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Home , Demba Gofa, Moringa oleifera, Moringa stenopetala, Oyda, Zala (woreda)

CONSUMPTION PATTERN AND INDIGENOUS PROCESSING PRACTICES OF stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cuf. : A CASE OF DISTRICT SNNPR

MSc THESIS

RETA AZGE SHANKO

AUGUST, 2016

ARBA MINCH,

CONSUMPTION PATTERN AND INDIGENOUS PROCESSING PRACTICES OF (Bak.f.) Cuf. : A CASE OF DEMBA GOFA DISTRICT SNNPR

RETA AZGE SHANKO

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY

Advisor: Abebe Girma (PhD)

AUGUST, 2016

ARBA MINCH DECLARATION

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that it is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

Name: Reta Azge Signature______

Place: Arba Minch University

Date of Submissions: Nehase/ 20/ 2008 E.C.

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ADVISORS’ THESIS SUBMISSION APPROVAL SHEET This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices of Moringa stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cuf. A case of Demba Gofa District SNNPR” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s in Biology, the Graduate Program of the School of Natural Sciences, and has been carried out by Reta Azge Id. No SMSc/049/05, under my supervision. Therefore, I recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

Dr Abebe Girma (PhD) ------Name of Principal advisor Signature Date

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Various people helped me in the research and writing of this thesis. First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and heart-felt thanks to almighty God who blessed me with life and health. My gratitude also goes to my advisor Dr Abebe Girma for his continuous advice, support, encouragement and comment when I was dealing with this study.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and thanks to the teachers of the biology department of the Arba Minch University for their support during the course.

My heart-felt and deepest gratitude also goes to my beloved family, my wife Emebet Yimer, daughter Meron Reta, father Azge Shanko, mother Aster Dale, and my brothers and sisters, and including all my relatives for their consistent financial and moral encouragement during the research work.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and thanks to town administration office for the financial support during the study.

Finally I would like to express my deepest thanks to Arba Minch University for providing me facilities for successful completion of this work.

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ACRONYMS

ALV’s African Leafy

DDL Dehydrated Drumstick

EHNRI Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute

EDHS Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

ICRAF International Council for Research in Agro Forestry

IEC Information, Education, Communication

SNNPR South Nation, Nationalities and People Region

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VAD A Deficiency

WHO World Health Organization

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TABLE OF CONTENTS page DECLARATION ...... i ADVISORS’ THESIS SUBMISSION APPROVAL SHEET ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii ACRONYMS ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENT……………………………………………..……………………………vi

LIST OF FIGURES……………...…………………………………………………………..…...ix

LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………………………….…….……x

ABSTRACT ...... xi 1.INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1.Background of the study ...... 1 1.2.Statement of the problem ...... 5 1.3. Objective of the study ...... 6 1.3.1. General objective ...... 6 1.3.2. Specific objectives ...... 6 1.4.Research questions ...... 6 1.5.Significance of the study ...... 7 1.6.The scope and Limitation of the study ...... 7 1.7.The organization of the thesis ...... 7 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1. Center of Origin of M. stenopetala ...... 8 2.2. of Moringa stenopetala ...... 8 2.3.Uses of M. stenopetala ...... 10 2.3. 1. Nutritional Value...... 10 2.3. 2. Medicinal Values ...... 11 2.3.3. Fodder ...... 12 2.3.4. Socioeconomic value ...... 12 2.4. Cultivation and Harvesting ...... 14 2.4.1. Cultivation ...... 14 2.4.2. Harvesting ...... 14 2.5. Status of Moringa spp. uses ...... 15

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2.5.1. World ...... 15 2.5.2. Africa ...... 16 2.5.3. Ethiopia ...... 16 2.6. Consumption pattern and Indigenous processing practices of Moringa ...... 17 2.6.1. Consumption pattern ...... 17 2.6.2. Indigenous processing practices of Moringa ...... 18 2.7.Factors determining food consumption patterns ...... 18 2.7.1.Income ...... 18 2.7.2.Urbanization ...... 19 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 20 3.1. Description of the study area ...... 20 3.2. Socio-economic study ...... 23 3.2.1. Consumption pattern ...... 23 3.2.2. Indigenous processing practices ...... 23 3.3. Data source...... 23 3.4. Sampling technique and sample size ...... 23 3.5. Method of data analysis ...... 24 4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ...... 25 4.1. Socio-economic study ...... 25 4.1.1. Educational level of the respondents...... 25 4.1.2. Estimated monthly income...... 26 4.2. Moringa consumption pattern ...... 28 4.3.Indigenous processing practices of Moringa in Gofa area ...... 31 4.3.1. powder processing ...... 31 4.3.1.1. Stripping the leaflets…………………………………………………………….31

4.3.1.2. Washing Moringa leaflets…………………………..………………….………..32

4.3.1.3. Drying the Moringa leaves…………………………………...……..….………..32

4.3.1.4. Milling and sieving …………………………………………………….……….33

4.3.2.Cooking method of Moringa leaf in the study area ...... 34 4.3.2.1. Possesse food making……………………………………………………………………………………………..……34

4.3.2.2. Kurkufa…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34

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4.32.3. Kita Be Haleko……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….35

4.4.Knowledge about other uses of Moringa ...... 35 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 36 5.1. Conclusions ...... 36 5.2. Recommendation ...... 36 REFERENCES ...... 38

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:M. stenopetala in Demba Gofa area ...... 9 Figure 2: Map of the study area ...... 22 Figure 3: Educational level of the respondents ...... 26 Figure 4: monthly income of the respondents...... 27 Figure 5: Family size of the respondents...... 28 Figure 6: reason for moringa consumption ...... 29 Figure 7: Frequency of moringa consumption ...... 31 Figure 8: Moringa leaves drying ...... 33 Figure 9: Moringa leaf room drying apparatus ...... 34

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Back ground information of the respondents ...... 46

Appendix B: The consumption pattern of Moringa………………...……………………………47 Appendix C: Knowledge about indigenous processing ...... 48

Appendix D: The other uses of Moringa ...... 49

Appendix E: One sample t test ...... 50

Appendix F: Questionnaire ……………………………...…...... 51

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ABSTRACT Moringa (Moringa stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cuf.) locally known as Haleko is common tree native to the Southern Ethiopia (Gamo Gofa, Wolaita, Konso, Debub Omo and Dherashe) and grown mainly for its food value. It is a resistant and fast growing tree that has high nutritional and medicinal value. The objective of this study was to assess M. stenopetala consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices of the households of Demba Gofa Woreda of . Three kebeles namely, Zanga awande, Sawla (Gurade) and Falka tsawaye of Demba Gofa district were selected purposively for this study. A total of 78 households were selected using systematic random sampling technique to assess the consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices. Socio-economic data were collected through questionnaire and scheduled interview. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The finding showed that family size and educational level of the households positively influence the consumption and indigenous processing. However, the monthly income of the households influences negatively the consumption and indigenous processing of Moringa in the study area. It was found that most of the local people use indigenous processing practices for leaf cooking but most of them did not know the Moringa leaf powder processing. However, 55% of the respondents were traditionally using the plant to treat . The consumption status of Moringa was low. About 10% of households were consuming Moringa as daily food. The study therefore recommends that the households of the study area should be educated to build awareness for the benefit and effective consumption of Moringa.

