by Wu Wenguang/ . Beijing: Wu Documentary Studio. Karamay/ /Kelamayi (2010). Directed by Xu Xin/ . Xinjiang. Leave Me Alone/ /Wo bu yao ni guan (1999). Directed by Hu Shu/ . Guiyang. Little Flower/ /Xiao Hua (1980). Directed by Zhang Zheng/ . Beijing: Beijing Film Studio. Living Elsewhere/ /Shenghuo zai bie chu (1999). Directed by Wang Jianwei/ . Chengdu. Living Space/ /Shenghuo kongjian (1993–). Beijing: China Central Television. Losing/ /Shisan (2004). Directed by Zuo Yixiao/ . Shanghai. Madame/ /Gu nainai (2009). Directed by Qiu Jiongjiong/ . Beijing. Mama/ /Mama (1990). Directed by Zhang Yuan/ . Xi’an: Xi’an Studio. The Man/ /Nanren (2005). Directed by Hu Xinyu/ . Taiyuan. 186 Films and Television Programmes Referenced

Meimei/ /Meimei (2005). Directed by Gao Tian/ . Beijing. Meishi Street/ /Meishi Jie (2006). Directed by Ou Ning/ .Guangzhou: Alternative Archive. Miss Jin Xing/ /Jin Xing xiaojie (2000). Directed by Zhang Yuan/ . Beijing. Model (1980). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. The Narrow Path/ /Wu yu (2003). Directed by Cui Zi’en/ . Beijing: Cuizi DV Studio. Network News/ /Xinwen lianbo (1978–). Beijing: China Central Television. New Beijing, New Marriage/ /Xin Qianmen Dajie (2009). Directed by Fan Popo/ and David Cheng. Beijing. Night Scene/ /Yejing (2004). Directed by Cui Zi’en/ . Beijing: Cuizi DV Studio. Nostalgia/ /Xiangchou (2006). Directed by Shu Haolun/ . Shanghai: Film Spirit Productions. Old Men/ /Lao tou (1999). Directed by Yang Lina/ . Beijing. Once Upon the Grand Canal/ /Huashuo Yunhe (1986). Beijing: China Central Television. Once Upon the Yangtze River/ /Huashuo Changjiang (1983). Beijing: China Central Television/Tokyo: Sada Planning. Oriental Moment/ /Dongfang shikong (1993–). Beijing: China Central Television. The Other Shore/ /Bi’an (1995). Directed by Jiang Yue/ . Beijing. Our Children/ /Women de wawa (2009). Directed by Ai Xiaoming/ . Sichuan. Out of Phoenixbridge/ /Huidao Fenghuangqiao (1997). Directed by Li Hong/ . Beijing. Petition/ /Shangfang (2008). Directed by Zhao Liang/ . Beijing. Platform/ /Zhantai (2000). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Hong Kong: Hutong Communication/Japan: Ofﬁce Kitano. Primary (1960). Directed by Robert Drew. Sharon, CT: Drew Associates. Queer China, ‘Comrade’ China/ /Zhi tongzhi (2008). Directed by Cui Zi’en/ . Beijing: Cuizi DV Studio. Queer Comrades/ /Tongzhiyifanren(2007–). Produced by Wei Jiangang/ . Beijing. Rainclouds Over Wushan/ /Wushan yunyu (1995). Directed by Zhang Ming/ . Beijing: Beijing Film Studio. River Elegy/ /Heshang (1988). Directed by Xia Jun/ . Beijing: China Central Television. A River Stilled/ /Bei jingzhi de he (1999). Directed by Jiang Yue/ . Beijing: Chuan Linyue Film Co. Sanyuanli/ /Sanyuanli (2003). Directed by Ou Ning/ and Cao Fei/ . Guangzhou: Alternative Archive. Sherlock Jr. (1924). Directed by Buster Keaton. USA: Buster Keaton Productions. The Silk Road/ /Sichou zhi lu (1980). Beijing: China Central Televi- sion/Tokyo: Japan Broadcasting Corporation. The Snake Boy/ /Shanghai nanhai (2002). Directed by Michelle Chen/ . Shanghai. Films and Television Programmes Referenced 187

Springtime in Wushan/ /Wushan zhi chun (2003). Directed by Zhang Ming/ . Wushan. The Square/ /Guangchang (1992). Directed by Duan Jinchuan/ and Zhang Yuan/ . Beijing. Still Life/ /Sanxia hao ren (2006). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: X Stream Pictures/Shanghai: Shanghai Film Studio. Sunday in Peking/Dimanche à Pekin (1956). Directed by Chris Marker. Paris: Argos Films/Pavox Films. Taishi Village/ /Taishicun (2005). Directed by Ai Xiaoming/ . Guangzhou. A Tale of the Wind/Une histoire de vent (1988). Directed by Joris Ivens. France: Capi Films. Tangtang/ /Tangtang] (2004). Directed by Zhang Hanzi/ . Beijing. Tape/ /Jiaodai (2009). Directed by Li Ning/ . Though I am Gone/ /Wo sui si qu (2006). Directed by Hu Jie/ . Tiananmen/ /Tiananmen (1991). Directed by Shi Jian/ and Chen Jue/ . Beijing: Structure Wave Youth Cinema Experimental Group. Titicut Follies (1967). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. Unhappiness Does Not Stop At One/ /Bukauile de bu zhi yige (2001). Directed by Wang Fen/ . University City Savages/ /Diaomin (2009). Directed by ‘Xiao Dao’/ (Wang Bang/ ). Guangzhou. Unknown Pleasures/ /Ren xiao yao (2002). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Hong Kong: Hutong Communication/Japan: Ofﬁce Kitano. Useless/ /Wuyong (2007). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: X Stream Pictures. We Are the ...of Communism/ /Women shi gongchanzhuyi shenglüehao (2007). Directed by Cui Zi’en/ . Beijing: Cuizi DV Studio. Weekend Plot/ /Miyu shiqu xiaoshi (2001). Directed by Zhang Ming/ . Beijing: Nitu Films. West of the Tracks/ /Tiexi qu (2002). Part One: Rust/ /Gongchang.Part Two: Remnants/ /Yanfen Jie. Part Three: Rails/ /Tielu.DirectedbyWang Bing/ . Beijing: Wang Bing Film Workshop. Wheat Harvest/ /Maishou (2008). Directed by Xu Tong/ . Beijing. When the Bow Breaks/ /Wei chao (2010). Directed by Ji Dan/ . Beijing. Xiang Pingli (a.k.a Our Love)/ /Xiang Pingli (2005). Directed by Jiang Zhi/ . Xiao Shan Going Home/ /Xiao Shan hui jia (1995). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: Youth Experimental Film Group. Xiao Wu/ /Xiao Wu (1998). Directed by Jia Zhangke/ . Beijing: Hutong Communications. Zoo (1993). Directed by Frederick Wiseman. Cambridge, MA: Zipporah Films. Index

accidental, the, 7, 32, 36, 37, 42, Beijing Cotton Fluffer [Beijing tanjiang], 67, 71 21, 23 See also unexpected, the; event, the, Beijing Film Academy, 57, 118, 120, unexpected 168 n.4, 169 n.10 Agamben, Giorgio, 137 Beijing Queer Film Festival, 119, 169 Ai, Xiaoming, 18, 119, 139, 147, n.8 161 n.9, 166 n.17, 170 n.7 Beijing Television, 26 Ai, Weiwei, 166 n.17 Beijing University, 15 Akomfrah, John, 100 Benjamin, Walter, 110 All About Gay Sex [Gay na huar], 117 Bennington, Geoffrey, 164 n.5 Along the Railroad [Tielu yanxian], Benson, Thomas, 165 n.11 21, 68 Berry, Chris, 21, 25, 33, 52, 75, 76, 77, analogue video, 4, 19–20, 21, 24, 79, 136, 162 n.14 87–8, 91, 96, 102, 110 Berry, Michael, 108 Betacam, 20 Black Audio Film Collective, 100 and camera mobility, 87–8, 91, 96, Bodman,Richard,81 102 Box, The [Hezi], 112, 139 Hi8, 21 Braester, Yomi, 143 relationship to professional Brault, Michel, 26 production, 19–20 Bumming in Beijing: Last of the Anderson, Carolyn, 165 n.11 Dreamers [Liulang Beijing: zuihou de Andrew, Dudley, 168 n.8 mengxingzhe], 1–2, 5, 10, 12, 14, Anstey, Edgar, 135 15, 16, 24, 28, 29, 32, 61, 71, 84, Antelope Productions, 15 89, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138, 140, Anti-Rightist Campaigns, 142 142, 143, 151, 155, 160 n.2, 161 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 15, 26, 28, n.3, 161 n.4, 170 n.3, 170 n.5 161 n.5 Apuda [Apuda de shouhou], 162 n.14 At Home in the World [Sihai weijia], 8, Cao, Fei, 23 20, 61, 74, 80, 84–8, 89, 91, 95, Central News Documentary Film 96, 99, 100, 101 Studio, 26 Auslander, Philip, 31 Central Park, 55, 165 n.10 Chao, Shi-yan, 114, 115 Baobao [Baobao], 169 n.7 Chen, Joan, 153–4, 156 Basic Training, 165 n.11 Chen, Jue, 12 Baudelaire, Charles, 31 Chen, Michelle, 169 n.7 Bazin, André, 88, 89, 90, 99, 168 n.8 Chen, Tina, 163 n.22 Beautiful Men [Renmian taohua], 116–7, Chen, Zhen, 89, 163 n.19 120, 124, 125, 128, 169 n.7 Cheng, David, 9, 112, 123–7, Before the Flood [Yanmo], 96 128 Beijing Broadcasting Institute, 12, 13, China Central Television (CCTV), 1, 8, 27, 160 Ch. 1 n.1 12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28,

188 Index 189

