Communications Landscape

Background and purpose The Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging field that encompasses a wide range of devices connected to each other, and/or the internet to provide services such as real-time data collection and analytics. PATH is specifically looking into IoT for potentially monitoring cold chain equipment (CCE) inventories via automated data recording of equipment performance. Performance metrics may include vaccine compartment temperature, humidity, power availability, and door opening. A key component of IoT is wireless communications for transferring data between sensors and monitoring systems. This is especially important for health care facilities without access to traditional internet service providers and requires data transfer to another location with an internet connection. This landscape documents wireless data communication technologies and their performance characteristics, such as transmission range, network topology, licensing, and power consumption. Most of these technologies are protocols for transmitting data via modulated radio signal. The most commonplace of these include Wi-Fi, , and cellular. Satellite systems were not explored due to their high cost. Most IoT systems will use at least one wireless network communication technology at some point in the system. Documenting the specifications of these technologies is useful to us for several reasons:

• It aids in conversations when people have varying levels of knowledge of wireless network communications.

• It is helpful for evaluating data transmission methods used by IoT systems.

• It can guide our search for appropriate IoT systems to support CCE monitoring.

• It could reveal gaps in existing CCE monitoring technologies in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC)—prompting development of new technology.

Basic properties of radio communications Most radio communications technologies for data transmission are reliant on “line-of-sight propagation” between sender and receiver. As such, any objects (geography, buildings, traffic) that block the direct path between sender and receiver will impair signal quality and transmission range. In addition, maximum transmission range depends on the square root of antenna height above the ground due to the curvature of the earth.

3.57 ×

There are two main exceptions to thisℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (both 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘of which≈ are� typicallyℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚 for𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 audio only): • Low-frequency radio below 3 MHz (e.g., AM radio) can follow the contour of the earth’s surface as ground waves.

PATH is a global organization that works to accelerate health equity by bringing together public institutions, businesses, Mailing Address Date Published social enterprises, and investors to solve the world’s most pressing health challenges. With expertise in science, health, PO Box 900922 December 2019 economics, technology, advocacy, and dozens of other specialties, PATH develops and scales solutions—including Seattle, WA 98109 USA vaccines, drugs, devices, diagnostics, and innovative approaches to strengthening health systems worldwide. Street Address path.org 2201 Westlake Avenue Suite 200 Seattle, WA 98121 USA • Shortwave radio between approximately 1.7 and 30 MHz can reflect off the earth’s ionosphere, potentially allowing for global reach.

Methodology We took the steps below to complete this landscape: 1. We started with Wikipedia searches for different wireless communications, such as https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_wireless_data_standards.

o We looked at related topics and comparison tables to find additional technologies to research. 2. As we encountered network communication technologies through our research, we added them as a new row in the table. 3. We performed research to fill out all unfilled boxes in the table.

o We did not focus on finding the most reputable sources. If we found information on a website that looked questionable, we checked it against one or two other sources. This is meant to be a rough guide, not a rigorous technical reference.

o If a piece of data was not available after our search, we recorded “not found.” o For technologies that only defined higher levels of the network (i.e., software) or were not for data transmission (analog radio), we used “N/A” for any physical layer information that is not applicable. See Annex for information on network theory.

o If we found several values for the same field, we kept the seemingly more accurate value. If that could not be determined, the value with the best performance was picked. For example, if maximum range is listed as 50 m in one source and 100 m in another, 100 m was recorded. The recorded values in the table represent a best-case scenario, and real-world performance will be lower depending on the conditions of use.

o If references to other technologies were found during this research, we added them to the table for future evaluation. 4. We organized the technology into a parent group based on transmission distance, application, or both. It was sometimes difficult to find reliable specifications on these technologies. For example, in a case where we wanted to find the maximum theoretical transmission distance given a certain transmission power, what we found instead was typical transmission distance subject to device power regulations, radio space regulations, and desired data bitrate. Antenna design also played into this, as well as height above the ground. Basically, this convoluted information made it hard to make one-to-one comparisons between technologies. However, this direct comparison was not the purpose of the landscape: the purpose was to identify a list of all possible communication strategies as a jumping off point for further evaluation. Table population

Column definitions

Term Definition ID Identifying number for the technology. Assigned numerically at the end of table population. Title Name/title of the technology. Some may have several names and/or acronyms.

