2 Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy Selected findings from the first five rounds Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 1

Contents Attitudes and behaviours Europe’s economic and Addressing key social issues 2 ESS participating countries 4 in a changing Europe societal challenges demand better One Europe or many? 5 and more innovative policy-making. Work in the Great Recession 6 Over the past decade, the ESS • to introduce soundly-based indicators Social determinants of health 8 has become an authoritative of national progress, based on citizens’ source of reliable data about perceptions and judgements of key aspects We need reliable and accessible A woman's work is never done? 9 Europe’s evolving social, political of their societies data so that policymakers have Welfare under pressure? 10 and moral fabric • to undertake and facilitate the training of National accounts of well-being 12 European social researchers in comparative It was in the 1990s that the European quantitative measurement and analysis a real understanding of the problems Political aftermath of the 14 Science Foundation first identified the need • to improve the visibility and outreach of Great Recession to be tackled and to ensure that for a new regular and rigorous Europe-wide data on social change among academics, Experiencing ageism 15 survey to chart changes in social values policymakers and the wider public. the policies they create are targeted Marriage and partnerships 16 throughout Europe. By 2001, the European Commission had been joined by 21 national In 2005, the ESS became the first social Political participation post 18 and effective... [The ESS is] making communism research councils and ministries throughout science project to win the Descartes Prize Europe to jointly fund the first round of the for ‘excellence in scientific collaborative a major contribution to the Fear of crime 19 ambitious European Social Survey (ESS). research’. It was included in the European creation of effective social and The politics of immigration 20 Strategy Forum for Research Infrastructures Immigrants' civic participation 21 Since then the survey has been fielded every (ESFRI) European Roadmap for Research two years and over time a detailed research Infrastructures in 2006 and again in 2008 and economic policies in Europe Want to know more? 22 infrastructure has flourished. All EU Member 2010. In 2013 an application was submitted A successful European 24 States apart from Malta have participated to award the ESS the legal status European collaboration in the ESS, as have nine other countries Research Infrastructure Consortium – ERIC – Máire Geoghegan-Quinn, EU Commissioner outside the EU (Albania, Kosovo, Iceland, in order to secure the long-term sustainability for Research, Innovation and Science Israel, Norway, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey of the survey. and Ukraine). Remarks made as part of the opening address The ESS is widely used by academics, to the ESS International Conference – ‘Cross- The objectives of the ESS Research researchers, politicians, policymakers and National Evidence from European Social Survey: Infrastructure, updated in 2013, are: journalists interested in understanding Exploring Public Attitudes, Informing Public Policy • to chart stability and change in social more about patterns in public attitudes and in Europe’, Nicosia, Cyprus, 23 November 2012 structure, conditions and attitudes in behaviour over time and across countries. Europe and to interpret how Europe’s This booklet focuses on a selection of social, political and moral fabric is changing findings based on the first five rounds of • to achieve and spread higher standards ESS data. It draws on published research of rigour in cross-national research in the from leading international scholars social sciences including, for example, complemented by additional analysis from sampling, data collection, reduction of bias researchers in the Centre for Comparative and the reliability of questions Social Surveys, City University London. 2 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 3

Some core questions are asked in every Investigating public attitudes across round of the survey. Other topics change European countries every two years and Addressing from round to round, enabling the survey disseminating the results without delay to cover a wide range of topics and adapt enables governments, policy analysts and key social to changing demands. These round-by- scholars to keep up-to-date with social round ‘rotating modules’ are designed by trends that affect how democracy is working issues leading academic specialists in the field and how European citizens perceive their in association with questionnaire design lives, their nations and the world. The ESS questionnaires cover specialists within the ESS team. The a wide range of topics that subjects and authors of rotating modules are Round 4 tap into key issues facing selected following a Europe-wide competition 2008/09 contemporary Europe at each round. Some modules have been • Attitudes to age and ageism selected to be repeated. • Welfare

Round 3 2006/07 • Personal and social well-being • The timing of life

Round 5 2010/11 • Work, family and well-being in recession • Trust in justice

CORE TOPICS IN ALL ROUNDS Round 2 Round 6 • Moral and social values 2004/05 2012/13 • Health and well-being • Work, family and • Personal and social well-being • Trust in institutions well-being • Understanding and evaluations • Education and occupation • Health care seeking of democracy • Social capital and social trust • Economic morality • Household circumstances • Citizen involvement and democracy Round 1 • Social exclusion 2002/03 • Political values and engagement • Citizenship Round 7 • Socio-demographic characteristics • Immigration 2014/15 • Immigration • Health inequalities • Crime • Immigration 4 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 5