45, 49, 53, 80, 135, 145, 161 n.6, and mediation, 6, 32, 43, 70, 131, 163 n.19, 165 n.8 152, 157 Bureau of Foreign Affairs, 13, 27 and the particular or specific, 32, 36, Bureau of Military Affairs, 27 37, 38, 41, 42, 66, 164–5 n.5 Bureau of Society and Education, 13 and postsocialism, 6, 7, 34–5, 156 foreign coproductions with, 15, power dynamics of, 9, 10, 104, 112, 26–8, 161 n.6 113, 123, 127, 129 producer responsibility system, 21 profilmic, 6, 42, 44, 48, 53, 54, 55, reforms of, 26–8, 45, 145–6 56, 60, 63, 67, 70 China Queer Film Festival Tour, 119 and realism, 5 China Village Self-Governance Film semiotic, 7, 35, 42, 44, 54, 56 Project [Zhongguo cunmin zizhi and social space, 103, 109 yingxiang chuanbo jihua].see and the spontaneous or unexpected, Village Video Project [Zhongguo 42, 55, 60, 62, 66, 67, 73, 138, cunmin zizhi yingxiang chuanbo 150, 164–5 n.5 jihua] temporal, 8, 32, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, Chinese, The [Zhongguoren], 13, 28 78, 80, 101, 102 Chinese Closet [Guizu], 117, 119, 169 and the voice, 10, 130, 133, 134, n.14 137, 150, 151 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 21, See also xianchang 33, 35, 39, 79, 98, 163 n.22 corporeal image, the, 9, 104–8, 111, Chion, Michel, 132, 170 n.1 112, 117, 122, 127, 128 Chu, Yingchi, 25, 27, 34, 160 n.2, 163 Couldry, Nick, 31, 138, 144 n.16 Cui, Weiping, 18 Chung Kuo [Cina], 15, 26, 28 Cui, Zi’en, 9, 112, 114, 117, 118, cinema 120–3, 139, 169 n.8, 169 n.9, 169 art, 75, 81, 97, 99, 100 n.13, 169 n.14 early, 5, 32, 164–5 n.5, 165 n.6, Cultural Revolution, the, 15, 26, 64, 166 n.1 81, 135, 142, 161 n.9, 166 n.17, independent, 39 170 n.4 feature, 14, 25, 57, 68, 76, 80, 88–9, Culture Fever, 39, 79, 85 92, 99, 120, 121, 155, 162 n.15, 163 n.22 Dai, Jinhua, 29, 135, 138, 160 n.2 Maoist, 89 danwei. see work unit (danwei) ‘underground’, 71 Davis, Wendy, 31 Urban Generation, 75, 80 Deleuze, Gilles, 8, 74, 77–8, 79, 80, 81, ‘world’, 23 87, 96, 101, 102, 166 n.1, 166 n.2, cinéma direct, 160 n.1 167 n.3 cinéma vérité, 2, 15, 160 n.1, 161 n.4 Deng, Xiaoping, 21, 33, 45 commercialization, 19, 39, 58, 98, 101 De Sica, Vittorio, 80 Connerton, Paul, 126 dianxing. see typical, the (dianxing) contingency digital video technology, 3, 4, 9, 19, and the accidental, 32, 34, 53 21–4, 36, 68, 92, 95, 96, 102, 103, and the corporeal, 32 104, 109–12, 113, 114, 117, 118, and emotional expression, 166 n.15 119, 125, 126, 129, 130, 134, and liveness, 6, 7, 10, 11, 31, 35, 42, 145–50, 151, 156, 162 n.13, 168 72, 80, 104, 130, 137, 150, 151, n.4, 170–1 n.9 158, 159 and activism, 119 190 Index digital video technology – continued Drew, Robert, 51 impact on director-subject Du, Haibin, 21, 68, 116–17, 169 n.7, relationship, 146–7 169 n.10 impact on independent Chinese Duan, Jinchuan, 7, 12, 16, 17, 18, 20, documentary, 21–4 21, 27, 28, 35, 37, 43–51, 52, 53, ‘lightness’ of, 9, 24, 109–12, 113, 54–6, 59, 60, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 117, 126, 129 70, 72, 94, 112, 135, 161 n.6, 162 and personal or private filmmaking, n.12, 163 n.19, 165 n.11, 165 22, 24 n.12, 167 n.4 ‘violence’ of, 24, 109–10, 162 n.13 duoyuanhua. see independent Chinese direct cinema, 11, 16, 17, 19, 51, 52, documentary, diversification 56, 104, 138, 157, 162 n.14 (duoyuanhua)of Dirlik, Arif, 33 Disorder [Xianshi shi guoqu de weilai], East Palace, West Palace [Donggong 18 xigong], 121 Doane, Mary Ann, 54, 66, 164 n.5 Elton, Arthur, 135 documentary genres embodiment compilation, 5, 25–6, 81, 84 and documentary representation by jilupian, 15, 16, 77, 84 queer filmmakers, 117–27 newsreel, 25–6, 163 n.17 and documentary representation of scripted, 5, 14, 25–6, 28, 30, 35, 42, queer subjects, 112–17 114, 154 and ethical representation, 106–7, special topic film (zhuantipian), 14, 108–9, 168 n.4 16, 27, 28, 29, 42, 44, 54, 56, and intersubjectivity, 9, 105–6 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, and spectacle, 104, 107, 108, 112, 135, 163 n.19, 167 n.4, 170 n.1 115, 120, 126, 128 See also private documentary; public and voyeurism, 104, 107, 111, 112, documentary 115, 117, 122, 124, 126, 129 documentary modes and xianchang, 9, 29, 105, 114–15, dogmatic, 26, 34, 163 n.16 129, 137 expository, 