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Universi^ M icr^lm s International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8302457 Shott, Paul THE ROLE OF HIGHWAYS AND LAND CARRIAGE IN TSARIST RUSSIA The Universily o f Oklahoma PH.D. 1982 University Microfilms i nternsti one!300 N. Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. MI 48106 Copyright 1982 by Shott, Paul All Rights Reserved PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V 1. Glossy photographs or pages. 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print_____ 3. Photographs with dark background_____ 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy. 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page. 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages / 8. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in ______spine 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print. 11. 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Other_______________________________________________________ _____________ University Microfilms International THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE ROLE OF HIGHWAYS AND LAND CARRIAGE IN TSARIST RUSSIA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY PAUL SHOTT Norman, Oklahoma 1982 © 1982 PAUL SHOTT AT.L RIGHTS RESERVED THE ROLE OF HIGHWAYS AND LAND CARRIAGE IN TSARIST RUSSIA A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY APPROVED BY -------- DISSERTATION COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS If it had not been for the encouragement and advice of many friends and colleagues, this dissertation would simply have been another academic exercise. Instead the work became a true labor of love and gave me many insights about land transportation in general and about Tsarist Russia in particular that I had never understood or appreciated. Having been trained in Soviet society first, my interest has now expended into Old Russia, a combination that closed a large hiatus in the understanding of my own Slavic heritage. These various interests came together in the research topic suggested by Dr. Gary Thompson, a teacher and a friend. Professor Thompson was instrumental in treinsforming vague concepts into clear, insightful ideas about transportation- economic geography. As my dissertation advisor, he pushed and tugged for historical accuracy and geographical preci­ sion without being heavy handed. Then, of course, apprecia­ tion is extended to my committee members for their varied expertise on the subject matter. Dr. Thomas Duffy, Plymouth State College, University of New Hampshire, and Dr. John Windhausen, St. Anselm's College iv Manchester, New Hampshire, intellectually stimulated me about Imperial Russia. Mr. Yuri Raskin, a scholar emigre, was indispensable in helping me with the correctness and interpretation of the Russian translations. Moreover, I wish to express my thanks to Kitty Liber, who in a matter of few weeks proofread, edited, and typed the entire manu­ script. I am also grateful to Lisa Ritter and Ellen Loiselle who aided in the preparation of the illustrations. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................... iv LIST OF TABLES ...................... X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS............... xii LIST OF APPENDICES ................. xiv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ............... 1 Transportation in the Economy of Russia Approaches and Organization II. PERCEPTIONS OF RUSSIAN ROADS AND TRAVELING.................... 8 Introduction Opinions from Forèign Travelers Opinions from Russian Travelers Absence of Roads eind Highways Physical Effects of Road Riding Psychological Effects Fast Driving Conclusion III. LAND TRANSPORT MODES ......... 25 Introduction Traditional Commercial Modes Winter Freight Modes Method of Locomotion and Traction Horse-Cartage Oxen-Cartage Dog-Cartage Reindeer-Cartage Camel-Cartage Traditional Passenger Vehicles Public Transportation The Carriage-oBuilding Industry Modern Transportation Development Russian Development Conclusions Chapter Page IV. EFFECTS OF SEASONALITY AND ENVIRON­ MENT ON ROAD TRANSPORTATION. 55 Introduction Dimensions of Cold Weather Winter-Road Characteristics Ice-Highways Winter Impediments Dimensions of Warm Weather Sprinq-Rasputitsa Au tumn-Rasputitsa Terrain Rasputitsa and Isolation Seasonal Employment Conclusion V. THE RUSSIAN POST-ROAD SYSTEM AND METHOD OF POSTING ............. 90 Introduction Early Post-Road Development Modern Post-Road Development Post-Road Organization System of Posting Free-Post Workers by Provinces Post-Road Drivers Travel Documents Important Post-Roads Moscow Highway Macadamisation of the Moscow Road The Trans-Siberian Post-Road The Georgian Military-Highway Conclusions VI. THE STATE PUBLIC HIGHWAY SYSTEM . 128 Introduction The Public Highway Organization Public Highway Travel Macadamisation of the Public Roads Local Control of Roads The Decline of Public Road Construction Conclusions Vll Chapter Page VII. PRINCIPLES OF ROAD DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION ...................... 155 Introduction Road Engineering Principles Reasons for Wide Highways Highway Beautification Macadami zation Macadam Advantages and Disadvantages Maintenance and Repair Construction and Repair Expenditures Highway Bridges Boulevards, Streets, and Sidewalks . Street Pavement and Maintenance . Workers Employed in Road, Bridge,.and Street Building........................ Conclusions ............................ VIII. THE CARTING INDUSTRY ................. 189 Introduction .......................... Technical Aspects of Land Carriage . Taxes, Tolls, and Tariffs ......... Organization Structure ............. Spatial Distribution of Carters .... Cartage vs. Railway Employment . Cartage vs. Water Employment’.. Sex, Age, and Ethnic Characteristics . The Russian Profession of Pedlars . Conclusions ............................ IX. ROAD TRANSPORTATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.......................... 222 Introduction .......................... Method and Pattern of Business .... Financial Management ............... Markets-Prices-Wages ............... Land Transportation and the Rural Economy ............................... The Road Network in the Black-Earth R e g i o n .................... .. V l l l Chapter Page Storage Facilities Disequilibrium in Prices Famine Commercial Fairs Conclusions X. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS TRANSPORTATION GEOGRAPHY AS THE BASIC P E R S P E C T I V E ........................243 An Overview of the Old Economy Impacts of the Russian Physical Environment The Effects of Seasonality and the Russian Economy Seasonality and the Rural Economy Road Development and Management Specific Conclusions . Postscript A P P E N D I C E S ...................................259 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................... 302 ABBREVIATIONS ............................ 338 IX LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Russian Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Prior to 1917 ......................... 53 4.1 Duration of Ice-Highways of Major Basins for 1900-1909........................ 70 4.2 The Effect of Rasputitsa Compared to the Geographical Areaof Fifty European Provinces, 1851 ........... 84 5.1 Provinces with 500 Versts (about 331 miles) or More of Stoned or Partly Stoned Roads Under Authority of Ministry of Ihterior, 1 9 1 2 .......... 95 5.2 Workers in Zemstvo Free-Post