Standard(s) Standards, specifications, or working groups related to the technology.

Physical layer/Air interface • Refer to Network theory supplemental info in the Annex for more information. Physical layers may be defined by a standard.

2

• Technologies may have several physical layers. Modulation method • Method used to modify the radio frequency for carrying information. • Technologies may have several modulation methods. Frequency range (Europe) • Center frequency of the band(s) used. • Technologies may use several frequency bands. • Frequencies vary from country to country. For the purposes of this table, only European frequency bands were included. • Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) radio bands are the most common nonlicensed bands. They are split into three main groups: o Sub-1 GHz (also known as sub-G): There are several different bands in different areas around the world. In the United States, it is 915 MHz. In Europe, they are 868 MHz and 433 MHz (also some limited application in the United States). Used in newer low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies. o 2.4 GHz: This is the most commonly used frequency band. Examples include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, etc. This frequency is also used by cordless phones and microwave ovens, which may introduce noise. o 5.8 GHz (also known as 5 GHz): This is used for “dual-band” Wi-Fi. It allows for higher bandwidth but at a reduced range (especially when indoors). o There are also several less common higher frequency bands, including 24 GHz and 61 GHz. These are typically for very high bandwidth point-to-point connections with minimal range. One example is wireless high-definition (HD) video for home theater systems. Bandwidth • The difference between the upper and lower frequencies used for data transmission. • In this context, bandwidth does not refer to data throughput. Minimum data rate Minimum data transmission rate for the uplink (device to base station). Maximum data rate Maximum data transmission rate for the uplink (device to base station). Maximum transmission power • The maximum effective radiated power (ERP) allowable based on local regulations. • Like frequency range, transmission power may vary by country or region. By default, we listed the maximum transmission power per European communications standards. • Transmission power is often expressed in units of dBm (decibels [dB] with reference to one milliwatt [mW]). This unit can be converted to watts using an online calculator.

3

• Device power consumption is a different field. The onboard circuitry may have its own power requirements, and it is not 100% efficient in converting electricity into radiated power. • Devices may transmit effectively at lower power for close base stations and/or lower data rates. Rural transmission distance • The maximum distance a device can effectively transmit data with a clear line of sight to the base station (tower). • Transmission distance can be limited by the environment (maximum transmission power, attenuation, antenna sensitivity) or by the wireless network modulation (due to time delay). Network topology • The communication arrangement of nodes (devices attached to a network) and gateways (bridge between devices and the cloud). • Examples include: o Point to point: A single link between two nodes. o Star: A traditional wireless network architecture where one base station links to several nodes. o Tree: A hybrid topology typically with several star networks connected on a backbone bus. o Mesh: A free-form network where nodes link to each other dynamically to pass data along to its final destination. Licensing Contains information about licensing the radio bands and/or licensing the hardware/software for development and/or use. Notes Any other relevant information not categorized above.

4

Physical layer/Air Minimum data Maximum data Maximum transmission power Rural transmission ID Title Standard(s) Modulation method Frequency range (Europe) Bandwidth Network topology Licensing Notes interface rate rate (European or other standard) distance

Traditional (analog) radio spectrum

Range depends on time of day, KNL Networks (short‐wave BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK, date, year, space weather, and the 1 N/A N/A 1.5 to 30 MHz 1.9 to 24 kHz 700 bps 153 kbps 250W PEP 10,000 km Mesh Proprietary HF) 16/32/64/128/256 QAM radio's coordinates. Used for maritime and defense purposes

2 Medium‐wave AM Radio N/A N/A Amplitude modulation 531 to 1602 kHz (14) N/A N/A N/A 2 MW (15); 50 kW (USA) 483,000 m (15) N/A Licensed ‐

3US FM Radio N/A N/A Frequency modulation 87.5 to 108.0 MHz N/A N/A N/A 100 kW ERP (USA) 40 miles N/A Licensed ‐ Regulated by governments. Operators typically must pass an examination to receive a license (16). 4 Amateur "Ham" Radio N/A N/A Application dependent (16) Varies by country (16) Varies by application N/A N/A 1,500 W (USA) (18) Application dependent N/A International Telecommunication Union oversees which frequencies are allocated for amateur ‐ radio (17).