Keywords: Demba Gofa, Households consumption, Moringa stenopetala,

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of the study The world currently produces enough food for its citizens (FAO, 2011). However, food demand is only met in the aggregate, as there are profound disparities in access to food across geographic regions and the spectrum of incomes at both the household and country levels. Despite, considerable efforts to combat global hunger, 925 million people were undernourished in 2010 while the number of overweight and obese people, across the globe rose to 1.5 billion in 2008 (WHO, 2011; FAO, 2012). These leads to a challenge to sustainable dietary sustenance to citizens particularly developing countries like Ethiopia.

According to FAO (2011), food consumption varies widely between countries and among different cultures. As shown by the FAO and others, average caloric intake varies widely (least developed country 2,120Kcal, developing country2, 640 kcal, and industrialized countries 3,430, kcal per person per day). However, in many communities in the developing world, the average intake is far lower than 2,120 kcal per person, resulting in systemic hunger and undernourishment. The health effects of chronic undernourishment are severe, especially for children, and include slow growth, underweight, susceptibility to disease and shortened life expectancy.

According to WHO (2012), VAD afflicts an estimated 250 million children less than five years of age. It is a leading cause of blindness, affecting 250,000- 500,000 children per year. Sub- Saharan and southern Africa countries suffer from a high rate of food insecurity and . It is estimated that 71% of children between six months and five years of age are affected by VAD, a deleterious yet highly preventable problem (Low et al, 2007. Clinical VAD among children and women of child bearing age was assessed in a national survey conducted in 2005 by the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute (EHNRI) (Tsegaye, 2006). According to the survey, among 23148 sampled preschool children aged 6 month to 6 years, the prevalence of night blindness was 0.7% at national level. The highest prevalence is recorded in Amhara (3.2%). Also prevalence of maternal night blindness (during last pregnancy, adjusted for daytime blindness) at national level was 1.8%. The situation was particularly alarming in Tigray,

1 where 14.1% of women were affected. In Ethiopia, VAD is a major public health problem. The main causes of VAD in the country are a very low intake of fruit and vegetables rich in carotenoids. Chronic malnutrition is also a contributing factor. Furthermore, there is a lack of knowledge among mothers regarding the importance of and foods sources of the vitamin such as M. stenopetala leaf (Tsegaye, 2006). Ninety-five percent of households in Afar and 86% in Tigray had not produced and consumed any dark green leafy vegetables such as Moringa leafs in the past year. Similar percentages were recorded for the production of red/ yellow vegetables markets (Tsegaye, 2006).

In 1995, the Ministry of Health and UNICEF began implementing several program aimed at improving vitamin A status. Vitamin A supplementation of children under five years and of mothers in the postpartum (period connected with after birth) period was carried out as part of the extended program on immunization and mother and child health care activities. Supplementation was integrated with non-health measures in sixty districts selected by UNICEF, which included provision of horticultural , strengthened IEC, activities. In this program, delivery of capsules, distribution of horticultural seeds and IEC were implemented at village level by “micronutrient ladies” elected by the communities. Beginning in 1997, the Ministry of Health started systematic bi-annual vitamin A capsule distribution campaigns as either a stand- alone activity or integrated with the National Immunization days (Tsegaye, 2006). The program targeted all under five but reached mostly children under one year due to the linkage with immunization. Health facilities also provided vitamin A capsules to children with chronic , acute malnutrition, measles or signs of xerophthalmia and distributed capsules to communities (MOH, 2004).

The 2000 and the 2005 EDHS provide nationally representative data on vitamin A supplementation of children and mothers. In 2005, nearly 46% children aged six month to five years had received vitamin A supplements in the 6 months preceding the survey. There were no differences by gender. Children living in urban areas were more likely to have received vitamin A supplements (62%) than children living in rural areas (45%). Regional variations in supplementation were marked, ranging from 39% in Somali to 65% in Tigray. Among mothers with a birth in the five years preceding the survey, only 21% had been provided vitamin A

2 supplements within 2 months postpartum. Women living in urban areas were almost twice as likely to receive Vitamin A supplements

According to Fuglie (2001), Moringa has gained popularity as a source of nutrition that can feed the needy and save lives as well. Moringa leaves or processed Moringa leaf powder can be used successfully as a complex food to nourish small children, pregnant women and nursing mothers as a treatment for malnutrition. The abundance of vitamin A in Moringa can contribute to the treatment of night blindness. The Moringa is also considered as one of God's abundant resources for the struggle against world hunger. However, it is only very small portion of its uses are practiced in Ethiopia. Some people even may not know that it is edible. So much has to be done to promote the species consumption both at local and national level. M. stenopetala is a green, drought-resistant plant where leaves are commonly used in cooking for human consumption (Berhe and Halvorsen 2007). According to Abuye and Urga (2003), leaves from the Moringa tree are a very important vegetable source which more than 5 million people depend on, especially during dry seasons. The tree is resistant to both insects and pests character and is known to be a fast growing plant where one Moringa tree can support a large family for many years.

As stated by Yang et al.,(2006), currently there are fourteen known species of Moringa trees in the family Moringacaea, and a study that evaluated the antioxidant effect and nutritional content of four types; (Moringa stenopetala, , , and ) showed that all have a high content of antioxidants. M. stenopetala is most common in Ethiopia and . It is stated that all four types have an enormous potential to contribute to improved diet and health, where M. stenopetala is the most important economic species.