14, 26, 51, 52, 165 n.9 See also queer identity Maoist-era, 5, 14, 15, 25–6, 27–8, 34, Enter the Clowns [Choujue deng chang], 131, 156 121 metaphorical, 7, 40, 44, 45, 51–6, Epic of the Central Plains, The 66, 68, 69, 70, 164 n.4, 165 [Zhongyuan jishi], 161 n.9 n.11, 167 n.4 event, the observational, 16, 18, 40, 54, 63, 65, diegetic, 43, 45, 55, 56 94, 104, 120, 125, 139, 142, profilmic, 5, 42–3, 46, 54, 55, 56, 143, 145, 157, 160 n.1, 163 n.20 60, 61, 63, 65, 67 participatory, 10, 23–4, 113, 125, theories of, 53, 164–5 n.5 146, 147, 170–1 n.9 unexpected, 7, 42, 44, 46, 61, 62, pedagogical, 5, 26, 35, 56, 156 63, 66–7, 150 performative, 18, 19, 40, 114, 125 poetic, 163 n.16 Fabian, Johannes, 76 post-Mao, 34 Fan, Popo, 9, 112, 117, 118, 119, reflexive, 18, 40, 63, 104, 114, 145 123–7, 128 See also performance; reflexivity fanchuan, 9, 111, 112–14, 115, 116, Dong [Dong], 92, 155 117, 120, 122, 124, 128, 169 n.6 Drew Associates, 26 Fang, Fang, 163 n.18 Index 191

Fassbinder, Rainer Werner, 23 Hu, Jie, 18, 119, 139, 161 n.9, 166 feature film.seecinema, feature n.17 Fengming: A Chinese Memoir [He Hu, Shu, 103, 104–7, 162 n.10, 168 Fengming], 10, 133, 140, 142–5, n.2, 168 n.4 146, 147, 148–9, 150, 151, 155 Hu, Xinyu, 38–9, 41, 42, 68, 162 n.10, Fifth Generation directors, 14, 88, 89 164 n.4 Floating [Piao], 60–3, 66, 68 Huang, Weikai, 7, 18, 23, 44, 60–3, 67, Fuck Cinema [Cao tama de dianying], 70 68, 166 n.16 hukou. see residency permit (hukou) gaige kaifang. see reform and opening IGraduated![Wo biye le!], 15, 28, 75, (gaige kaifang) 132, 133, 134, 136, 140, 151, Gamson, Joshua, 31 170 n.3 Gang of Four, 161 n.5 independent Chinese documentary Gao, Tian, 169 n.7, 169 n.8, 169 n.10 and activism, 18, 117–27, 133, 143, globalization, 36, 100 151, 161 n.9, 166 n.17 Godard, Jean-Luc, 23, 80 and amateurism, 20, 22, 68, 111, 146, 147 Goffman, Erving, 137, 144 and audience reception, 11, 35, 38, Grindstaff, Laura, 31, 170 n.3 52, 56, 65, 165 n.12, 168 n.4, Groulx, Gilles, 26 171 n.10 Great Wall, The [Wang Changcheng], definition of ‘independence’ in, 12, 27, 84, 161 n.6, 163 n.18 21 and dissent, 39–40, 52, 71, 119–20, Hallas, Roger, 137 137, 139, 162–3 n.15, 163 n.23, Han, Tao, 169 n.7, 169 n.10 166 n.17, 169–70 n.14 handheld camerawork, 3, 4, 14, 29, distribution and exhibition of, 11, 86, 95, 96, 99, 100 16, 22, 119 Hansen, Miriam, 32 diversification (duoyuanhua) of, 6, Harbord, Janet, 32 18–25, 36, 118 Hatherley, Owen, 63 emergence of, 6, 12–18, 26–9, 36, He, Yuan, 162 n.14 163 n.19 Heart of the Dragon [Long zhi xin], 28, ethical concerns surrounding, 24, 161 n.6 104–9, 162 n.13, 168 n.4 High School, 165 n.10 financing for, 20, 45, 100, 169 n.14 Home Video [Jiating luxiangdai], 162 relationship with official media, 14, n.10 20–2, 26–9, 45, 98, 135, 145–6, Hong Kong Independent Short Film 161 n.6, 163 n.19 and Video Awards, 100 See also documentary genres; Hong Kong International Film documentary modes Festival, 13, 16 In Public [Gonggong changsuo], 8–9, 74, Hospital, 165 n.10 81, 92–7, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102 Hou, Hsiao-hsien, 97, 98, 99, 168 n.10 In Search of Lin Zhao’s Soul [Xunzhao Houjie Township [Hou Jie], 96–7 Lin Zhao de linghun], 161 n.9 Housing Problems, 135 intersubjectivity, 23, 103, 105–6, 108, How Yukong Moved the Mountains 112, 115, 117, 118, 127, 128, 129 [Comment Yukong deplaça les Ivens, Joris, 15, 26, 27, 161 n.5, 164 montagnes], 15, 26 n.2 Hu, Jia, 166 n.17 IWishIKnew[Haishang chuanqi], 155 192 Index