The last ten years have seen significant Significant differences in 34 progress towards European integration – ESS 4 One Europe EU membership has expanded to include political engagement and social many of the countries in central and attitudes persist between participating or many? eastern Europe and there has been greater eastern and western Europe harmonization of policy in some areas. countries Despite closer European Has this led to a convergence in attitudes integration significant and behaviour between the different regions More than 30 countries 10 15 differences between of Europe? Can Europe and its citizens across Europe took part in countries remain increasingly be considered as sharing • Southern Europe (particularly Greece) at least one of the first five a common experience or do important has seen a steep decline in political rounds of the ESS 19 national and regional differences persist legitimacy following the Great Recession. and continue to emerge? The impact of economic decline on political 29 legitimacy has been felt more strongly in 3 30 26 ESS data collected in more than 30 Eurozone countries compared with the 17 countries at multiple points in time can rest of Europe. 8 be used to shed light on this issue. The 17 9 11 research presented in this booklet points to • The Nordic countries are most trusting of 6 2 important differences between European their police and courts and believe that 31 18 22 countries in many areas. their institutions are legitimate holders of 21 power and authority; while eastern, and 5 1 16 7 Significant differences in political sometimes southern, European countries 13 27 32 28 engagement and social attitudes persist tend to be less trusting. between eastern and western Europe, 23 underpinned by differences in history, culture, • Political engagement remains lower in institutional and legal frameworks. There is former communist countries compared 12 14 20 33 also evidence of a growing economic and with western Europe. This disengagement political divide emerging between north reflects dissatisfaction with the current and south, fuelled by countries’ differing political reality as much as the legacy 24 experiences of the Eurozone crisis. of communism. ESS Participation Rounds 1- 5 25 Key findings covered in more detail in the • While attitudes towards homosexuality booklet include: have become more permissive across 5 rounds 4 rounds 3 rounds 2 rounds 1 round many European countries, this is not the ESS IMPACT 1 Austria 10 Norway 18 Czech Republic 23 Bulgaria 27 Croatia 34 Iceland • Workers in the Nordic countries appear case across much of eastern Europe 2 Belgium 11 Poland 19 Estonia 24 Cyprus 28 Italy In 2008 an international review to have been affected less severely by where agreement that gay people should 3 Denmark 12 Portugal 20 Greece 25 Israel 29 Latvia panel chaired by Bob Groves the economic crisis than workers in be free to live their lives as they wish 4 Finland 13 Slovenia 21 Slovakia 26 Russia 30 Lithuania declared that “the importance of other areas of Europe. This may reflect remains low. 5 France 14 Spain 22 Ukraine 31 Luxembourg the ESS… and its clear signals differences in the levels of employment 6 Germany 15 Sweden 32 Romania protection available to them compared 7 Hungary 16 Switzerland 33 Turkey of impact justify continuous with other countries. 8 Ireland 17 UK funding to… maintain its quality” 9 Netherlands 6 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 7

What effect did the economic crisis their organisation had recently experienced Opportunities for training declined in precipitated by the bank failures of 2008 financial difficulties; there had been staff many countries. The odds of receiving Declining job quality may serve to undermine Work in have on people’s everyday experience of reductions in the workplace; or their own jobs training were 20 per cent lower in 2010/11 work and family life? In 2010/11 the ESS had become less secure. compared with 2004/05, even taking people's commitment to the Great repeated questions on this topic first asked account of other possible changes in the work and prospects for in 2004/05, allowing a direct comparison of Job insecurity rose sharply in the liberal workforce and workplaces. The most future economic growth Recession people’s experiences in the period prior to economies of the UK and Ireland, as well as significant declines were in eastern Europe, the crisis and a period when many countries in southern and eastern Europe though not followed by Ireland. In contrast there was The economic crisis has had a had been experiencing recession. in the Nordic countries or the Continental no decline in training in the Nordic countries significant effect on people’s countries i.e. Germany, Belgium, the whilst Germany and Belgium actually saw experience of work. However, A team of European researchers led by Netherlands or France. There is no evidence increased provision. Countries with stronger the effects have not been felt Duncan Gallie from the University of Oxford that the economic crisis led employers to regulations for protecting people’s jobs – equally across Europe found that the crisis had significant effects change the structure of the workforce by leading to longer-term relationships between on the quality of work. The size of these increasing the proportion of workers in employers and their workforce – were more effects varied across countries depending on less secure temporary jobs (although the likely to maintain training provision. the severity of the economic downturn and proportion of part-time workers did increase in the protection afforded by different welfare most countries). The rise in job insecurity was Experience of work-family conflictamong regimes and employment regulations. felt equally among permanent employees as married and cohabiting couples increased well as part-time and temporary workers. in most countries. A number of changes Between 2004/05 and 2010/11: in working conditions contributed to the change, including an increase in working Work intensity – the effort required and unsocial hours; an increase in working the time pressures of work – rose in all overtime, and at short notice; and the growth regions of Europe. The rise in work intensity in job insecurity. The pressure imposed by was clearly linked to the experience of work on family life was generally higher economic crisis. Employees were more likely in countries experiencing a greater rise to report higher levels of work intensity if in unemployment.

Gallie and his colleagues argue that declining job quality matters, not only because of the Proportion of Employees Receiving Training in 2004/05 and 2010/11 potential negative effect on individuals’ health % and well-being, but also because, longer 80 term, it may serve to undermine people’s 70 commitment to work and prospects for future 60 50 economic growth. 40 ESS IMPACT 30 20 The ESS is a key provider 10 of research training, whether 0 UK Spain Ireland Poland Finland Greece Estonia France Norway Sweden Belgium in the form of face-to-face Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany Denmark

Netherlands Gallie, D. (ed.) (2013) Economic Crisis, Quality of Work teaching or online courses ■ 2004/05 ■ 2010/11 Czech Republic and Social Integration: The European Experience, ESS 2004/05 and 2010/11 Oxford: Oxford University Press 8 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 9