462 to 467 MHz (19) is Either FM (most common for common, but depending on 5 Walkie‐Talkie N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Up to 2W without license in USA 25,000 m (19) N/A None required in USA ‐ newer technologies) or AM country, other bands are also available

Cellular (mobile) networking GSM Technical 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, or 62G Um physical layer GMSK or 8PSK, TDMA 6 to 75 MHz (21) 9.6 kbps 271 kbps (20) 2 W (20) 70 km (22) (23) Star Licensed band ‐ Specification 2100 MHz (20) 850, 900, 1900, and 2100 7 3G IMT‐2000, 3GPP CDMA2000 CDMA Not found 0.2 Mbps 21.6 Mbps 250 mW (39) 71 km (22) (23) Star Licensed band ‐ MHz 3GPP Specification 36 series: LTE (Evolved UTRA), Orthogonal frequency division 450, 700, 800, 900, 1500, 84GLTE‐Advanced, LTE‐ E‐UTRA multiplex (OFDM) , OFDMA, SC‐ 1800, 2100, 2300, 2600, 1.4 to 20 MHz (35) 0.68 Mbps 300 Mbps 200 mW (39) 100 km Star Licensed band ‐ Advanced Pro radio FDMA 3500, 3700 MHz technology Scalable orthogonal frequency‐ 2 to 66 GHz. 2.3, 2.5, and 9 WiMAX IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.16 division multiple access 1.25 to 20 MHz 4.6 Mbps 1 Gbps 20 W (base), 200 mW mobile 50 km Star Licensed band Known as WiBro in South Korea 3.5 GHz most common (SOFDMA)

European HiperMAN (High Telecommunications Performance Radio 10 Standards Institute (ETSI) IEEE 802.16 Not found 2 to 11 GHz Not found Not found 56.9 Mbps Not found Not found Not found Not found European alternative to WiMAX Metropolitan Area Broadband Radio Access Network) Networks (BRAN) group

Competed with compete with Flash‐OFDM (Fast Low GSM and 3G networks. Maximum 11 Latency Access with Not found Not found F‐OFDM 450 MHz to 3.5 GHz 1.25 to 5 MHz Not found 15.9 Mbps Not found 55 km Not found Licensed band speed of the user is around 350 Seamless Handoff ‐ OFDM) km/h. Alliance for iBurst or Mobile Telecommunications Licensed bands below 3.5 MBWA is no longer being actively 12 Broadband Wireless IEEE 802.20 HC‐SDMA 5, 10, and 20 MHz 80 Mbps Not found Not found Not found Licensed band Industry Solutions ATIS‐ GHz developed as of 2008 Access (MBWA) 0700004‐2005 Licensed LTE Bands (varies 3GPP Release 13, GSM DSSS (36); OFDM down, SC‐ 13 Narrowband IoT (NB‐IoT) NB‐IoT by country) (4), unused 200 kHz Not found 200 kbps (4) 100 to 200 mW 10,000 m (4) Star Licensed band ‐ Association FDMA up (wiki) GSM bands 3GPP Specification 38 Orthogonal frequency division 600 MHz to 6 GHz, 24 to 40 14 5G series: Radio technology 5G NR (New Radio) 5 to 400 MHz Not found 20 Gbps Not found 3,000 feet Star, mesh Licensed band ‐ multiplex (OFDM) GHz beyond LTE Short range

ISO/IEC 18092/ECMA‐340, Near Field Communication Modified Frequency Used for contactless payment 15 ISO/IEC 21481/ECMA‐352, RFID 13.56 MHz (32) 14 kHz 100 kbps (32) 420 kbps (32) 200 mW 10 cm (32) Point‐to‐point (NFC) Modulation (MFM) transactions ISO/IEC 14443

Induction wireless Used for contactless payment 16 TransferJet ECMA 398, ISO/IEC 17568 DSSS, BPSK 4.48 GHz 560 MHz Not found 560 Mbps 56 nW "A few" cm Point‐to‐point TransferJet Consortium communications transactions Personal/local area network (LAN and PAN) (up to 100 m)