Japan Broadcasting Corporation 151, 156, 157, 158, 163 n.21, (NHK), 15, 27, 100, 161 n.6 167 n.4 Jeonju International Film Festival, 100 and mediation, 6, 31, 149, 150 Ji, Dan, 162 n.14 See also contingency; xianchang Ji, Jianghong, 96 Living Elsewhere [Shenghuo zai bie chu], Jia, Zhangke, 8, 11, 22, 23, 24, 30, 42, 112 74, 76, 79, 81, 92–101, 102, Living Space [Shenghuo kongjian], 21 153–5, 168 n.10 location filmmaking, 1, 5, 6, 25–9, 30, Jiang, Yue, 12, 16, 17, 21, 53, 155 31, 35, 37, 41, 42, 44, 54, 55, 56, Jiang, Zhi, 114–15, 169 n.7, 169 n.10 67, 69, 70, 80, 86, 89, 90, 91, 101, Jianghu: Life on the Road [Jianghu], 40, 102, 109, 113, 127, 128, 129, 132, 41, 42, 112, 139 133, 145, 149, 150, 156, 157, 158, jilupian. see documentary genres 165 n.6, 167 n.4 jishi meixue, 162 n.15 long take, the, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 15, 26, 27, jishizhuyi. see realism, reportage 29, 41, 51, 59, 74, 80, 81, 88–92, (jishizhuyi) 95–101, 102, 104, 131, 163 n.18, juweihui. see residents’ committee 167 n.6, 167–8 n.7 (juweihui) Losing [Shisan], 162 n.10 Lu, Sheldon, 33 Karamay [Kelamayi], 162 n.14 Lu, Xun, 107–8, 111 Kracauer, Siegfried, 32 Lü, Xinyu, 3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 17, Kuang, Yang, 160 Ch. 1 n.1 18, 19, 23, 38, 63, 66, 160 n.2, 164 n.1 Laclau, Ernesto, 76 Lyotard, Jean-François, 33, Lagesse,Cecile,89 164 n.5 Larsen, Ernest, 1, 2, 4, 14, 15, 161 n.4 late socialism.seepostsocialism Leave Me Alone [Wo bu yao ni guan], MacDougall, David, 109 103, 104–7, 109, 111, 162 n.10, Madame [Gu nainai], 117, 169 n.12 168 n.4 Mama [Mama], 155 Le Grice, Malcolm, 163 n.21 Man, The [Nanren], 38–9, 41, 68, Leacock, Richard, 51 162 n.10 Lenin, Vladimir, 26 Mao, Zedong, 5, 50, 163 n.15, 164 n.4, Li, Hong, 17, 23, 139, 162 n.11 165 n.8 Li, Jie, 166 n.15 marginal subjects.seeminority Li, Ning, 18 subjects Li, Tuo, 167 n.7, 168 n.10 Marker, Chris, 15, 145 Li, Xiaoshan, 12 Maysles Brothers, the, 51 Lin, Xudong, 13, 18, 25, 26, 30, 160 McGrath, Jason, 99, 100 n.2, 162 n.15 mediation, 6, 10, 30, 31, 32, 43, 56, Little Flower [Xiao Hua], 153 66, 75, 103, 104, 114, 119, 120, Liu, Xiaoli, 27 123, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 137, Liu, Xin, 7, 33, 34 143, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, live filmmaking.seelocation 155, 157 filmmaking Mei, Bing, 106, 168 n.4 liveness, 6, 7, 10, 11, 30–1, 34, 35, 36, Meimei [Meimei], 115–6, 117, 118, 123, 42, 63, 66, 67, 70, 72, 80, 91, 104, 124, 125, 128, 169 n.7, 169 n.8 129, 130, 131, 133–4, 137, 138, Meishi Street [Meishi Jie], 24 139, 140, 143, 145, 146, 149, 150, metaphor.seedocumentary modes Index 193 minority subjects 1966: My Time in the Red Guards [1966: representation by, 104, 117–27, 128, Wo de hongweibing shidai], 14, 20, 129, 146, 151 134–5, 170 n.4 representation of, 9, 14, 23, 103, No.16 Barkhor South Street [Bakuo 107, 108, 110, 111, 112–17, Nanjie shiliu hao], 17, 20, 45–8, 53, 136, 149, 161 n.3 54, 55, 60, 61, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, Miss Jin Xing [Jin Xing xiaojie], 112, 73, 165 n.9, 167 n.4 121, 169 n.7, 169 n.10 Nornes, Markus, 162 n.14 Model,16 Nostalgia [Xiangchou], 10, 133, 140–2, modernization, 3, 19, 58, 79, 81, 82, 143, 145, 146, 149–50, 151 83, 105, 140, 158 movement Ogawa, Shinsuke, 16, 17, 90, 98, 168 of argument.seemovement-image n.9 of the body on camera, 8, 74, 77, Old Men [Lao tou], 112, 162 n.11 79, 83, 84, 86–7, 90–1, 95, 96, Once Upon the Grand Canal [Huashuo 101, 102, 166 n.1, 167 n.5 Yunhe], 27 of the camera through space, 8, 74, Once Upon the Yangtze River [Huashuo 87–8, 95–6, 98, 99, 100, 101, Changjiang], 27 102, 110, 117, 125, 142, Oriental Moment [Dongfang shikong], 21 169 n.11 Other Shore, The [Bi’an], 155 movement-image, 77, 78, 79, 81, 83, Ou, Ning, 23, 24 84, 166 n.1, 166 n.3 Our Children [Women de wawa], 147, MTV, 97, 98 161 n.9 Muñoz, José Esteban, 127, 128, OutofPhoenixbridge[Huidao 129 Fenghuangqiao], 17, 23, 61, 139 Ozu, Yasujiro, 98, 168 n.10