A person’s health continues to depend people saying they were able to cope or live One of the greatest social changes across Researchers have used the ESS to explore heavily on where they live, how much comfortably on their current income rated Europe in recent decades has been the the effect of the so-called ‘double burden’ Social they earn, their education, career and their health better than those who said they A woman’s increase in female participation in the labour of paid and domestic work on women’s employment history. The persistence of were struggling. market. However, changes in women’s experiences of work-family conflict. One determinants such health inequalities within and between work is work patterns outside the home have not study of seven northern European countries countries presents an enduring challenge for Researchers have hypothesised that, by always been matched by changes in the way by Jacqueline Scott and Anke Plagnol found of health both scholars and policymakers. addressing socio-economic inequalities, never done? household tasks are divided between the that, despite the added burden of being welfare states can raise overall health sexes. It is still common for women to do the responsible for most of the housework, Health inequalities persist across Research using early rounds of ESS data outcomes at the country level. Eikemo and Women doing most of the majority of housework, even when they work women in these countries working full-time socio-economic groups from 21 countries found evidence of a clear colleagues found that around half of the housework can lead to feelings full-time. did not experience greater feelings of work-life link between health and multiple indicators cross-country variation in health outcomes of work-life conflict – for men conflict than men working similar hours. of socio-economic position. Terje Eikemo observed in the ESS could be attributed to The chart below – based on ESS data and colleagues found that people were more differences in the nature of welfare provision. collected in 2010/11– shows the share In fact, their study, based on ESS data likely to rate their health as ‘poor’, or to As shown in the chart below, Scandinavian of housework done by women living with collected in 2004/05, suggests it may be men report suffering from a limiting, long-standing and Anglo-Saxon welfare regimes appear a male partner for all women aged 20 to rather than women who have most to gain illness, if they had lower incomes, worked in to lead to better health outcomes compared 64 (light green bars) and just for women from a more equal distribution of housework lower status occupations or did not complete with southern and eastern regimes, with a working more than 30 hours a week between the sexes. Northern European secondary education. higher proportion of people rating their health (purple bars). It shows that even women men whose female partners did most of the as ‘(very) good’. This may be the result in full-time paid work are responsible, housework were more likely to experience A lack of income could affect health not only of the more universal coverage of health- on average, for around two-thirds of the work-family conflict compared with men who through reducing the availability of material care provision. total time heterosexual couples spend on took on a larger share of the housework. resources, but also by contributing to feelings housework. The distribution of household Perhaps men in this situation feel guilty for not of frustration and relative deprivation. Aside Research using ESS labour between men and women is most doing their fair share or perhaps the unequal from the link between health and objective data found evidence of equal in the Nordic countries and least division of household tasks creates tension income, Karen Olsen and Svenn-Age Dahl a clear link between health equal in southern Europe. between them and their partner. found evidence that self-reported health and multiple indicators of varied depending on people’s perceptions socio-economic position of their financial situation. They found that

Proportion of respondents who rate their health as ‘(very) good’, by welfare regime Proportion of housework done by women ESS IMPACT % % Scandinavian Anglo-Saxon Continental Southern Eastern 100 Across the world, approaching 100 90 90 80 60,000 people have registered 80 70 to use the ESS data website. 70 60 60 50 Users include academics, 50 40 40 30 students, think tanks and 30 20 20 10 government bodies 10 0 0 UK Israel Spain UK Russia Ireland France Poland Cyprus Croatia Finland Greece Italy Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Spain Portugal Hungary Germany Lithuania Denmark Ireland France Poland Finland Greece Norway Sweden Belgium Slovenia Portugal Hungary Switzerland Germany Denmark ■ All women Netherlands Switzerland

Netherlands ■ Luxembourg

Working > 30hrs/wk Czech Republic

ESS 2002/03 and 2004/05 Czech Republic ESS 2010/11 Note: Figures calculated for women aged 20-64 who live with their male partner

Eikemo, T.A., Bambra, C., Judge, K. and Ringdal, K. (2008) ‘Welfare state regimes and differences in self-perceived health in Europe: Scott, J. and Plagnol, A.C. (2012) ‘Work-family conflict and well-being in Northern Europe’ in Scott, J., Dex, S. and Plagnol, A.C. (eds.) A multilevel analysis’, Social Science & Medicine 66: 2281-2295 Gendered Lives: Gender Inequalities in Production and Reproduction, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Olsen, K.M. and Dahl, S. (2007) 'Health differences between European countries', Social Science & Medicine 64: 1665–1678 10 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 11

The welfare state, a cornerstone of the Proportion of respondents expressing concerns about welfare provision European Social Model, is under pressure. Overall, Europeans favour % ESS IMPACT Welfare Policymakers face the challenge of government involvement 100 responding to the new demands created to ensure the well-being of 90 National Coordinators in Poland by an ageing population, immigration and its citizens 80 have provided methodological under 70 globalisation at a time of fierce budgetary 60 training based on the ESS to the constraints. In the face of these pressures 50 pressure? 40 Central Statistical Office and the public legitimacy will be of paramount 30 National Bank of Poland importance in shaping future provision. 20 There is widespread public 10 support for the welfare state 7 and 9 on a 0-10 scale (with higher scores 0

A module of questions asked in 2008/09 indicating greater support for government UK

despite concerns about the Spain Latvia Russia Ireland France Poland Cyprus Croatia Finland Greece Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Romania Germany provides an in-depth perspective on how involvement). Interestingly, support for Denmark

economic consequences and Switzerland Netherlands welfare dependence Europeans view welfare provision. Although government involvement is highest in the Czech Republic collected before the full impact of the Great less well-developed welfare states of ■ Many people obtain benefits and services to which they are not entitled ■ Social benefits/services place too great a strain on economy Recession became apparent, the data eastern Europe. provides valuable insights into people’s ESS 2008/09 Note: Proportion of respondents who agree/strongly agree with each statement underlying attitudes. Stefan Svallfors argues People are critical of aspects of welfare that, overall, Europeans favour government provision. For example, in most countries – involvement to ensure the well-being of its with the exception of the Nordic countries – citizens. As the figure below shows, when a majority believes that many people manage 60 per cent in Ireland – agree that social asked how far it should be the government’s to obtain benefits and services to which they benefits and services place too great a strain People are less likely to favour widespread provision if they believe responsibility to provide a range of services are not entitled. There is also concern about on the economy. that provision puts a strain on the economy, that benefit claimants including adequate healthcare and a the economic consequences of provision in cheat the system or that tax authorities are inefficient or unfair reasonable standard of living for the old or many countries. Around half of people in the Research by Torben Fridberg, published in unemployed, most countries score between UK, France, Slovakia and Hungary – and an edited volume of findings from the ESS welfare module, demonstrates that popular while some people feel that the welfare Degree of support for government intervention support for the welfare state is related to state places a strain on the economy or that

