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49976 v2 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Ethnicity andDevelopment inVietnam Analysis Social Country Country Social Analysis Ethnicity and Development in Vietnam Social Development Unit Sustainable Development Department East Asia and Pacific Region ©2009 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved. This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978- 750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@ worldbank.org. All rights reserved by the World Bank. Design and layout by Miki Fernandez/ULTRAdesigns. / IIIIII Table of Contents ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS / XI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS / XIII PART I: AN OVERVIEW / 1 CHAPTER 1/ The CSA Study Context / 3 Objectives of the CSA / 4 The CSA Approach / 4 CSA Methodology / 6 Outline of the CSA Report / 8 CHAPTER 2/ Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam: Classification, Population and Demography / 11 Classification of Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam / 11 Implications of Vietnam’s Ethnological Work / 15 Demography and Geography of Ethnic Minority Groups / 18 Geography of Ethnic Minorities / 22 Implications of Geographic and Demographic Diversity / 28 Conclusion / 29 CHAPTER 3/ A Brief History of State-Ethnic Minority Relations in Vietnam / 31 Ethnic Minorities under the Vietnamese Emperors / 31 Ethnic Minorities under French Colonialism / 35 Ethnic Minorities in South Vietnam / 39 Ethnic Minorities under Unified Socialist Vietnam, 1975-86 / 41 New Directions for Ethnic Minority Policy, 1986-Present / 42 Conclusion / 42 CHAPTER 4/ Factors of Poverty: Descriptions of Trends in Ethnic Minority Communities / 45 Overall Poverty Picture in Vietnam / 45 Explanations for Minority Poverty / 52 Conclusions: Minority Poverty Situation and Future Trends / 56 IV / COUNTRYTABLE OF CSOONTENTCIAL ASNALYSIS: ETHNICITY AND DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM PART II: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS / 58 Main Findings of the CSA / 59 Organization of Part II / 60 Cross-cutting Findings / 61 CHAPTER 5/ Education / 65 Education Policies and Investment in Vietnam / 67 Education Policies for Ethnic Minorities / 68 Structure of Education for Minorities In Vietnam / 70 Bilingual Education / 70 Boarding Schools / 74 Outcomes of Education in Ethnic Minority Areas / 75 Dropout Rates / 80 Late Enrollment Rates / 84 Gender Differences in Enrollment / 86 Role of School Fees / 89 Preschool Access / 90 School Infrastructure / 91 Ethnic Minority Teacher Training / 92 Teaching Quality and Methods / 94 The Role of Parents / 95 Adult Education and Non-Formal Education / 96 Tertiary Education and Affirmative Action /98 Conclusion: Impact of Less Minority Access and Poorer Outcomes in Education / 99 CHAPTER 6/ Migration and Mobility / 103 History of Migration to Upland and Ethnic Minority Areas in Vietnam / 103 Kinh Migration to the Uplands / 104 Spontaneous Migration / 108 Ethnic Minority Migration Patterns / 110 Resettlement from Development Projects / 114 Urban and Overseas Migration / 115 Summary of Migration Patterns in CSA Sites / 117 Impacts of Migration History and Policy / 120 Impact of Kinh Migration / 121 Impact of Migration on Minorities / 125 Relations between Migrants and Non-Migrants / 127 Explaining Different Migration Outcomes / 128 The Role of Remittances / 131 The Links Between Migration and Mobility / 132 Links between Mobility and Roads / 133 Conclusion: Less Migration Support and Less Mobility for Minorities / 135 TABLE OF CONTENTS / V CHAPTER 7/ Credit and Financial Services / 139 Policies and Instruments for Credit and Financial Services in Minority Areas / 139 The Need for Credit in Minority Areas / 144 Access to Credit in Minority Areas / 147 Who Can Access Credit? / 148 Problems in Accessing Formal Credit / 152 Why can’t some Ethnic Minorities Access the Formal Credit System? / 154 The Informal Credit Sector / 156 Conclusion: Differential Access to Credit for Minorities / 160 CHAPTER 8/ Access to Land, Agriculture, and Forestry / 163 Brief History of Land Use and Changes in Uplands of Vietnam / 164 History of Traditional