Narrow Path, The [Wu yu], 121 paichusuo. see police station Network News [Xinwen lianbo], 163 (paichusuo) n.17 Painlevé, Jean, 15 New Beijing, New Marriage [Xin particular, the.seespeciﬁc, the Qianmen Dajie], 9, 112, 117, 118, Pasolini, Pier Paolo, 23 120, 123–7, 128, 129, 151, 169 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 167 n.3 n.14 Pennebaker, Don, 51 ‘New Documentary Movement’ (xin People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 136 jilupian yundong), 1, 5, 13, 14, 15, performance 17, 18, 20, 24, 155, 157, 160 Ch. 1 in documentary, 11, 29, 30, 96, 118, n.1, 162 n.15, 168 n.10 123–7, 137, 142–5, 147, 148, New Waves 149, 150, 151, 154–5, 156, 169 French, 78, 80 n.7, 170 n.6 German, 78 of identity, 9, 19, 111, 112–17, Taiwanese, 98 123–7, 128, 169 n.6, 169 n.7, Taiwanese post-, 100 169 n.8 Nichols, Bill, 18, 32, 51, 54, 106, 160 relationship to liveness, 31, n.1, 163 n.20, 165 n.9, 165 n.11 163 n.21 Night Scene [Yejing ], 114, 120, 121, performativity, 19, 29, 34, 110, 118, 169 n.9 126, 132 1949 revolution, 3, 5, 15, 25, 26, 35, personal ﬁlms.seeprivate 39, 140 documentary 194 Index

Petition [Shangfang], 110 impact of digital technology on Pickowicz, Paul, 71 representations of, 111–12, Platform [Zhantai], 99, 100 113–14, 116–17, 118, 126–7, police station (paichusuo), 47, 48, 129 49, 50 incorporation of, 126 postsocialism inscription of, 115 semiotics of, 33–4 and performance, 9, 112–14, 123–7, and subjectivity, 33, 39, 41, 72, 169 n.7, 169 n.8 164 n.4 See also corporeal image, the; and transition, 5, 6, 7, 11, 32, 33, embodiment 34, 43, 115, 156, 158 Pratt, Mary Louise, 109, 128 Rainclouds Over Wushan [Wushan Primary,51 yunyu], 57 private documentary, 7, 8, 18–19, 24, Rascaroli, Laura, 164 n.2 36, 37, 38–45, 56, 57–72, 73, realism 164 n.1, 164 n.2, 165–6 n.13, documentary, 11, 15, 16 166 n.15, 166 n.16 Italian Neo-, 80 and the contingent, 38–45, 57–72, long-take, 99 166 n.16 neo-, 155 formal qualities of, 18, 24, 57–67, postsocialist, 34 166 n.15 reportage (jishizhuyi), 15, 25, 27, 29, politics of, 19, 71–2 162–3 n.15 relationship to emotional socialist, 88, 90, 162 n.15, experience, 64–7, 166 n.15 164 n.4 subject matter of, 18–19 public documentary, 7, 17, 18, 20, 36, spatial, 89 37, 38–56, 57, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, vérité, 155, 160 n.1 69–72, 73, 161 n.8, 165 n.11, 165 re-enactment, 14, 18, 114 n.12 reﬂexivity, 30, 117, 130, 132, 143, and the contingent, 38–51, 56, 145, 146, 149–50 69–71, 165 n.12 reform and opening (gaige kaifang), formal qualities of, 45–51, 55–6, 69 25, 39, 145 and the metaphorical, 7, 40–2, 44, remediation, 120, 122–3 51–6, 70, 165 n.11 Renov, Michael, 164 n.2 subject matter of, 17 residency permit (hukou), 40, 61, 62, public sphere, 39, 164 n.3 161 n.3 residents’ committee (juweihui), 17, Qiu, Jiongjiong, 117 45, 46, 47, 48, 55 Qiu, Zhijie, 29, 105 Resnais, Alain, 145 Queer China, ‘Comrade’ China [Zhi Reynaud, Bérénice, 19, 120, 132, 148, tongzhi], 9, 112, 117, 118, 120–3, 161 n.4, 170 n.5 125, 127, 128, 129, 169 n.8, River Elegy [Heshang], 8, 13, 14, 28, 74, 169 n.14 80, 81–4, 85, 87, 88, 91, 101, Queer Comrades [Tongzhiyifanren], 167 n.4 117, 118, 119, 169 n.14 River Stilled, A [Bei jingzhi de he], 17 queer identity Rodowick, D. N., 166 n.1 and activism, 118–20 Ross, Andrew, 66 documentaries about, 112–27, 161 Rouch, Jean, 26, 160 n.1 n.9, 169–70 n.6–14 Ruttmann, Walter, 23 Index 195

Sanyuanli [Sanyuanli], 23 social, 29, 38, 53, 103, 109, 115, 129 Sarkar, Bhaskar, 134, 135, 144 subaltern, 103 Saxton, Libby, 106 and teleology, 76–7, 83, 84 ‘scene, the’. see xianchang in the time-image, 77–8, 79 Sherlock Jr., 166 n.1 See also xianchang Shi, Jian, 12, 13, 15, 28, 49, 75, 84, ‘speaking bitterness’ (su ku), 139 131, 160 Ch. 1 n.1, 163 n.23 special topic film (zhuantipian).see Shu, Haolun, 10, 133, 140–2, 143, documentary genres 145, 149–50, 152 specific, the, 7, 29, 32, 36, 37, 40, 41, Sidus Corporation, 100 42, 54, 60, 63, 66, 69, 70, 71, Silk Road, The [Sichou zhi lu], 27, 72, 73 161 n.6 spontaneity, 5, 6, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, Sixth Generation directors, 14 42, 46, 132, 133, 138, 142, Smith, Jacob, 137, 170 n.6 144, 155 Snake Boy, The [Shanghai nanhai], See also event, the, unexpected 169 n.7 Springtime in Wushan [Wushan zhi Sontag, Susan, 107 chun], 