Latvia the perceived legitimacy of the system. provision has led to welfare dependency, Ukraine ESS IMPACT Greece People are less likely to favour widespread these feelings are generally less prevalent Israel Bulgaria ESS has helped to inform and Russia government provision – or raising taxes than the belief that the welfare state Spain Hungary to pay for increased public spending – if has achieved its intended social goals of improve the methodology of Croatia Cyprus Portugal they believe that provision puts a strain on preventing poverty, reducing inequality and other surveys in Europe. Estonia Turkey the economy, that benefit claimants cheat making it easier to combine work and family Norway These include the European Finland Slovenia the system, or that the tax authorities are life. Belief in the positive achievements of the Sweden Values Survey (EVS), the Poland inefficient or unfair. There is therefore a risk welfare state is widespread, while criticism Romania Denmark that dissatisfaction with how the system tends to be concentrated among those European Quality of Life Survey Germany Czech Republic (EQLS), the Survey for Health, Ireland works may undermine long-term support for on the right of the ideological spectrum. Slovakia UK welfare provision. Higher levels of welfare provision increase Ageing and Retirement in Belgium France Netherlands perceptions of both the negative and positive Europe (SHARE) and the Switzerland The risk of a public backlash against the consequences of the welfare state. However, International Social Survey 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean score on support for intervention index (0-10) European Social Model should not be increased spending is most likely to lead Programme (ISSP) ESS 2008/09 overstated however. Wim van Oorschot to increased support for the welfare state’s Note: Scores are national averages derived from 6 items measured on a 0-10 scale and colleagues use ESS data to show that, achievements.

Svallfors, S. (2012) Welfare attitudes in Europe: Topline Results from Round 4 of the European Social Survey, London: Centre for Comparative Social Surveys Fridberg, T. (2012) ‘Legitimacy of the system and support for the welfare state’ in Ervasti, H. et al. (eds.) The Future of the Welfare State: Social Policy Attitudes and Social Capital in Europe, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Van Oorschot, W., Reeskens, T. and Meuleman, B. (2012) ‘Popular perceptions of welfare state consequences: A multilevel, cross-national analysis of 25 European countries’, Journal of European Social Policy 22:181-197 12 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 13

Governments around the world The data also suggests that people’s National well-being profiles increasingly recognise the need to Countries with similar feelings about the quality of relationships overall levels of well-being Positive feelings National look beyond economic indicators and with those close to them may differ from 7 also consider measures of their citizens’ can exhibit very different the extent to which they feel a sense Trust and belonging Absence of negative subjective well-being. The most common well-being profiles of trust or belonging with people more accounts of 6 feelings approach to measuring well-being, generally. In some countries (e.g. Bulgaria, well-being especially when making cross-national UK, Spain and Portugal) people are 5 comparisons, is to use a single measure Analysis of this data by the UK's New more positive about their relationships Countries with high levels of happiness or life satisfaction. However, Economics Foundation combining personal and with friends and family. In other countries 4 such summary measures only provide social well-being into an overall index of well- (e.g. Hungary, Sweden and Norway) people of personal well-being do Supportive Life 3 not necessarily have high a limited perspective on whether people being for each country reveals that Denmark, are, on average, more positive about their relationships satisfaction levels of social well-being, are living the good life. Switzerland and Norway have the highest levels connections to the wider community. and vice versa of overall well-being, while central and eastern An ESS module fielded in 2006/07 European countries such as the Ukraine, There are both similarities and differences in included a detailed suite of questions Bulgaria and Hungary have the lowest. the individual characteristics associated with enabling researchers to distinguish higher personal and social well-being: between different dimensions of Countries which score highly on measures of Positive functioning Vitality individuals’ personal well-being as personal well-being do not necessarily score • volunteering is associated with both higher well as different dimensions of social highly on social well-being and vice versa. As personal and social well-being Resilience and self-esteem well-being including the quality of the figure below shows, Spain and Portugal • ill-health or disability has a particularly people’s relationships with family and score much higher on social well-being than strong and negative effect on personal Austria Finland Hungary Portugal friends and their connection to the they do on personal well-being, as do most well-being but is also associated with wider community. central and eastern European countries. lower social well-being ESS 2006/07 Note: National average scores on individual components of personal and social well-being. The countries shown • although young people under 25 score have similar overall levels of well-being, but different mean scores on each component Levels of personal and social well-being highly on most measures of well-being they score lower than average on Ukraine Bulgaria measures of social trust Hungary Slovakia • women tend to score lower than men Portugal Estonia on personal well-being but higher on particular direction or aimed at improving Poland social well-being. well-being more generally. The chart above Women score lower than France Slovenia highlights how even countries with similar men on personal well-being but UK higher on social well-being Spain Researchers at the New Economics overall levels of well-being such as Austria ESS IMPACT Germany Belgium Foundation have used ESS data to and Finland or Hungary and Portugal can Items from the ESS well-being Cyprus construct well-being profiles – or national exhibit very different well-being profiles, Netherlands module have been widely Sweden accounts of well-being – for 22 European scoring higher on some measures and Ireland countries. These profiles provide a nuanced lower on others. An online interactive tool used to develop both the New Finland Norway picture of the character of well-being within is available to explore countries' well-being Economics Foundation (NEF) Austria Switzerland each country and can be used to decide profiles in more detail. national accounts of well-being, Denmark 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 whether policy needs to be targeted in a www.nationalaccountsofwellbeing.org and the UK’s Office for National Mean score for social and personal well-being (0-10) Statistics (ONS) Measuring ■ Personal well-being ■ Social well-being National Well-being Programme ESS 2006/07 Note: National average score for personal well-being derived from scores on five main components measured on a 0-10 scale New Economics Foundation (2009) National Accounts of Well-being: bringing real wealth onto the balance sheet, London: nef National average scores for social well-being derived from scores on two main components measured on a 0-10 scale 14 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 15