Food processing improves food nutritionally by removing toxic substances, extending shelf-life and making it more palatable (Ndi, 1993). Furthermore, food processing adds value and so it is a source of income generation and increases the demand for raw materials i.e. promotes crop production. Some of the processes carried out are fermentation, drying, smoking, salting, canning, freezing, etc. Most times two or three methods can be combined for maximum effect. These processes are well known at household level by most women. Therefore, with good training and financial support women are able to follow - through the series of processes, which

3 enables food to be transformed from a raw commodity (from the farm) to the table, hygienically. This makes food processing a provider of sustainable livelihoods to improve nutrition and health especially of children, pregnant and lactating mothers and improves food/nutrition security at the household level (Ngoddy et al., 1996). Processing food including and vegetables makes it safe for consumption and destruction of pathogens. The factors that affect nutrient content resulting from food processing are; sensitivity of the nutrient to light, heat, oxygen (Morris et al., 2004). Other methods apart from air drying that can be used to dry Moringa include freeze drying and oven drying. The different ways of food preparation and preservation may affect significantly the concentration and availability of minerals, and other essential compounds in food. Some reports have documented that losses of nutrients occur from vegetables during drying. The most popular drying method for Moringa is air drying (drying at a room temperature). Drying has been used traditionally as a method of preserving certain vegetables in Ghana and most developing countries. The basis for drying is to reduce the moisture content to a level which prolongs shelf life during storage and reduces colonization by microorganisms (Eklou et al., 2006). Drying is also one of the methods of food preservation employed to reduce losses in quantity and quality which will otherwise occur (Habou et al., 2003). The main aim of the study was to determine the consumption pattern and indigenous processing methods suitable for processing of Moringa and yet retains higher concentrations of elements.

According to Azeez et al (2013), it is believed that M. stenopetala relative Moringa oleifera has more Vitamin A than carrots, more than oranges, more than milk and more than . It is a complete food in itself. Because of strong antioxidant properties, it guards against skin cancer and prostrate growth. Moringa also prevents the growth of cysts, tumors and glands. It curbs (controls) other health complications such as diabetes, anemia and high blood pressure. Liver, kidney, stomach and thyroid problems can also be prevented by taking this medicinal plant M. stenopetala. The anti-inflammatory properties of Moringa spp.(M.stenopetela and oleifera) reduce different body pains. It is very effective for treating arthritis, rheumatism and joint pain. It can also control other severe diseases such as epilepsy, migraine and other headaches. Its detoxification properties make it suitable to treat scorpion and snake bites. Almost all parts of the tree have been utilized within practices (D'souza, and Kulkarni, 1993).

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Moringa is one of the best plants the world has ever produced. It contains almost all the nutrients needed for healthy living. However, the plant is not known by many people and governmental institutions. Therefore, promotion of the product and its benefits for human consumption will be important for the poorer communities where malnutrition is prevalent. Therefore this study was tried to assess the consumption patterns and indigenous processing practices of this miracle tree in demba Gofa district of south nation and nationalities region of Ethiopia.

1.2. Statement of the problem Food consumption and dietary habits information are important for the promotion of nutrition improvement program and it is also essential to create awareness about traditional leafy vegetables such as Moringa which can fight malnutrition including VAD. Ethiopia is an agricultural country where large majority of people engaged in cultivation of food crops which are used for subsistence. In the past two decades per capita food production has been lagging behind the rate of population growth and food shortage and rural poverty have become chronic problem in Africa particularly Ethiopia (Kebede et al., 2007).

Africa indigenous food crops particularly leafy vegetables and staples face eminent extinction because of negative perception associated with them that are not linked to nutrition. Some of these negative perceptions include being considered as poor people’s food or famine food. The marginalization and the subsequent decline in consumption of Africa’s indigenous food crops have been implicated in the emergence of chronic diseases in Africa posing series health and economic burdens to people and government (Kankeu et al, 2013).

Globally moving away from traditional foods such as leaf vegetables to more refined and animal product foods has been linked with the increase in prevalence of chronic non communicable diseases such as diabetics and hypertension (Lock et al., 2005). The global estimate for people living with diabetics in 2011 was 366 million and this number is expected to increase by 42% to 522 million people to by 2030 (Whiting et al., 2011). The human deaths attributed to chronic diseases and their factor in 2008 alone was 36 million and the majority of these deaths occurred in low and middle income countries (WHO, 2011).

Although numbers of studies have been carried out on the origin, morphology and chemistry of Moringa, a little or no efforts have been made to reveal the prevailing socio-cultural perceptions,

5 local processing practices and consumption pattern of the Moringa plant. The enormousity of the benefits of this plant is a reason to look into the awareness of the species locally and to find out the knowledge base of local people on it. Moringa on a worldwide scale can be a basis for sustainable and expected global progress and expansion and above all, people need to be made conscious of the nutritional and medicinal role played by Moringa in order to enjoy the full benefit attached to its use.

It was observed that some people in the study area process Moringa leaf and provide the processed products to Addis Ababa market; but during their processing, they dry the Moringa leaf by direct sun light. This would reduce the vitamin content and minerals from the Moringa leaf products. Another thing that I observed was different people in the study area do not use this plant as a food source; because they assume that it is the food of economically lower class people. This study therefore, aimed at characterization of indigenous processing practices of Moringa and the consumption patterns of the M. stenopetala plants in the study area.

1.3. Objective of the study

1.3.1. General objective The general objective of the study is to assess the consumption pattern and the indigenous processing practices of M. Stenopetala in Demba Gofa district.

1.3.2. Specific objectives  To determine the consumption patterns of Moringa in Demba Gofa District.  To identify indigenous processing practices of Moringa in the District.  To analyse the socio-economic characteristic of the consumers of Moringa  To determine the factors responsible for the consumption and various uses of the plant  To determine consumers’ perception and level of awareness on Moringa  To identify the role of the local government in the cultivation of Moringa

1.4. Research questions This study tried to answer the following questions.

 What are the indigenous processing practices of Moringa in the study area?  What is the perception and the level of awareness of Moringa in the study area?

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 What is the consumption pattern of the Moringa in the study area?  What types of factors are responsible for Moringa consumption in the study area?  What is the role of government in creating awareness about Moringa cultivation and its uses?