57–60, 62, 63, 68, 96, 162 sound n.10, 165–6 n.13 ambient, 131, 170 n.1 Square, The [Guangchang], 45, 48–51, direct, 132 52, 54, 55, 60, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, extradiegetic music, 18, 25, 29, 73, 94, 165 n.7, 165 n.12 170 n.1 Still Life [Sanxia hao ren], 92, 155 live, 10, 27, 130 Structure Wave Youth Cinema location, 25, 28, 30 Experimental Group (SWYC), 12, natural, 16, 26, 29, 41, 80 13, 15, 16, 28, 75, 160 Ch. 1 n.1 off-camera, 137 studio-based documentary off-screen, 10, 130, 131, 133, 150 filmmaking, 5, 8, 25–6, 28, 29, 42, silence, 2, 131, 137, 143, 168 n.9 132, 163 n.16 synchronous, 4, 15, 19, 27, 51 economic and ideological roots of, See also talking head, the; voice, the; 25–6 xianchang su ku. see ‘speaking bitterness’ (su ku) space subaltern subjects.seeminority city, 58, 98 subjects diegetic, 54, 88 Sun, Zhigang, 62, 166 n.14 discursive, 29, 30, 39, 44, 52, 162 Sunday in Peking [Dimanche à Pekin], 15 n.15 synchronous sound.seesound, domestic, 19, 121, 122, 143 synchronous exterior, 19, 86, 94, 125, 167 n.5 institutional, 46, 47, 48, 53, 55 Taishi Village [Taishicun], 161 n.9 interior, 19, 72, 86, 94, 120, 125 Tale of the Wind, A [Une histoire de liminal, 125 vent], 27 and modernization, 158 talking head, the, 1, 10, 14, 29, 120, in the movement-image, 77, 79 122, 129, 130, 133, 134–45, 146, physical, 5, 29, 47, 48, 49, 88, 91, 149, 151, 154, 170 n.4, 170 n.6 96, 132, 169 n.11 and ‘flooding out’, 137–8, 140, 144, private, 24, 37, 110, 168 n.4 151, 170 n.6 public, 17, 24, 37, 92, 99, 110, 111, and immediacy (‘presence’), 130, 113, 123–7, 128 133, 134, 137–8, 139, 140, screen, 4, 29, 44, 88, 169 n.11 146, 149 196 Index talking head, the – continued 24 City [Ershisi cheng ji], 11, 153–5 and mediation (‘distance’), 130, typical, the (dianxing), 164 n.4 133, 134, 137, 140, 141–2, 144–5, 146, 149, 151 ultra-stability, theory of, 81–2 performance of, 142–5, 154 unexpected, the, 7, 30, 31, 37, 38, 42, testimonial function of, 130, 134–8, 43, 44, 46, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 139, 140, 146 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 150, 165 n.5 Tangtang [Tangtang], 114, 118, See also accidental, the; event, the, 169 n.7, 169 n.9 unexpected Tape [Jiaodai], 18, 162 n.10 Unhappiness Does Not Stop At One Tarkovsky, Andrei, 23 [Bukuaile de bu zhi yige], 161 n.10 Though I Am Gone [Wosuisiqu], 161 University City Savages [Diaomin], 147 n.9, 166 n.17 Unknown Pleasures [Ren xiao yao], 92, Tiananmen [Tiananmen], 12, 13, 28, 99 84, 131, 150, 170 n.1 Useless [Wuyong], 155 Tiananmen Square U-thèque collective, 23 democracy movement, 2, 8, 13, 136 documentary representation of, 48–51 Vancouver International Film Festival, massacre on 4 June 1989, 1, 4, 10, 161 n.4 13, 36, 49, 55, 79, 133, 136, vérité aesthetic, 4, 5, 6, 15, 19, 24, 35, 137, 138, 145, 163 n.23, 164 n.3 40, 41, 62, 114, 120, 125, 140, symbolism of, 49, 55 155, 160 n.1 Tibetan Culture Communication Vertov, Dziga, 23 Company, 45 Village Video Project [Zhongguo cunmin time zizhi yingxiang chuanbo jihua], 24, and contingency, 8, 32, 73, 74, 75, 147, 170 n.9 76, 77, 78, 80, 101, 102 Voci, Paola, 24, 52, 87, 110, 131, 132, ‘distended form’ of, 74, 75, 80, 84, 150, 170 n.1 87, 90, 101 voice, the ‘in-the-now’ or in the present, 8, 74, direct to camera address, 10, 117, 76, 80, 81, 88, 90, 91, 97, 101 135 and liveness, 31, 80, 84, 90, 91, 101, of the documentary director, 125, 163 n.21 132, 139, 140, 141, 145, 153, and modernization, 158 155 ‘real time’, 51, 74, 91, 96, 99, 102, of the documentary subject, 10, 163 n.21 130, 131, 133, 134, 139, 145, teleological, 8, 74, 76–7, 78, 79, 80, 148, 150, 151 83, 84, 85, 90, 91, 100, 167 n.4 failure of, 130, 136, 137 See also xianchang ‘grain’ of, 137 time-image, 8, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 87, indirect speech, 51 166 n.2 interview, the documentary, 1, 15, Titicut Follies, 165 n.10 16, 27, 49, 50, 87, 117, 121–2, Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS), 15, 132, 135, 136, 140, 155, 170 n.8 27, 161 n.6 on-screen, 133, 138, 139, 140, 145, Totaro, Donato, 167 n.6 151 tracking shot, 1, 3, 4, 15, 29, 48, 88, off-screen, 64, 125, 132, 138, 141, 142 145, 150, 153, 155 Tsai, Ming-liang, 99, 100 timbre of, 10, 134, 137, 145 Index 197