The after-effects of the Great Recession i.e. those in lower status occupations, Proportion of under 25s and 70+ who say they have experienced of 2008 in Europe are likely to extend far who are either currently unemployed or age-based prejudice in the last 12 months Political beyond direct effects on people’s material have experienced unemployment in the Experiencing % 100 well-being. Evidence from the ESS suggests past are most likely to distrust the political 90 aftermath that poor economic performance may even system and to feel dissatisfied with how ageism 80 70 pose a threat to the democratic legitimacy of democracy works. However, the increase in 60 those countries worst affected. dissatisfaction with economic performance It is not only older people 50 of the Great 40 since the start of the economic crisis – and who face discrimination 30 Research by Javier Polavieja uses ESS the corresponding decline in support for the because of their age 20 Recession 10 data to investigate the effect of economic political system – has not been confined 0

circumstances on public support for the to those who have personally experienced UK Israel Spain

Growing economic discontent Latvia Turkey Russia Ireland France Poland Cyprus Croatia Finland Greece Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Romania Germany political system. He compares levels of economic hardship. Denmark

may undermine the political Switzerland political trust and satisfaction with democracy Netherlands system, particularly in Eurozone ■ Under 25 ■ 70+ Czech Republic in 2004/05 and 2010/11 and finds The effect of the economic crisis on countries hit hardest by the ESS 2008/09 Great Recession evidence of a significant decline in most political legitimacy has been felt most countries. As the figure below shows, strongly in the Eurozone countries i.e. those the decline is most apparent in some of countries where scope for responding to the countries worst hit by the economic the crisis is more constrained. In the Growing concern about Europe’s ageing It is not only older people who face crisis including Spain, Ireland and, in Eurozone, but not in other European population has focused attention on the discrimination because of their age. particular, Greece (but also in France). countries, changes in attitudes towards the impact of ageism, with 2012 designated Young people in Europe also face particular political system 2004/05 to 2010/11 are European Year for Active Ageing and challenges as they make the transition to Further analysis confirms that the decline strongly correlated with the decline in GDP Solidarity between Generations. As adulthood. The proportion of people aged in support for the political system between over the same period. with other forms of prejudice, ageism – 70 and above who report experiencing 2004/05 and 2010/11 is explained by making unwarranted assumptions about age-based prejudice ranges from 15 per a parallel increase in the average level of people because of their age – can have cent in Sweden to 57 per cent in the Czech dissatisfaction with the economic situation a considerable detrimental impact on an Republic, while for people under 25 this over this period. The economically vulnerable, individual’s well-being, their behaviour and figure ranges from 18 per cent in Portugal their abilities. ESS data collected in 2008/09 to 77 per cent in Finland. suggests that ageism is one of the most Average change in political trust and satisfaction with democracy 2004/05 to 2010/11 ESS IMPACT pervasive forms of prejudice across Europe. As the figure above shows, in many 1.5 1.0 countries people under the age of 25 are In 2011, David Willetts, UK 0.5 A significant proportion of people in all significantly more likely to report experiencing Minister for Universities and 0.0 European countries report that they have age-based prejudice than people aged 70 -0.5 Science, noted that the ESS -1.0 experienced prejudice or been treated and above. This is particularly the case in -1.5 unfairly in the last year as a result of their the Nordic countries, the UK and Ireland. enables “governments, policy -2.0 analysts and scholars to keep -2.5 age. This figure ranges from around one in Whilst this may partly reflect young people’s -3.0 six people in Portugal and Cyprus to as high greater willingness to report prejudice it does up with societal trends that -3.5 as one in two in the Czech Republic, Finland suggest that young people’s experience UK Spain Ireland France Poland Finland affect how democracy is Greece Estonia Norway Sweden Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary and the Netherlands. In all countries the of ageism merits further investigation. Germany Denmark working and how European Netherlands proportion who report experiencing ageism

■ Political trust ■ Satisfaction with democracy Czech Republic citizens perceive their lives, is higher than the proportion who report ESS 2004/05 and 2010/11 experiencing prejudice or unfair treatment their nation and the world” Note: Political trust and satisfaction with democracy measured on 0-10 scale. The chart shows the average change in national mean scores over time, controlling for individual background characteristics as a result of their sex or ethnicity. Polavieja, J.G. (2013) ‘Economic crisis, political legitimacy and social cohesion’ in Gallie, D. (ed.) (2013) Economic Crisis, Quality of Work and Social Integration: The European Experience, Oxford: Oxford University Press 16 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 17