Complementary coded keying and then Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) or IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b, Orthogonal Frequency Division 2‐1.73 Gbps (29). 2.4 GHz most common; 5.8 17 Wi‐Fi 802.11g, 802.11n, IEEE 802.11 Multiplexing (OFDM) encoded 22 MHz (28) N/A 150‐200 MBps is 100 mW (25) 50 to 100 m (24,32) Star, mesh (30) Licenses regulated by Wi‐Fi alliance (25) ‐ GHz are also available (28) 802.11ac, 802.11ax using Binary Phase Shift Keying more typical. (BPSK) or QPSK or one of two levels of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) (27)

Frequency‐hopping spread Master‐slave architecture with Bluetooth Special Interest 18 Bluetooth Bluetooth protocol stack spectrum, adaptive frequency 2.4 GHz (8) 1 to 2 MHz 721 kbps 3 Mbps 0.5 to 100 mW (9) 0.5 to 100 m (9) role switching capability. This Developers must qualify devices with Bluetooth Alliance and pay declaration/listing fees (12) ‐ Group (SIG), IEEE 802.15.1 hopping (9) enables mesh networks. (11)

Master‐slave architecture with Bluetooth Special Interest Adaptive frequency hopping 19 Bluetooth protocol stack 2.4 GHz (32) 1 to 2 MHz 125 kbps 2 Mbps ~72 uW (33) (typical) 50 to 150 m (32) role switching capability. This Developers must qualify devices with Bluetooth Alliance and pay declaration/listing fees (12) ‐ (BLE) Group (SIG), IEEE 802.15.1 (33) enables mesh networks. (11)

BPSK (868 MHz band), offset quadrature phase‐shift keying 2.4 GHz or Sub‐1GHz ISM 20 Zigbee Zigbee Alliance IEEE 802.15.4 (2.4 GHz band). Direct 2 MHz (13) 20 kbps (13) 250 kbps (13) 100 mW (13) 10 to 100m (32) Star, tree, mesh (13) Developers must join the Zigbee Alliance ‐ (13) sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) method (33)

Z‐Wave Alliance ZAD 9.6 and 40 kpbs 21 Z‐Wave Z‐Wave Manchester channel encoding Sub‐1GHz ISM (35) Not found 100 kpbs (32) Not found 90 m (32) Mesh Proprietary design, unlicensed radio ‐ 12837/ITU‐T G.9959 (32) (32) Time domain multiple access (TDMA) adaptive isochronous scheme, which subdivides 1 Owned by Garmin. Primarily for ANT (proprietary RF 22 ANT ANT Wireless MHz frequency band into 7 ms 2.4 GHz (33) Not found Not found 60 kbps 1 mW 30 m Point‐to‐point, star, tree, mesh Proprietary ANT wireless network technology (but open access) fitness equipment (e.g., heart rate protocol) timeslots, or burst mode, monitors). which uses all available bandwidth (33). GFSK

ZigBee compliant, but lower MiWi software can all be downloaded for free from its official website. However, there are memory overhead. Designed for 23 MiWi IEEE 802.15.4 IEEE 802.15.4 Not found 2.4 GHz Not found Not found Not found Not found 50 m Star, point‐to‐point restrictions to use it only with Microchip short‐range networks and low data transmission rates.

Applications include wireless USB Ultra wideband, 24 High Rate WPAN IEEE 802.15.3 Not found 3.1 to 10.6 GHz, 60 GHz 500 MHz, 2 to 9 GHz Not found 480 Mbps, 5 Gbps 37 mW 10 m Point‐to‐point Not found and HD video. Dissolved mostly millimeter‐wave between 2006 and 2009.

DSSS, BPSK, QPSK, QAM, 25 WiGig (60GHz Wi‐Fi) IEEE 802.11ad, 802.11ay WiGig 60 GHz 2.16 to 8.64 GHz 27.5 Mbps 176 Gbps 20 nW 300 to 500 m Point‐to‐point Wireless Gigabit Alliance, Wi‐Fi Alliance ‐ SQPSK, OFDM WirelessHD (WiHD) or DSSS, BPSK, For wireless transmission of high‐ 26 Not found WiHD Not found 60 GHz Not found 28 Gbps Not found 10 m Point‐to‐point Proprietary standard owned by Silicon Image UltraGig QPSK,E30SQPSK, OFDM definition video

Data transmissions are permitted 27 Lutron Not found Clear Connect RF Not found 170 MHz Not found Not found Not found Not found 60 ft Star, tree Proprietary hardware. Complies with FCC 15.231 license‐free with a control signal. 5 second max transmission otherwise.