voiceover, the, 14, 18, 25, 28, 52, xianchang 81, 104, 131, 136, 141, 170 n.1 aesthetics of, 6, 7, 29, 41, 44, 54, 74, See also sound; talking head, the; 80, 81, 90, 91, 95, 102, 105, xianchang 114, 132, 138, 150, 156 and being ‘on the scene’, 5, 6, 9, 10, Walker, Janet, 134, 135, 144 29, 30, 31, 36, 37, 41, 43, 55, Wang, Bing, 2–4, 7, 10, 22, 23, 24, 44, 56, 72, 74, 80, 88, 90, 103, 105, 63–7, 68, 69, 70, 133, 140, 142–5, 109, 111, 112, 113, 126, 128, 146, 149, 150, 152, 154, 155, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 161 n.8, 166 n.15, 169 n.10 138, 145, 146, 149, 163 n.20 Wang, Fen, 161 n.10 and contingency, 6, 7, 31–2, 34–5, 36, 37, 41, 42, 44, 60, 66, 152, Wang, Guangli, 15, 28, 75, 132, 134 156, 158, 159 Wang, Hui, 158, 168 n.10 and embodiment, 9, 29, 104, 105, Wang, Jianwei, 112 114–15, 120, 129, 137 Wang, Qi, 58, 66, 88, 96, 121 and intercultural transmission, 32 Wang, Yiman, 109, 110, 147, 168 n.4 and intersubjectivity, 103, 105–7, We are the...of Communism [Women shi 112, 114–15, 128 gongchanzhuyi shenglüehao], 169 and liveness, 6, 7, 30–1, 35, 42, 66, n.13 70, 71, 72, 80, 104, 129, 130, Weekend Plot [Miyu shiqi xiaoshi], 57 133, 149, 150, 151, 156, 157, Wei, Bin, 21, 25, 27 158 Wei, Jiangang, 118, 169 n.14 and mediation, 6, 10, 30, 130, 132, Wen, Pulin, 12, 16 133, 150, 152 West of the Tracks [Tiexi qu], 2–4, 5, 7, and performance, 11, 29, 30, 114, 32, 38, 44, 63–7, 68, 69, 71, 73, 117, 151 96, 153, 154, 161 n.8 and postsocialism, 5, 6, 7, 11, 32, Rails [Tielu], 3–4, 63, 66, 67, 166 34–5, 156, 158 n.15 and sound, 10, 30, 131–4 Remnants [Yanfen Jie], 3, 64, 67 and space, 5, 7, 8, 9, 29, 30, 74, 80, Rust [Gongchang], 3, 63–5, 67 90, 95, 158 Wheat Harvest [Maishou], 168 n.4 and time, 29, 73, 74, 75, 80, 81, 85, When the Bow Breaks [Wei chao], 162 88–92, 95, 97, 101, 102 n.14 and voice, 136–8, 150–1 Winston, Brian, 160 n.1 and witnessing, 135–8 Wiseman, Frederick, 7, 16, 26, 44, Xiang Pingli (a.k.a Our Love)[Xiang 51–6, 67, 70, 138, 157, 161 n.7, Pingli], 114–5, 121, 169 n.7, 165 n.10, 165 n.11 169 n.9, 169 n.10 Wong, Kar-wai, 99 Xiao Shang Going Home [Xiao Shan hui work unit (danwei), 49, 161 n.3 jia], 97, 98, 99, 100 Wu, Wenguang, 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, Xiao Wu [Xiao Wu], 30, 99, 100 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, Xin jilu yundong. see ‘New 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 52, Documentary Movement’ (xin 61, 68, 69, 74, 76, 79, 80, 81, jilupian yundong) 84–91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, Xu, Tong, 168 n.4 102, 112, 132, 134, 139, 142, 143, Xu, Xin, 162 n.14 147, 148, 161 n.6, 161 n.7, 163 n.19, 166 n.16, 167 n.5, 168 n.9 Yamagata International Documentary Wurtzler, Steve, 163 n.21 Film Festival, 2, 16, 52, 98, 100 198 Index

Yang, Edward, 99 Zhang, Yuan, 12, 45, 48–50, 55, 94, Yang, Fudong, 23 112, 115, 121, 155, 169 n.10 Yang, Lina, 112, 161 n.10, 162 n.11 Zhang, Xudong, 89 Ying, Weiwei, 112, 139 Zhang, Zhen, 29, 30, 41, 163 n.20 Yunfest (Yunnan Multi Culture Visual Zhao, Liang, 21, 110, 139 Festival), 38, 162 n.14, 166 n.17, Zheng, Tiantian, 106 171 n.10 zhenshi, 162 n.15 Yurchak, Alexei, 7, 33, 34 Zhou, Chuanji, 167 n.7 Zhou, Enlai, 161 n.5 Zhang, Hanzi, 116, 169 n.7, 169 n.10 Zhang, Ming, 7, 44, 57–60, 61, 63, 65, Zhou, Hao, 96 67, 68, 70, 162 n.10, 165–6 n.13 Zhou, Ming, 117 Zhang, Nuanxin, 168 n.7 Zhu, Chuanming, 21, 23, 70 Zhang, Xiaping, 1–2, 4, 5, 71, 85, 132, Zhu, Jinjiang, 106, 168 n.4 136, 170 n.2 zhuantipian. see documentary genres Zhang, Yaxuan, 63 Zoo,16 Zhang, Yingjin, 13, 33 Zuo, Yixiao, 162 n.10