1.5. Significance of the study  The Gofa area people will obtain clear information regarding to nutritional, medicinal, and socio economic value of Moringa plant  The processors will get better processing methods of Moringa leaf powder  The society will increase the of using the Moringa plant and fight malnutrition and chronic non communicable diseases  The government will obtain information to develop program to ensure food security and to combat malnutrition and chronic non communicable diseases

1.6. The scope and Limitation of the study The study of consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices of Moringa need a wide investigation at zonal, regional or national level. If the research included many woredas in the zone or region, it would be more effective .This means more reliable information would be collected. However, to make the scope of the study manageable with limited time and budget, the study was delimited to only demba Gofa-district of Southern Ethiopia. The researcher has encountered a number of shortcomings or challenges during the work of this thesis. The major constraints were lack of recent reference materials related to the topic, walking on foot to collect data from households living rural kebeles, lack of internet access and sufficient budget.

1.7. The organization of the thesis This thesis is organized into five main parts. The first part contains problems and its approach which describes background of the study, statement of the problem, objective, significance, scope and limitation of the study. The second and third parts describe the review of related literature, material used and methodologies followed during the study respectively. The fourth part consists of the result and discussion of the study and the last part comprises conclusion and recommendation.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews the available theoretical and empirical literatures to get better understanding on consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices of Moringa. In doing so the review mainly focuses on the center of origin, taxonomy, uses, consumption pattern, indigenous processing practices of Moringa and factors related to Moringa consumption.

2.1. Center of Origin of M. stenopetala The center of origin and center of diversity of M. stenopetala is reported to be southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya (Mark, 1998). M. stenopetala grown in Ethiopia as a crop on the terraces built to conserve water high up the mountains. It is a producing edible leaves, seeds used for the purification of water, and traditional medicinal products. Though it grows in many other parts of the tropics, it is not as widely known as M. oleifera of Indian origin but is more desirable than M. oleifera (Mark, 1998). Northeast tropical Africa is a center of plus diversity to the genus (Mark, 1998). The species is found to grow in Kaffa, Gamo Gofa, Bale, Sidama, Borana, Debub Omo zones, Konso and Dherashe woreda (Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation, 2006).The growth structure of the Moringa tree is shown in Figure 1.

2.2. Taxonomy of Moringa stenopetala The taxonomy of M. stenopetala showed that it belongs to family Moringacaea that is represented only by a single genus Moringa (Verdcourt, 2000). The genus is represented by 14 species to which Moringa stenopetala belongs. It has some features similar to those of Brassicaceae and Capparidaceae but the structure does not agree with either of the above families (Mark, 1998). M. stenopetala is a tree 6-10m tall; trunk: more or less 60cm in diameter at breast height; crown: strongly branched sometimes with several branches; thick at base; bark: white to pale gray or silvery, smooth; wood: soft; Leaves: up to 55cm long; : pubescent, dense many flowered panicles 60cm long (Edwards et al., 2000).

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Figure 1 M. stenopetala in Demba Gofa area

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The classification hierarchy of the plant is as shown below

Kingdom Plantae Sub kingdom Tracheobionta Division Magnoliophyta Class Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons Sub class Dilleniidae Super Order Violanae Order Moringales Family Moringacaea Genus Moringa Species stenopetala Source (Kertesz, 2004).

2.3. Uses of M. stenopetala

2.3. 1. Nutritional Value According to ICRAF (2006), Moringa tree has both nutritional and medicinal values. The leaves, flowers, and green pods of M. stenopetala are eaten as a staple vegetable and are rich in and elements. M. stenopetala is a favorite and main component of the daily meal of the Konso, Gamo, Gofa, Dherashe, Wolaita and Debub Omo people in southern Ethiopia. Steinmüller et al., (2002) identified that in Konso area, Moringa leaves are eaten almost every day like spinach together with cereal balls. It was reported that about 50% of the people in the Konso district of southern Ethiopia get their food from M. stenopetala (Endeshaw, 2003). People in the Gamo Gofa zone have a long tradition of consumption of M. stenopetala, locally called Haleko. In the lowland and mid altitudes of this region, it is impossible to find the household without the Moringa tree in his or her backyard. The leaf of the Moringa tree is eaten after cooking it like a . Haleko is particularly important as human food because the leaves, which have high nutritional value, persist throughout the year, including the dry season when few other sources of green vegetables are available.

According to Abuye and Urga (2003), among the wide range of green leafy vegetables, Moringa is the richest source of beta-carotene (vitamin A) and provides other important micronutrients. Minerals such as K, Fe, Zn, P, and Ca also exist in significant concentrations with average values

10 of 3.08 mg/100 g iron and 792.8 mg/100 g Ca. Reports indicated that the high vitamin content of M. stenopetala leaves could be used to reduce child and maternal mortality rates in the country by 30-50%. Dried Moringa leaves contain more vitamin A than the vitamin found in carrots and in fresh leaves of Moringa. Dried leaves further have more calcium than calcium found in milk and in fresh leaves, have more than the potassium found in fresh leaves. However, fresh leaves have more vitamin C than vitamin C found in oranges and in dried leaves.

2.3. 2. Medicinal Values According to Endeshaw (2003), the leaves, , and seeds of M. stenopetala and M. oleifera have a long tradition of use in folk medicine. Various parts of the M. stenopetala tree are claimed to contain disease-preventing chemicals. People with high blood pressure boil the leaves and drink the water to get relief from their aliment. Gebreselassie et al., (2011) suggested that leaf extracts of M. stenopetala are used to lower blood glucose and cholesterol levels. They reported that aqueous leaf extract of M. stenopetala is shown to increase body weight and reduce serum glucose and cholesterol levels in mice. Serum glucose and serum cholesterol levels decreased significantly after six weeks of treatment. They indicated the need for further studies in order to fractionate the active principle and find out the mechanism(s) of action of M. stenopetala leaf extract on blood glucose and cholesterol levels in animal models to ascertain its therapeutic importance. Similarly, experiments conducted on animal models showed that butanol fraction of the ethanol extract of M. stenopetala leaves has anti-hyperglycemic and anti-hyper lipedemic effects, and as a result, can be used to treat diabetes (Alemayehu et al., 2012). These researchers indicated that administration of butanol fraction of ethanol extract of M. stenopetala leaves to diabetic mice resulted in significant reduction of fasting blood glucose level, serum total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels. The fraction also showed a tendency to improve body weight gain in diabetic mice

According to Yalemtsehay (2003), there are claims that the leaves of M. stenopetala boiled in water can cure malaria, hypertension, and stomach pain. The roots of M. stenopetala chopped and mixed with water are also used for treating severe cases of malaria (Yalemtsehay,2003).. A recent report by Kinuthia et al., (2013) showed that methanolic extracts of dried leaves of M. stenopetala exhibit antileishmanial activity. According to these individuals, traditionally, M.