Combines power line and radio 28 Insteon Not found Insteon RF, power line FSK Sub‐1GHz ISM Not found Not found 13,165 bps Not found 150 ft Mesh Proprietary mesh networks Low‐power wide‐area network (LPWAN) (100 m up to 50 km)

BPSK (binary phase‐shift Sigfox owns backend data, cloud server, and endpoint software. Endpoint technology is given away 0.6 kbps (1), 1 kbps 40,000 m (4), 30 to 50 Star topology. Signal is received Communication is unreliable over 29 SigFox SigFox SigFox keying) (6) and Gaussian Sub‐1GHz ISM (2) (3) 0.1 kHz (1) 0.1 kbps (1) 25 mW (2) (3) to developers as long as business terms are agreed upon. Sigfox gets large network operators to (32) km (32) by any base station in range. (1) 6 km/h pedestrian speed (35) frequency shift keying (GFSK) deploy its networks, or deploys itself. Closed ecosystem, open hardware. (6)

Star‐of‐stars. Gateways relay The specification for how the LoRa network is managed is relatively open. Any gateway messages between end‐devices 30 LoRaWAN LoRaWAN LoRa Chirp modulation (6) Sub‐1GHz ISM (4) 125 kHz and 250 kHz (4) 300 bps 100 kbps 25 mW Europe, 500 mW USA 20,000 m (4) manufacturer can build a gateway that conforms with LoRa standards. However, the only company Governed by LoRa alliance and a central network server. licensed to make LoRa radios is Semtech. Open ecosystem, closed hardware. (6) (7) Wi‐Fi with high‐gain directional IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b, Sub‐1GHz ISM, 2.4 GHz or antenna. Also called Rural 31 Long‐distance Wi‐Fi 802.11g, 802.11n, IEEE 802.11 802.11 + TDMA Not found Not found 6.5 Mbps 100 mW (25) 48 km (31) Point‐to‐point Licenses regulated by Wi‐Fi alliance (25) 5.8 GHz Connectivity Platform (RCP) by 802.11ac, 802.11ax Intel.

3.2 km (2.4 GHz), 64 km Family of 8+ products. Some Zigbee, 802.15.4, 32 Digi XBee Proprietary Not found 2.4 GHz or Sub‐1GHz ISM Not found 10 kbps 72 mbps 1 mW to 1 W (high gain antenna and Point‐to‐point, star, mesh Proprietary proprietary and others based on 802.11b/g/n, proprietary sub 1‐GHz) open standards.

60 mW on battery, 250 mW Runs on LoRa chip, specs already 33 Symphony Link Not found LoRa Chirp modulation (6) Sub‐1GHz ISM (26) 250 to 3000 kHz 183 bps 1 kbps 7 miles Star Not found stationary accounted for in that section

Not tied to any proprietary Sub‐1GHz ISM. Working on 34 ONE‐NET Open source code Not found Not found 38.4 kbps 230 kbps Not found 500 m Star, point‐to‐point, multi‐hop Open‐source Appears to be defunct hardware or software 2.4 GHz

TALQ consortium, Telensa Ultra Narrow 1 km (urban) (37), up to 35 Telensa European Technical Band (UNB), NB‐IoT, Other Not found Sub‐1GHz ISM (37) Not found 62.5 bps (37) 500 bps (37) Not found Star Proprietary Some collaboration with Sigfox 16 km Standards Institute (ETSI) LPWAN (LoRa, Sigfox)

Differential binary phase shift Not much info; seems to be only 36 nWave Weightless SIG Not found Sub‐1GHz ISM "Ultra narrow band" 100 bps 100 bps 100 mW 30 km Star Not found keying (DBPSK) used for parking sensors

ODFM, BPSK, QPSK, 16/64/256 Dependent on regional No commercial chipsets available 37 Wi‐Fi HaLow IEEE 802.11ah IEEE 802.11ah Sub‐1GHz ISM 1 to 16 MHz 150 kbps 347 Mbps 1 km Star, tree Licenses regulated by Wi‐Fi alliance QAM regulations (from 1 mW to 1 W) yet. Should be available in 2019.