Across Europe, patterns of family formation Researchers Judith Soons and Matthijs Acceptance of homosexuality: Proportion agreeing: ‘Gay men and lesbians ESS IMPACT are changing: cohabitation, either as a Kalmijn suggest, for example, that the should be free to live their own lives as they wish’ Marriage precursor or as an alternative to marriage, value climate surrounding cohabitation The ESS was awarded the is becoming increasingly common. A can have a direct effect on the well-being 2010/11 Change since 2004/05 Year same-sex unions first legally recognised Descartes Prize for ‘excellence and growing number of countries have now of cohabiting couples. Their analysis of Netherlands 93 4 1998 in scientific collaborative legalised same-sex marriage or civil unions. ESS data collected between 2002/03 research’ in 2005 in recognition partnerships However, the prevalence of such non- and 2006/07 shows that married people Sweden 90 6 1995 traditional unions, the extent to which across Europe tend to have higher well- Denmark 90 2 1989 of its world-leading quality Acceptance of non-traditional they have gained acceptance in society being i.e. to be happier and feel more Belgium 87 8 2000 unions, including cohabitation, and the legal framework surrounding satisfied with their lives than people who UK 85 9 2005 and homosexuality continues­ them continue to vary significantly across are cohabiting. This remains the case Norway 84 6 1993 countries. Data from the ESS sheds light even after controlling for differences in the to vary across Europe Ireland 84 6 2010 on the nature and potential consequences background characteristics of married and France 83 7 1999 of these contextual differences. cohabiting couples. Germany 83 9 2001

Switzerland 83 8 2007 Married people across Spain 81 7 2005 Europe tend to have higher Finland 75 12 2002 well-being than people who Czech Republic 67 8 2006 are cohabiting. The well-being Portugal 63 1 2010

gap is lower in countries where Slovenia 53 -2 2006

cohabitation is more prevalent Greece 52 -1 X

and where fewer people Hungary 48 -3 2009

disapprove of cohabitation Poland 48 5 X

Slovakia 45 -2 X The size of the well-being advantage Estonia 43 2 X associated with being married varies Ukraine 34 -3 X significantly across European countries. Cohabitation has the greatest negative round of the survey – asks people how much same-sex marriage. Acceptance is also high – effect on well-being in Romania while in they agree or disagree with the statement and has grown since 2004/05 – in countries several countries, including the Netherlands that ‘Gay men and lesbians should be free to such as the UK and Spain which have more and Norway, well-being is the same or higher live their own lives as they wish’. Agreement recently legalised same-sex partnerships. among cohabitees. Soons and Kalmijn use with this statement has increased over However, acceptance of homosexuality ESS data to demonstrate that the well-being time in most western European countries. remains low in countries such as Slovakia, gap between marriage and cohabitation is However, there is less evidence of change in Poland and Estonia where no legal recognition lower in countries where cohabitation is more many eastern European countries. of same-sex partnerships exists. This prevalent and where fewer people disapprove pattern is consistent with the fact that legal of cohabitation. The table above shows that countries recognition is likely to follow prevailing social which are most accepting of homosexuality, attitudes. However, it is also possible that Acceptance of homosexuality also varies including the Netherlands, Sweden and institutionalising same-sex partnerships significantly across countries. One of the Denmark, were among the early adopters through legislation may help to shape ESS’s core questions – included in every of civil partnerships and have since legalised subsequent attitudes on homosexuality. Soons, J. and Kalmijn, M. (2009) ‘Is marriage more than cohabitation? Well-being differences in 30 European countries’, Journal of Marriage and Family 71:1141-1157 18 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 19

Two decades after transition to democracy, participation is lower in post-authoritarian Proportion of respondents who worry about violent crime, and those whose worry political participation in central and eastern central and eastern European countries affects their quality of life % Political Europe remains significantly lower than compared with the established democracies Fear of in western Europe. People are less likely in western Europe. The participation gap 100 90 participation to engage in institutionalised political cannot solely be attributed to the residual crime 80 action – contacting a politician, working effects of older cohorts growing up under a 70 60 for a political party or organisation – or via non-democratic regime and being used to Fear of crime – and lack of 50 post non-institutionalised routes such as signing limited political involvement. 40 trust in the police – can have 30 a petition or joining a demonstration. Why significant consequences for 20 might this be? What are the prospects that Further analysis suggests that lower 10 communism well-being 0

participation levels will increase in future? participation rates in post-authoritarian UK Israel Spain Russia Ireland France Poland Cyprus Croatia Finland Greece Estonia Norway Ukraine Sweden Bulgaria Belgium Slovakia Slovenia Portugal Hungary Germany Lithuania A lack of good governance regimes can be explained by current Denmark Switzerland Netherlands ■ Worry about violent crime ■ Worrying affects quality of life and high levels of corruption Marc Hooghe and Ellen Quintelier argue political reality, namely a lack of good Czech Republic contribute to low political that persistently low levels of participation governance, continuing high levels of ESS 2010/11 engagement in central and in central and eastern Europe reflect the corruption, and relatively poor economic eastern Europe current political situation in these countries performance, all of which can serve to A safe society is a core demand of citizens Across all countries, women, the young and and are not simply an inevitable legacy of reduce trust and discourage people from and central for their well-being. Fear of the elderly are the most likely to feel that fear an authoritarian past. They pool ESS data engaging with politics. crime can have a direct detrimental effect on of crime reduces their quality of life. collected between 2002/03 and 2008/09 to well-being and is arguably one of the most compare participation rates across regions. These findings indicate that generational pressing concerns affecting people’s quality Fear of crime appears to be related to They make separate comparisons for people replacement alone cannot be relied upon of life in some countries. people’s trust in authority and, in particular, born in or before 1979 and those born after to raise participation levels in central and the police. Analysis of ESS data shows that 1979 and find that even among the younger eastern Europe. Citizen engagement is likely ESS data collected in 2010/11 shows that those people reporting that fear of crime cohort, i.e. those who came of age politically to remain low unless future governments are countries vary not only in the extent to which reduces their quality of life have less trust in following the transition to democracy, political able to improve performance. their citizens are afraid of crime but also in the police and are less likely to think that the the extent to which this fear leads to reduced police are doing a good job. Proportion of respondents in established and post-authoritarian democracies well-being. In the figure above, the light engaging in institutionalised and non-institutionalised political action green bars represent those who worry about A team of researchers led by Jonathan % violent crime and the purple bars represent Jackson has looked in more detail at patterns 40 35 those who feel their worry has an impact on of trust in justice across Europe. They find 30 their quality of life. The relationship between that the Nordic countries are most trusting 25 the two is not the same across all countries. of their police and courts and believe that 20 their institutions are legitimate holders of