11 stenopetala leaves are used to expel retained placenta from women and cows; and the Turkana of northern Kenya make an infusion with the leaves of M. stenopetala as a remedy against The Njemps people of Kenya chew the bark of M. stenopetala as a treatment against cough and use the bark extracts to make fortifying soup (Demeulenaere, 2001). In , women inhale the smoke released by the burning of the M. stenopetala during difficult labour (Demeulenaere, 2001).

2.3.3. Fodder According to Price (2000), Moringa leaves are used to feed cattle, pigs and poultry. When Moringa leaves constituted 40 to 50% of feed, it was found in research studies that milk yields for dairy cows and daily weight gains for beef cattle increased by 30%. The birth weight of calve increased by 3 to 5 kg. Some animals, such as chickens will not voluntarily consume Moringa leaves or Moringa leaf powder. However, about half the content can be extracted from the leaves in the form of a concentrate which can then be added to chicken feed. The protein content desired in chicken feed is 22%. To obtain the concentrate, leaves are mixed with water and the mix run through a hammer mill.

2.3.4. Socioeconomic value It is reported that by Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation (2006), in some parts of Africa there are folk beliefs that Moringa trees planted on graves keep away hyenas and its branches guard against witch craft. This way of thought, therefore, has a great contribution to the conservation of the species. In some parts of southern Ethiopia, especially among the , the abundance of Moringa species in the garden or on farmland indicates the social status of the owner among the society. The one with many Moringa trees in the garden or on farmland has a higher social status and also considered rich. In Konso if a man wants to get married and asks a girl to be his wife then the first question that the parents of the would-be wife ask to know is how many Moringa trees he has in his garden or farmland. They thought that if the husband has many Moringa trees in his garden or farmland then their daughter will have no problem to feed her babies even when drought occurs. For this reason Konso people especially young men are encouraged to plant Moringa in their garden as well as on their farmlands. This teaches us that culture by itself has a great role in conservation and sustainable utilization of locally important tree species. M. stenopetala is planted together with fruit trees in the cropped fields in Konso.

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Sometimes the trees are also used to provide partial shade for crops like in southern Ethiopia. Whole plants have been used as hedges and fences. M. stenopetala can also be planted as a windbreak. As soon as the upper branches of the tree grew broader, the tree can be pruned to stimulate more profuse growth of their lower branches, thus thickening the hedge. Vegetables cultivated behind it profited from this protection. The species can also be grown as an ornamental tree in private gardens and home compounds (Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation, 2006).

2.3.4.1. Seed oil According to Cornquist (1981), ben oil (mustard oil) that is extracted from seeds of M. oleifera is used in perfume and lubricant. Cornquist (1981) further added that the oil could also be used for human consumption and healing of wounds by smearing over it. Therefore, M. stenopetala also has potential to extract the ben oil. One of the major limitations of M. stenopetala is that it is much slower to fruiting than that of M. oleifera. M. oleifera requires only ten months whereas M. stenopetala at least two and half years to produce the first fruit (Jahn, 1991). In general, the plant has vast potential to benefit the local people and the country economy through generating foreign currency and / or saving it. The seed of M. stenopetala is an important source of oil that could be used for cooking or for different industrial applications. A recent report indicated that M. stenopetala seed oil could be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel.

2.3.4.2. According to Göttsch (1984) dried and crushed seeds of the plant are important to clarify muddy and turbid water, to suit it for drinking analogous to the chemical coagulant Aluminum sulphate Göttsch (1984), .has also further proved that it lowers the concentration of bacteria (it has bactericidal effect) and fungi (it has fungicidal effect). Eilert et al. (1981) have also reported that water purification and its bactericidal and fungicidal effect over weigh that of M. oleifera. However, the local people in Ethiopia do not use the plant for water clarification (Göttsch, 1984). Göttsch (1984) further added that only the roots of Maerua subcordata (Amharic: Wuha matariya) is used for water purification by people living on both sides of the lower Omo river in Gamo Gofa, South-West Ethiopia. Unfortunately, this species is toxic and not very efficient coagulant but it is on use elsewhere in Africa (Jahn, 1991). Whereas, water purified using crushed seeds of M. oleifera and M. stenopetala is safe for human consumption (Berger et al.,1984). Most Ethiopians living in rural areas are dependent on surface water, and this situation

13 is not likely to change in the near future. Even if locally treated water is not perfect hygienically, at least it would be important to have safe water by clarifying it with cheap and easily accessible method. Therefore, the seeds have potential for water purification

2.4. Cultivation and Harvesting

2.4.1. Cultivation It has been reported that M. stenopetala grows wild at elevations between 1,000 and 1,800 m (Mark, 1998) but it will grow as high as 2200m and as low as 300m. Studies show that light frosts will do it no harm and freezes, though, may cause it to die back to ground level, where new sprouts may be produced. Full sun is normal, though partial shade is tolerated. It is resistant to dry weather. Optimum light for of all Moringa species is half shade (Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation, 2006). The most striking characteristic of the Konso agricultural system is the cultivation of the cabbage tree (M. stenopetala). The tree is densely planted within the villages and generally more widely spaced in the fields and terraces between 1600 and 1800 m. Its light green leaves and the conspicuous grey bark are characteristic features of the cabbage tree. Konso can be considered as the area where the tree was first cultivated. From here the cultivation has spread into neighboring areas where it is being used intensively as well (Engels, 1991). Seeds should be planted about 2 cm deep in soil that is moist but not too wet. Sprouting occurs normally in 1-2 weeks. It can be allowed to grow for shade (6-15 m), or kept low (about 1-1.5 m) for easier harvesting. M. stenopetala quickly produces a large gray trunk and leaves covered with glistening . It quickly sends out new growth from the trunk when cut, or from the ground when frozen. Living fences can be continually cut back to a few feet. It is an extremely fast- growing tree and continued to grow during the exceptionally long dry season (Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation, 2006).