Differential binary phase shift Best for sensor‐based networks 38 Weightless‐N Weightless SIG Nwave (34) Sub‐1GHz ISM 200 Hz 100 bps 100 bps 50 mW 5 km (urban) Star Open standard (34) keying (DBPSK) (34). Uplink only, similar to Sigfox

Gaussian minimum shift keying M2COMM’s Platanus Best for private networks (34) 39 Weightless‐P Weightless SIG (GMSK), quadrature phase shift Sub‐1GHz ISM 12.5 kHz (34) 200 bps (34) 100 kbps (34) 50 mW 2 km (urban) Star Open standard (34). PLATANUS is a proprietary wireless protocol. technology (34) Being developed by ubiik keying (QPSK) Offshoot of Neul before they were 40 Weightless‐W IEEE 802.22 TV whitespace Time‐division duplex (TDMA) TV whitespace 6 to 8 MHz 0.1 Mbps 16 Mbps 50 mW 5 km (urban) Star Open standard; utilizes local TV whitespace (unused channels) (34) acquired by Huawei

Random phase multiple access 15 km (urban) (37); up to Ingenu access points can be used 41 Ingenu RPMA IEEE 802.15.4k (34) Ingenu RPMA 2.4 GHz (34) 1 MHz 19.5 bps (37) 78 kbps (37) 100 mW Star, tree DevKit purchased, access point rentals (RPMA) 30 miles or you can set up your own

SNAP Engine (IEEE 42 Synapse (SNAP) Not found O‐QPSK 2.4 GHz Not found 250 kbps 2 Mbps 100 mW 3 miles Mesh Not found ‐ 802.15.4)

Primarily industrial automation. Time Synchronized Mesh Time synchronized, self‐ 43 WirelessHART IEC 62591‐1 IEEE 802.15.4 2.4 GHz Not found Not found Not found Not found Not found Mesh Not found Protocol (TSMP) organizing, and self‐healing mesh architecture (wiki).

Designed for industrial 44 ANSI/ISA100.11a 6LoWPAN IEEE 802.15.4 TDMA 2.4 GHz Not found Not found Not found Not found Not found Mesh Not found automation, similar to WirelessHART (38) DASH7 Alliance Protocol 45 ISO/IEC 18000‐7 Not found Not found Sub‐1GHz ISM 25 or 200 KHz 9.6 kbps 167 kbps 10 mW (433), 500 mW (Sub‐G) 5 km Point‐to‐point, star, tree Open source Working with US DoD (D7A)

Designed for energy harvesting application (electromagnetic, 46 EnOcean ISO/IEC 14543‐3‐10 EnOcean, BLE, Zigbee ASK and FSK Sub‐1GHz ISM Not found Not found 125 kbps Not found 300 m Not found Proprietary solar, and thermoelectric energy converters) for battery‐free operation

Other (see notes) IPv6 networking protocol only 47 6LoWPAN IETF group RFC 4944 IEEE 802.15.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Not found uses 802.15.4 networks IEEE 802.15.4 (35), 48 THREAD IEEE 802.15.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Mesh Free, must adhere to the EULA Built on 6LoWPAN 6LoWPAN 49 ANT+ ANT+ Alliance ANT N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A New products must pass ANT+ Certification Test for interoperability. (33) Extension of ANT Wireless. (WSN) 50 MyriaNed Not found Not found TDMA 2.4 GHz or Sub‐1GHz ISM N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Not found platform. Appears defunct as of 2015.

Sub‐1GHz ISM, 458 MHz 51 Neul NB‐IoT Not found Not found (UK), 470‐790 MHz (White Not found Not found 100 kpbs (32) Not found Not found Not found Bought by Huawei Seems to be the same as NB‐IoT Space spectrum) (32)

RF, powerline, IR, Commercial and domestic building 52 KNX EN 50090, ISO/IEC 14543 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Tree, line, star Not found ethernet, twisted pair automation standard

Source: 37

Source: 40. CC BY‐NC‐ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by‐nc‐nd/4.0/). References 1. Sigfox website. Sigfox technology overview page. https://www.sigfox.com/en/sigfox-iot-technology- overview. Accessed October 4, 2019. 2. Sauter M. The Sigfox – part 3 – Sigfox network basics [blog post]. WirelessMoves. May 21, 2017. https://blog.wirelessmoves.com/2017/05/the-sigfox-arduino-part-3-sigfox-network-basics.html. 3. Wikipedia website. Short-range device page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-range_device. Accessed October 4, 2019. 4. Mekki K, Bajic E, Chaxel F, Meyer F. A comparative study of LPWAN technologies for large-scale IoT deployment. ICT Express. March 2019;5(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icte.2017.12.005.