Land Use in Minority Communities / 165 Land Use Trends Under Socialism / 167 Contemporary Land Use Trends and Policies / 169 Agricultural Land Access and Use / 171 Major Agricultural Land Use Trends / 175 Agricultural Productivity / 181 Access to Forestry Land / 185 Role of Community Forestry / 189 Forest Income in Poverty Reduction / 191 Land Sales and Land Losses / 193 Environmental Consequences of Land Use / 198 Conclusion: Impact of Access to Land and Land Use / 200 CHAPTER 9/ Access to Markets, Trading, and Off-Farm Employment / 203 Penetration of Markets in Minority Areas / 204 Policies on Market Development / 205 Impact of Markets in Minority Areas / 208 Minority Use of Markets / 210 Perceived Problems with Markets / 213 Barriers in Access to and Use of Markets / 215 Prices and Information at Markets / 217 Processing and Value-Adding at Markets / 218 Cultural Factors Influencing Market Access / 219 Role of Kinh in Markets and Trading / 220 Why Minorities Don’t Open Businesses / 222 Why Kinh Do Better as Traders / 222 Role of Off-Farm Employment / 225 Conclusion: Disadvantages Minorities Face in Markets, Business, and Off-Farm Employment / 226 VI / COUNTRY SOCIAL ANALYSIS: ETHNICITY AND DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM CHAPTER 10/ Misconceptions and Stereotyping / 229 The Legal Basis of Minority Rights / 231 The Concept of Ethnocentrism / 233 Stereotyping of Ethnic Minorities / 235 Implications of Stereotyping and Ethnocentrism / 239 Lack of Self-Confidence in Minorities /240 Less Voice and Power / 242 Inappropriate Policy Prescriptions / 243 Absence of Government Policy Offices for Strong Minority Representation /244 Conclusion / 244 CHAPTER 11/ Additional Issues Facing Vulnerable Groups / 247 Women / 247 Youth / 248 PART III: RESEARCH FINDINGS / 250 CHAPTER 12/ Summary and Recommendations / 251 Sectoral Policy Recommendations / 255 Education Policy / 255 Migration and Mobility Policy / 255 Credit and Financial Services Policy / 256 Land and Agriculture Policy / 257 Markets, Trading, and Employment Policy / 257 Policies for Capacity and Voice / 258 LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Map of the Distribution of Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam / 23 2.2 3-D Image of Ethnic Diversity in Lao Cai by Commune, 1989 / 27 2.3 Ethnic Diversity in Lao Cai, 1997, showing Relative Population Sizes and Proportions of Minorities by District / 29 4.1 Rural and Urban Poverty, 1993-2006 / 47 4.2 The Poverty Gap between Ethnic Minorities and Kinh-Chinese in Poor Regions / 49 4.3 Poverty Between Ethnic Minorities and Kinh/Chinese, 1993-2006 / 50 4.4 Rates of Poverty Among Ethnic Minority Groups 2006 / 50 4.5 Poverty Rates in the South-Central Coast / 57 II.1 How Differences Between Kinh and Minorities Become Disadvantages / 59 5.1 Proportion of Adults who have not Completed any Education / 76 5.2 Proportion of Adults who have Completed Lower Secondary or Higher / 76 5.3 Upper Secondary School Net Enrollment Rates Among Minority Groups, 200 / 77 5.4 Dropout Rates by Region, 1992-2000 / 81 5.5 Dropout and Late Enrollment Rates Among Kinh and Minorities / 82 5.6 Rate of Wrong-Age Enrollment and Dropouts / 84 5.7 Share of Female Teachers, 2005 / 89 TABLE OF CONTENTS / VII 5.8 Parents’ Attention to Children’s Education (%) / 96 6.1 Rural Access to Roads among Ethnic Groups / 134 7.1 Access to Credit of Rural Households / 147 7.2 Sources of Loans by Ethnic Group / 152 7.3 Paying Interest when Purchasing on Credit / 159 8.1 Percentages of Different Ethnic Groups that have Received Forest Land Allocation (FLA) / 188 8.2 Households Reporting that FLAs Contributed to their Income (%) / 191 8.3 Major Environmental Problems in Upland Areas / 199 10.1 Self-Perception of Different Ethnic Groups / 240 LIST OF TaBLES 2.1 Population of the 54 Officially Recognized Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam /19 2.2 Demographic Trends in Minority Areas / 21 2.3 Provinces Ranked by Percentage Ethnic Minority Population / 25 4.1 Inequality Index for Vietnam, 1993–2006 / 46 4.2 Incidence of Poverty by Region (% Poor HH) / 47 4.3 Provincial Poverty Rates in the Northern Mountains (NM) and Central
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