2.4.2. Harvesting Leaves from high density Moringa spp.(stenopetala and oleifera) fields can be harvested after plants grow 1.5–2.0 m, which usually takes at least 60 – 90 days in well drained fertile soils. Harvest leaves by leaf stems manually with a sharp knife at 20- 45 cm above ground. Harvesting in this manner will promote the development of new shoots. Subsequent harvesting can be done every 35- 40 days. According to Reyes (2006), Moringa shoots intended for use as fodder can be harvested seventy five (75) days intervals. Under conditions of intercropping

14 plants can be harvested after two to four months of growth. The initial cutting can be done manually at 20cm up to 1.5m height. Moringa plants should be harvested at a height where they are high enough so that they are not shaded by the companion crops if any. As much as possible avoid heaping freshly harvested Moringa leaves together, as they easily start deteriorating under such conditions. Moringa leaves can easily lose moisture after harvesting, therefore, harvest early in the morning and sell the same day, if possible ( Reyes, 2006).

2.5. Status of Moringa spp. uses

2.5.1. World According to Rajangam (2001), more than two million homesteads make use of Moringa daily in India. As a result, a number of studies have been conducted on the plant, including some studies on the commercial propagation of Moringa. Propagating Moringa commercially has been boosted by the availability of good quality seeds developed by scientists at a horticultural college and research institute in the south of India (Nambiar, 2006). In addition to cultivating Moringa for commercial purposes, the state of India aims to introduce Dehydrated Drumstick Leaves (DDL) into diets of vitamin A-deficient children as a nutritional intervention strategy through their supplementary feeding programmes (Nambair, 2006).

In the United States, Palada (1996), suggests southern Florida and Miami as the sub-tropical regions where Moringa can be grown successfully. Palada recommends research into cultivating the plant and processing it into various goods for export purposes. Studies of botanical notes in Mandarin by Jahn (1996) showed that Moringa was introduced by Indians and Malaysians to some communities in China. From China the plant was transferred to other communities as well. Noting the versatile use of Moringa, Jahn (1996) suggested extensive education on the plant and the introduction of better cultivation practices for better yields. Other countries in which Moringa has become naturalised are Thailand, Singapore, the West Indies, Mexico and the (Fahey, 2005). It has also been naturalized in countries in Africa and has become indigenized as a food source in some African dietary patterns.

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2.5.2. Africa According to Babu (2000), intervention programmes have been implemented based on research to promote the use of Moringa as a traditional leafy vegetable to improve nutritional health in Africa. The WHO and the International Consultative Group on VAD declared in 2000 that according to him had serious VAD among its population compared to other countries in Southern Africa. Intervention programmes that the government of Malawi embarked on for combating VAD included horticultural crop production, vitamin A supplementation and agricultural extension. Most of these efforts made little progress until government agencies recognized the importance of using indigenous plant foods in trying to solve the nutritional disorder of VAD and the need to incorporate them into its policies. Eventually, the Food and Nutrition unit in the Ministry of Agriculture identified nutrient–rich Moringa that commonly grew in several parts of Malawi as a potential solution to VAD deficiency (Babu, 2000). Moringa is an important food source for people, especially in rural areas and it is consumed in various African countries (Ghana, , Malawi). During the recovery of moderate or severe and particularly clinical cases of malnutrition, it is important to improve the nutritional quality of complementary food with low-cost, locally available ingredients consistent with local cultural food habits, and which take into account safe handling and ease of availability (Bruyeron et al., 2010).

2.5.3. Ethiopia M. stenopetala was domesticated in the east African lowlands and is indigenous to southern Ethiopia. M. stenopetala is often called “cabbage tree” and is an important indigenous vegetable in south western Ethiopia where it is cultivated as a food crop. The Gofa, Konso, Burji, Dherashe, Debub Omo and Gamo communities consume its leaves as a vegetable, especially during the dry season (Abuye and Urga, 2003). M. stenopetala is native to Ethiopia, and it is known by various vernacular names. It is called “Haleko” in Gofa, Gamo and Wolaita areas, “Shelagda” in the Konso language, and “Shiferaw” in Amharic (Engels and Goettsch, 1991; Jahn, 1991). M. stenopetala is particularly important as human food because the leaves, which have high nutritional value appear towards the end of the dry season when few other sources of green vegetables are available. The leaves contain high amounts of essential amino acids and vitamins A and C (Abuye and Urga 2003).

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Despite its significant economic contributions to the livelihood of millions of people in southern Ethiopia, M. stenopetala has not been given due research and development attention. Thus, there is a need to popularize and promote this important but neglected indigenous vegetable tree.

2.6. Consumption pattern and Indigenous processing practices of Moringa 2.6.1. Consumption pattern Information on the per capita consumption of ALVs is just as scarce as data on their production levels. It is generally believed that the introduction of exotic vegetable varieties contributed to the decline in the production and consumption of indigenous vegetables. However, literature reports of a steady decline in dietary intakes of these vegetables with the emergence of simplified diets are based on the assumption of declining use as a result of declining availability. The reports provide at best only a quick look into the consumption patterns of ALVs on the subcontinent but the information provided is very limited and so should be interpreted with caution and should not be considered as baseline information for the respective countries or regions. Nevertheless, they highlight the immense information gap on ALV consumption in SSA. There is clearly a need for more regionally targeted studies on the per capita consumption of ALVs as data from such studies provide valuable baseline information which is vital both in the development of the ongoing WHO/FAO vegetable consumption promotion strategies for SSA as well as in evaluation of the effectiveness of current and future interventions (Hanter and Twine 2005).

According to Diatta (2001), Moringa leaf powder is used as a 100% natural food supplement and can be consumed in different ways. The leaf powder can be mixed with juices or beverages using a teaspoon. One teaspoon of Moringa will provide a full range of nutrients required by the body. Moringa leaf powder can also be mixed with vegetables or soup that is prepared for consumption. The young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked like spinach. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A, B, and C and minerals, particularly iron and sulphur containing amino acids. The immature green pods are widely consumed in India. They can be boiled and eaten like green beans and are rich in free leucine. The dry seeds can be ground to a powder and used for seasoning. The seed of the Moringa tree also provides oil that can be used as vegetable with many essential fatty acids. The oil is best used raw and not heated to prevent damaging the molecular structure of the . Apart from the oil, the seeds are eaten like peanuts, as is the

17 case in Malaya (Duke, 1983). Flowers of Moringa can also be eaten raw in salads or cooked, or can be used to make tea. The young leaves are edible and are commonly cooked and eaten as spinach or used to make soups and salads. The leaves can be dried and made into powder to be used in place of fresh leaves to make leaf . They are an exceptionally good source of pro vitamin A, minerals and the sulphur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine. The young green pods are tasty and can be boiled and eaten like green beans. The pods are best for human consumption at the stage when they can be broken easily without leaving any visible strings of fiber (Foidl et al., 2001). The roots from young plant can also be dried and ground for use as a hot seasoning base. The flowers can be eaten after being blanched or raw as a tasty addition to salads (Foidl et al., 2001)