5. Bargen D. LoRaWAN data rates [blog post]. blog.dbrgn.ch. June 23, 2017. https://blog.dbrgn.ch/2017/6/23/lorawan-data-rates/. 6. Ray B. Sigfox vs. LoRa: a comparison between technologies & business models [blog post]. Link Labs blog. May 31, 2018. https://www.link-labs.com/blog/sigfox-vs-lora. 7. LoRa Alliance® website. What is the LoRaWAN® specification? page. https://lora-alliance.org/about- lorawan. Accessed October 4, 2019. 8. Diffen website. Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi page. https://www.diffen.com/difference/Bluetooth_vs_Wifi. Accessed October 4, 2019. 9. Wikipedia website. Bluetooth page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth. Accessed October 4, 2019. 10. Paul I. Wi-Fi direct vs. Bluetooth 4.0: a battle for supremacy. PCWorld. October 26, 2010. https://www.pcworld.com/article/208778/Wi_Fi_Direct_vs_Bluetooth_4_0_A_Battle_for_Supremacy.ht ml. Accessed October 4, 2019. 11. Tutorial-Reports website. Bluetooth architecture page. http://www.tutorial- reports.com/wireless/bluetooth/architecture.php. Accessed October 4, 2019. 12. Bluetooth website. Develop with Bluetooth: qualification fees page. https://www.bluetooth.com/develop-with-bluetooth/qualification-listing/qualification-listing-fees. Accessed October 4, 2019. 13. Wikipedia website. Zigbee page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbee. Accessed October 4, 2019. 14. Wikipedia website. AM broadcasting: technical information. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting#Technical_information. Accessed October 4, 2019. 15. Wikipedia website. Medium wave page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_wave. Accessed October 4, 2019. 16. Wikipedia website. Amateur radio: licensing requirements page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio#Licensing_requirements. Accessed October 4, 2019. 17. Wikipedia website. Amateur radio frequency allocations page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_frequency_allocations. Accessed October 4, 2019. 18. ARRL: The national association for Amateur Radio website. Frequency allocations page. http://www.arrl.org/frequency-allocations. Accessed October 4, 2019. 19. Motorola Solutions. TALKABOUT™ T100, FRS/GMRS Two-Way Radios [product data sheet]. Chicago: Motorola Solutions; 2016.

6

https://www.motorolasolutions.com/content/dam/msi/docs/products/two-way- radios/consumer/t100/T100-T100TP_DataSheet.pdf. 20. Wikipedia website. GSM page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM. Accessed October 4, 2019. 21. Wikipedia website. GSM frequency bands page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_frequency_bands. Accessed October 4, 2019. 22. Markgraf B. How far can a cell tower be for a cellphone to pick up the signal? Chron. http://smallbusiness.chron.com/far-can-cell-tower-cellphone-pick-up-signal-32124.html. Accessed October 4, 2019. 23. Quora website. What is a cell tower’s range? page. https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-cell-towers- range. Accessed October 4, 2019. 24. Gao M, Kroll G, Madon T. Goldilocks Deep Dive. Sensing Impacts: Remote Monitoring using Sensors. New Haven, CT: Innovations for Poverty Action; 2016. https://www.poverty- action.org/sites/default/files/publications/Goldilocks-Deep-Dive-Sensing-Impacts-Remote-Monitoring- using-Sensors_2.pdf. 25. Wikipedia website. Wi-Fi page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi. Accessed October 4, 2019. 26. Link Labs website. Symphony Link™ page. https://www.link-labs.com/symphony. Accessed October 4, 2019. 27. Tutorials Point website. Wi-Fi – radio modulation page. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/wi- fi/wifi_radio_modulation.htm. Accessed October 4, 2019. 28. Electronics Notes website. Wi-Fi channels, frequencies, bands & bandwidths page. http://www.radio- electronics.com/info/wireless/wi-fi/80211-channels-number-frequencies-bandwidth.php. Accessed October 4, 2019. 29. Intel website. Support: different Wi-Fi protocols and data rates page. Accessed October 5, 2019. https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/support/articles/000005725/network-and-i-o/wireless- networking.html 30. Flickenger R. WiFi networking architecture. Presented at: 2006 School on Wireless Networking for Development, February 9, 2006; Trieste, Italy. http://wireless.ictp.it/school_2006/lectures/Rob/NetArchitecture/index.html. 31. Greene K. Long-distance Wi-Fi. MIT Technology Review. March 18, 2019. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/409760/long-distance-wi-fi/. 32. RS Components. 11 Internet of Things (IoT) protocols you need to know about. DesignSpark. April 20, 2015. https://www.rs-online.com/designspark/eleven-internet-of-things-iot-protocols-you-need-to- know-about.