ESS IMPACT 15 Despite fear of crime being relatively high power and authority; while eastern, and 10 in the Nordic countries, the impact upon sometimes southern, European countries Questions from the ESS Trust 5 quality of life there is low, significantly lower tend to be less trusting. in Justice module have been 0 Younger cohorts Older cohorts Younger cohorts Older cohorts than in many southern and eastern European adopted by the EC’s Euro-justis (born after 1979) (born before 1979) (born after 1979) (born before 1979) countries. In Greece and Lithuania, for project to provide EU institutions Institutionalised Non-Institutionalised ■ Post-authoritarian countries ■ Established democracies example, more than two in five people feel and Member States with new that their well-being is affected by their fear ESS 2002/03, 2004/5, 2006/07 and 2008/09 of crime compared with around one in ten indicators for assessing public Note: Percentage of respondents taking part in at least one politcal act in the past 12 months. Post-authoritarian countries include Bulgaria, Czech Republic, East Germany, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia in Norway. confidence in justice Established democracies include Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, UK and West Germany Hooghe, M. and Quintelier, E. (2013) ‘Political participation in European countries: The effect of authoritarian rule, corruption, lack of good Jackson, J. et al. (2012) Trust in Justice: Topline Results from Round 5 of the European Social Survey, London: Centre for governance and economic downturn’, Comparative European Politics, advance online publication 18 March 2013, doi:10.1057/cep.2013.3 Comparative Social Surveys 20 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 21

The electoral success of far-right parties, Elisabeth Ivarsflaten used data collected The political consequences of immigration The ESS is a valuable tool such as Greece’s Golden Dawn and the anti- in 2002/03 to model support for far-right are usually considered in terms of how for studying the attitudes and The Islam Party for Freedom in the Netherlands, parties in seven European countries: Austria, Immigrants’ members of the public and policymakers following the Great Recession has prompted Denmark, Flanders, France, Netherlands, in the receiving country respond to the behaviours of immigrants politics of renewed interest in the reasons for these Norway and Switzerland over the same civic presence of immigrants. Also important to parties’ appeal. While their success may period. She compared the extent to which consider are the attitudes and experiences immigration partly be linked to the economic uncertainty support for the Far Right has been driven by participation of immigrants themselves. As the proportion and austerity facing the Eurozone, analysis of different grievances including dissatisfaction of immigrants in many European countries of immigrants. She finds that, although Concerns over the cultural ESS data – albeit data collected before the with the economy; distrust of politicians and/ Many immigrants play an continues to grow, the strength of civil immigrants are initially less likely to threat posed by immigration economic crisis – suggests that support for or the EU; and anti-immigrant sentiment. active role in civil society society in Europe will depend increasingly on participate than individuals born in that boosts support for far-right anti-immigration parties also owes much to Her findings suggest that the common factor whether immigrants are sufficiently integrated country, immigrants do come to play an parties in Europe concerns over the effects of immigration on which drove support for far-right parties into society to play an active role. active role in civil society over time either a country’s culture and way of life. is anti-immigrant sentiment and a desire through membership of a trade union or for tougher restrictions on who should be The ESS is a valuable tool for studying political party, volunteering for an action allowed to enter and remain in the country. the attitudes and behaviour of immigrants group or campaigning organisation or taking as it is one of the only cross-national studies symbolic action through signing a petition, A second study conducted by Geertje to collect data from non-citizens. The boycotting products or joining a protest. Lucassen and Marcel Lubbers used the survey includes questions about country of same data – this time across 11 countries – origin, length of residence and citizenship As the figure below shows, immigrants to explore the relationship between anti- status. Pooling data across multiple rounds are increasingly likely to participate the immigrant attitudes and support for the Far of the survey provides sufficient cases for longer they have lived in a country. After Right in more detail. In particular they sought detailed analysis. 20 years’ residence immigrants are as likely, to distinguish the extent to which support for or even more likely, to participate compared far-right parties was driven by the perception Researcher Mariya Aleksynska pools ESS with people born in the country. Acquiring that immigration poses a threat to jobs and data collected between 2002/03 and citizenship status also has a positive effect the economy and/or by the perception that 2008/09 to study the civic participation on participation. immigration and cultural diversity pose a threat to the country’s way of life. Proportion of respondents taking part in civic action in the last 12 months, by immigrant status Their results suggest that while in 2002/03 % 50 both were important drivers of anti-immigrant 45 sentiment, perceived cultural threat was a 40 ESS IMPACT 35 stronger predictor of support for far-right 30 parties than perceived economic threat. The ESS findings on well-being 25 study also considered the possibility that 20 and trust, published in a 2010 15 Muslims may be seen as posing a particular collective monograph, were 10 cultural threat but found no evidence of a link 5 used in the development of 0 between the proportion of Muslims living in a Trade Union member Volunteered with campaign organisation Taken symbolic action country and support for far-right parties. legislation in Bulgaria, including the Investment Promotion Act ■ Non-immigrants ■ All immigrants ■ Immigrants with citizenship ■ Immigrant resident > 20 yrs (IPA) and the Law on Foreigners ESS 2002/03, 2004/05, 2006/07, 2008/09 Note: Symbolic action refers to signing a petition, boycotting or taking part in a demonstration in the Republic of Bulgaria Sample includes those migrating from 92 countries to 19 destination countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK

Ivarsflaten, E. (2008) ‘What unites right-wing populists in western Europe? Re-examining grievance mobilization models in seven successful Aleksynska, M. (2011) ‘Civic participation of immigrants in Europe: Assimilation, origin and destination cases’, Comparative Political Studies 41:3-23 country effects’, European Journal of Political Economy 27:566-585 Lucassen, G. and Lubbers, M. (2012) ‘Who fears what? Explaining far-right-wing preference in Europe by distinguishing perceived cultural and economic ethnic threats’, Comparative Political Studies 45:547-574 22 European Social Survey Exploring public attitudes, informing public policy 23

Six ESS surveys have now been conducted, The ESS has become a major European ESS Topline Results Series: accessible carried out every two years and covering research facility and an authoritative short reports of findings on topics such Want to more than 30 countries throughout Europe. monitor of social change. Its cutting-edge as welfare, trust in justice, and work and Further rounds are planned to paint an methodology and knowledge transfer have well-being. know more? accurate picture of European attitudes, helped to place Europe at the forefront values and behaviour across both time and of quantitative social measurement. The ESS is a research countries. So far the ESS has generated: Academically driven, the ESS is also infrastructure serving many intended to inform social policy at a national thousands of academic and Almost 250,000 individual interviews and European level. Information on the ESSTrain: a programme of state-of-the-art non-academic users over the first five rounds survey’s methodology and findings is readily training courses for researchers across Europe Source: Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD) available through a range of channels: in approaches to comparative measurement.

ESS website: which allows unrestricted access to the project’s protocols, methods, data and other resources. www.europeansocialsurvey.org

ESS Policy Seminar Series: specialist seminars bringing together leading academics and policymakers to discuss how ESS data can inform debate on the key social and economic challenges More than 2,400 publications facing Europe. based on ESS data, including over 1,000 articles in peer-reviewed Quality enhancement programme: academic journals a continuing programme of studies Source: Malnar, B (2012) Google Scholar study Nesstar: an online data analysis tool which investigating issues associated with the of ESS-based publications can be used to explore ESS data. collection of large scale cross-national survey data such as minimising response ESS Multilevel Data: combines data from bias and using the internet to collect data. ESS respondents with national and regional Approaching 60,000 users registered level data from sources such as OECD, to use the ESS data website worldwide Edunet: an online training resource using WHO and Eurostat to make it easier for Further information on any aspect of Source: Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), ESS data to guide students through the researchers to explore how contextual factors the survey is available by contacting May 2013 analysis of large-scale cross-national data. might influence attitudes and behaviour. the ESS team: [email protected] 24 European Social Survey

A successful European ESS Organisational Structure Rounds 1-5 Public attitudes matter in Iceland Germany Netherlands democratic societies. They reflect what Slovenia Poland collaboration nal Coordin Natio ators citizens believe, want, fear and prefer. Bulgaria Hungary The research highlighted in this booklet Luxembourg Estonia They are difficult to measure, are often paints a vivid picture of the beliefs, values Ukraine Scientific Advisory Board and behaviours of citizens in Europe. and Funders’ Forum Belgium unexpressed, and cannot be inferred During this period of economic and political Czech Republic turmoil it is more important than ever to Denmark Austria from electoral choices alone... This is why identify patterns and trends in social attitudes and behaviour. Latvia Russia the ESS exists. It is specifically designed Core It is therefore reassuring that approaching Switzerland Scientific Sweden to meet the exacting demands of 60,000 people from across the world have Team Turkey Israel chosen to register at the ESS website academics, policymakers and civil society to access its detailed data or protocols. France Equally significant is the growing number Lithuania alike for rigorous cross-national data on of publications, in the form of articles and Slovakia Spain books. In addition to this output, the ESS Methods Group social attitudes and behaviour and Expert Panels Italy continues to exert its influence on cross- Portugal national methodology by championing the Romania Professor Sir Roger Jowell, most rigorous standards in survey design Ireland Croatia and data collection. Finland Norway Founding Director of the European Social Survey Greece Cyprus UK None of this would have been possible without the hard work and dedication of hundreds of researchers from right across the European Research Area (ERA). Within the ESS itself, the Core Scientific Team (CST) has driven the project academically, across Europe who have devoted around supported by excellent advice from both an hour of their time to share their views its Scientific Advisory Board chaired by with trained interviewers. Continued public Max Kaase and its Methods Group chaired participation in social surveys is essential in by Denise Lievesley. Meanwhile National order to produce the sort of data that can Coordination teams have excelled at the task lead to better policy and a better Europe. of realising the demanding ESS specification within their countries. Our biggest debt, Rory Fitzgerald, ESS Director, however, is to the 250,000 respondents City University London, 2013 Find out more about the ESS

The European Social Survey provides rigorous cross-national data about public attitudes and behaviour over time in more than 30 European countries. This booklet presents findings from the first five rounds of the survey.

Contents Addressing key social issues Experiencing ageism ESS participating countries Marriage and partnerships One Europe or many? Political participation post Work in the Great Recession communism Social determinants of health Fear of crime A woman's work is never done? The politics of immigration Welfare under pressure? Immigrants' civic participation National accounts of well-being Want to know more? Political aftermath of the A successful Eurpoean Great Recession collaboration

Find out more about the ESS: www.europeansocialsurvey.org

Contact the ESS team by e-mail: [email protected]

This booklet was produced with support from the European Union’s Framework Programme 7 (Research Infrastructures Priority, GA 262208). Funded by the

Neither the EC nor the ESS Core Scientific Team is liable for any use that is made of the information contained herein.

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