2.6.2. Indigenous processing practices of Moringa According to Yalemtsehay and Amare (1998), a study that was conducted in the area in Southern Ethiopia provides some information on the use of M. stenopetala. The results from this study showed that fresh leaves of Moringa are eaten as a vegetable that is cooked and seasoned with oil and salt where almost every 10 household have at least one or two Moringa trees in their compound. Leaves, seeds and the roots get used for multiple purposes according to the practice of the local people (Yalemtsehay and Amare 1998). Chopped Moringa leaves are mixed with water and used as tea which has a treating effect on diseases like curing malaria, hypertension, stomach pain, expulsion of retrained placenta in addition to other health problems like diabetes and asthma (Yalemtsehay and Amare 1998). The roots are especially used for malaria treatment and the seeds are used for clearing muddy water, women also sell fresh leaves in markets (Yalemtsehay and Amare 1998).

2.7. Factors determining food consumption patterns 2.7.1. Income According to Musaiger (1993), income is considered to be one of the most important factors in determining food consumption patterns. A substantial increase in the income resulted in a significant change in dietary patterns. This was more apparent in the oil-exporting countries (especially the Arab countries of the Gulf), where the per capita income increased dramatically, mainly due to oil revenues In general, as income increases the intake of animal protein foods increased (Musaiger and Miladi, 1997). The high income countries showed a marked rise in the

18 consumption of meat, poultry, milk and eggs and decrease in consumption of leafy vegetables such as M. Stenopetala

2.7.2. Urbanization As stated by Schmishuber and Shetty (2005), the shift in the urban-rural population balance is another important aspect which will influence food consumption. Urbanization will proceed slowly in the Arab Gulf countries, where the vast majority of the population is already living in urban areas. However, in other countries urbanization is growing fastly with an average of nearly 3% per year. Urbanization also means a higher female participation in the work force and with that a shift away from traditional time-intensive food preparations towards precooked, convenience food at home or fast food and snacks outside the home. The enrollment of women in the employment sector is increasing dramatically in all countries in the Region. Particularly for the urban poor, the shift towards fast and convenience foods is also a shift away from fresh fruits and vegetables, pulses, potatoes and other roots and tubers towards a much more sugary, salty, and fatty diet. It is also often a shift from a diet rich in fiber, minerals and vitamins towards one rich in energy, saturated and cholesterol (Schmirdhuber, 2003).

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3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Description of the study area The research site Demba Gofa is located in Gamo Gofa zone of south nation nationalities and people region (SNNPR). The zone has a total area of 12,581.4km2 and administratively consists of 15 rural woredas. Demba Gofa district has 38 villages and one town. The town of Demba Gofa District- Sawla is located at about 250 km from Zonal town Arba Minch and 305 km from Hawassa and 528 km from Addis Ababa. Based on 2007 population census of the FDRE, the total number of the population of the district was 81,158 of this 40,335 male and 40,823 female. The similar source reveals that the majority of the population lives in the country side. As the data gained from Demba Gofa Agriculture and Rural Development Office the district is bound by woreda in south and south east, Uba Debre tsehay Woreda in the south, and in the West and North –West, Omo River in the North and Woreda in the East.

Similar to other rural Ethiopian ethnic groups, the economy of Gofa households is based on farming. As Gofa‘s past records reveal that the people conduct farming and animal husbandry for centuries. Therefore, mixed farming is the major agricultural activity for the Gofa. The greater part of the people resided in countryside relied on a mix of livestock and crop farming. In terms of topography, the data obtained from Demba Gofa Agriculture and Crop production office reveal that lowland is an area that lies between 1300-1500m above sea level and characterized by irregularities and deficiency of rainfall. The area accounts for 75% (more than ¾) of the total land area of the district, and it is relatively sparsely populated because of the prevalence of tropical diseases like malaria. Xamba Xalla which is 1300 m above sea level is the lowest place in study area. Semi-highland is an area that lies between 1500 m and 1800 m above mean sea level and accounts for 15% of the total land of the area. In line with this, as it is elucidated by Markos and Walelign (2011), the Gofa land is divided into three ecological zones. Highland, mid-altitude and lowland. Highland is an area that is extended from 1800-2400 m above sea level and accounts only for10% of the total area.

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Based on the data from Rural and Agricultural office of the district, the land area of Demba Gofa measures 97,468.44 hectares, of which 48% is currently cultivated, 27% is employed for grazing and 25% under bush, and forests. Low land agro ecological Zone is source of more than 90% of food supplies and 13 Rivers are serving to produce crops. From the total this agro ecological zone 2,583.5 hectares are covered by irrigation. As the interview made with Adamu Amare (on March, 25/08), indicated that teff, maize, sorghum, sweat potato, lentils, cassava, peanut, banana, sugarcane, mangoes and Moringa are the major farming products. Demba Gofa woreda has average rainfall of 1000 mm. The map of the study area is shown below in figure 2.

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Figure 2 Map of the study area

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3.2. Socio-economic study 3.2.1. Consumption pattern To assess the consumption pattern of M. stenopetala in the areas where malnutrition prevalence and the negative perception for the plant is high, scheduled interview and questionnaire were developed to collect data. Seventy eight households were selected by systematic random sampling technique for survey and the respondents were revealed the data according to the questionnaire and interview.

3.2.2. Indigenous processing practices To assess the indigenous processing practices of M stenopetala semi structured interview, questionnaire and observation were used. The selected households were asked to answer about indigenous processing practices of the plant including the Moringa leaf powder processing practices.

3.3. Data source Two types of data sources were employed in this research. These are primary and secondary data sources. The primary data were obtained from selected households of three kebeles of Demba Gofa district. The secondary data were collected from different sources such as published journals, research publications, Author’s web site etc.

3.4. Sampling technique and sample size From 38 kebeles of demba Gofa woreda, three kebeles households were selected by purposive or non probability sampling technique. The kebeles were selected purposively based on the accessibility of M. stenopetala. Besides these reasons, this sampling method provides the relative advantage of time and money for the researcher. From these three kebeles 78 households were selected by systematic random sampling technique because this technique reduces bias during the selection of the households. The three kebeles were namely falka tsawaye (331 households) Sawla town (Gurade) (250 households), and zanga awande (300 households). Finally, 26 households were selected by systematic random sampling from each kebeles that makes a total sample size of 78 households.