33. Mannion P. Comparing low-power wireless technologies (part 1). Digi-Key Electronics Article Library. October 26, 2017. https://www.digikey.com/en/articles/techzone/2017/oct/comparing-low-power- wireless-technologies. 34. McClelland C. Comparison of LPWAN Technologies - Which is Best for Me? SigFox, LoRaWAN, Symphony Link, Ingenu RPMA, and Weightless [blog post]. Leverege Blog. December 29, 2016. https://www.leverege.com/blogpost/comparison-of-lpwan-technologies.

35. M2Communication. A Cellular-Type Protocol Innovation for the Internet of Things. Version 1.0. Hsinchu, Taiwan: M2Communication; 2015. https://www.theinternetofthings.eu/sites/default/files/[user- name]/M2C%20Whitepaper%20for%20IoT%20Connectivity.pdf.

7

36. Schatz G. The complete list of wireless IoT network protocols [blog post]. Link Labs Blog. February 8, 2016. https://www.link-labs.com/blog/complete-list-iot-network-protocols.

37. Raza U, Kulkarni P, Sooriyabandara M. Low power wide area networks: an overview. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials. 2017;19(2):855–873. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2017.2652320. 38. Costa MS, Amaral JLM. Analysis of wireless industrial automation standards: ISA-100.11a and WirelessHART. InTech Magazine. 2012. https://www.isa.org/standards-publications/isa- publications/intech-magazine/2012/december/web-exclusive-analysis-wireless-industrial-automation- standards-isa-100-11a-/. 39. Joshi P, Colombi D, Thors B, Larsson LE, Törnevik C. Output power levels of 4G user equipment and implications on realistic RF EMF exposure assessments. IEEE Access. 2017;5:4545–4550. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2682422.

8

Annex

Network theory supplemental info

Networking consists of several different layers, as described by the Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model).a The layers in this model build on each other, with the lowest level being the physical layer (i.e., hardware) and the highest level being the application layer (i.e., software).

Figure 1. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Source: Wikipedia website. OSI model page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model. Accessed October 4, 2019. Wikipedia text is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA)

Specific communication technologies can implement one or many of the different layers. Collectively, this is known as the communication or protocol stack. Bluetooth, for example defines a variety of protocols, split into the "controller stack" (containing the timing-critical radio interface) and the "host stack" (dealing with high-level data).b The lower levels of these technologies are often defined by standards, as is the case with Bluetooth: the physical and data link layers are defined by 802.15.1. In addition, industry groups often standardize the technology and roll out improvements. In this case, it is the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). Other technologies, such as 6LoWPAN, define only higher-level layers (in this case, the Network layer) and use another technology (IEEE 802.15.4 ZigBee) for lower levels.

a Wikipedia website. OSI model page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model. Accessed October 4, 2019. b Wikipedia website. List of Bluetooth protocols page. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bluetooth_protocols. Accessed October 4, 2019. 9

Figure 2. Bluetooth protocol stack.

Source: Sofi, M.A. (2016). Bluetooth Protocol in Internet of Things (IoT), Security Challenges and a Comparison with Wi-Fi Protocol: A Review. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. https://doi.org/10.17577/ijertv5is110266

10