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3.5. Method of data analysis All the collected data were organized in appropriate way for statistical analysis.. Then data were analyzed to answer the research questions The data analysis in this research was based on both quantitative and qualitative data methods. The data which were collected through interview and observation were analyzed using tabulation and description for all participants. All collected data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2007 and descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage, frequency were used to analyse the data. The statistical operations were conducted using SPSS version 21 and all analysis were performed using data from all study subjects in Demba Gofa (n=78)

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4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Socio-economic study The socio-economic characteristics like age, sex, marital status, religion, educational level, household size, occupation, estimated monthly income were considered in this study. As appendix A shows the age distribution revealed that majority of the respondents were between 31-50 (70%). The same appendix further include, the gender distribution of the respondents indicate that 55% of the respondents were males while 45% were females. This implies that the gender has no effect on Moringa consumption and indigenous processing, because the percentage is nearly the same. However females are more involved in the Moringa processing when compared to males in the study area. The marital status distribution of the respondents indicated that greater percentages of the respondents were married and they depend on numerous benefits of Moringa by which they sustain their family. This implies that marriage has positive correlation with Moringa consumption( r = 0.691).

4.1.1. Educational level of the respondents As indicated in figure 3 the educational level of the respondents analyzed and most of the respondents were secondary. This shows that when the respondents are more educated they know more about the benefit of the Moringa. Therefore Education is positively influences (r = 0.895) Moringa consumption. This implies that most of the consumers have basic education and have better awareness about the benefit of the plant. There was similar study with similar finding performed by Rogers (2003) indicated that the educational level of the respondents has a significant influence on the utilization of Moringa in Limpopo province

25

35

30

25

20

15

10 Moringa consumption (%) consumption Moringa

5

0 never attained first cycle second cycle high scool preparatory tertiary complete complete complete complete

Educational background

Figure 3 Educational level of the respondents 4.1.2. Estimated monthly income In figure 4 income distribution revealed that majorities (55%) of the respondents earn income less than 1501 birr and the respondents that earn 1500- 3000 birr were 30% and the respondents that earn above 3000 birr were 15%. However, the result showed that with higher income there is less need to consume Moringa as food, when the respondents are not educated. This implies that monthly income negatively influences (r= -0.725) the consumption of Moringa. Similar study by Musaiger and Miladi (1997) indicated that the people with high monthly income consume animal products such as meat, poultry, milk and egg.

26

60

50

40

30 a

20 Moringa consumption (%) consumption Moringa 10

0 500-1500 birr 1501-3000 birr above 3000 birr Monthly income (Birr)

Figure 4 Monthly income of the respondents

4.1.3. Family size of the respondents

As indicated in figure 5, 40% of the respondents family size is 6-10, 30% of the respondents family size is 2-5 people, 15% of the respondents family size is 11 and above and 15 % of the respondents family size is 2 people. This implies that when the family size of households increase the consumption and indigenous processing (cooking of Moringa leaf) of Moringa increases. This is because the household head of such family use Moringa leaf to feed with minimum coast rather than coasty leafy vegetables. Therefore family size positively influences( r = 0.494) the Moringa consumption at 5% level of significance.

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15% 15%

Two people Two-five people Six-ten people 30% 11 and above

40%

Figure 5 Family size of the respondents 4.2. Moringa consumption pattern As indicated in appendix B and C that 100% of the respondents in the study area know the plant as shiferaw in Amharic and Haleko in the local language. This implies that the plant is familiar in the study area. As indicated in fig.6 that 55 % of the respondents use M. stenopetala because the plant is easily available that means any poorer individual can buy the plant leaves in minimum cost or can get the plant from the back yard of any individuals. About 20% of the respondents use the plants because of its nutritional value and 5% of respondents use the plant for medicinal value (for malaria treatment). About 20% of the respondents use the plant for medicinal and nutritional value. This implies that some of the respondents are aware of the medicinal value of Moringa particularly for malaria treatment however; most of them use the plant without knowing the medicinal and nutritional value. The implication of this result is that majority of the respondents in the study area were not aware of these benefit of the plant. Besides these, they did not know other uses of Moringa like animal fodder, water purifying ability and oil content of Moringa seed. As indicated in the in the appendix C almost all of the respondent do not process

28 the Moringa leaf powder and store the Moringa and only few of the respondents process and sell the Moringa leaf powder for consumers. The same study was carried by Masekoameng (2007), and the result is different. According Masekoameng (2007) work the majority (70% ) of respondents of the respective study area replied yes for similar question, but in the Demba Gofa area most of respondents do not know the Moringa leaf powder processing other than local leaf cooking. This implies that most of the study area people do not know Moringa leaf powder processing and they do not use the processed products.

60

50

40

30

20

10 Moringa consumption (%) consumption Moringa 0 for nutritional for medicinal value it is easily available nutritional and value medicinal Reasons for Moringa consumption

Figure 6 Reasons for Moringa consumption As mentioned above most of the respondents do not process Moringa leaf powder. Very few individuals process and they use mainly sun light to dry Moringa leaf. This implies that the processors have less awareness about the effect of high temperature on the nutritional content of Moringa. As shown in the same appendix most of the respondents get the Moringa leaf from their home garden and some of the respondents about 5% get the Moringa leaf from the market. This implies that the plant is common in the study area.

As indicated in the appendix B, the respondents of the study area use the plant in different pattern. About 10% of the respondents use the plant twice a week and 10% of the respondents use it daily,40% of the respondents use Moringa as food weekly 35% use it monthly and 5% of the respondents do not use the plant. Some people in the study area do not use the plant because

29 of the negative perception of the plant in the area. That means they think that the plant is the food of economically low level people and they assume that it is the food of drought and hunger.

As it is shown in the same appendix, the local people use the plant for medicinal value. Some of the respondents use the plant to treat malaria, hypertension and diabetics condition. As the data obtained from interview the plant is used for many traditional medicines. For example it is used to expel retained placenta in humans and cattle. Similar study by (Yalemtsehay, 2003) suggests that traditionally, M. stenopetala leaves are used to expel retained placenta from women and cows. As indicated in appendix D, most of the respondents do not use the plant as a source of income but few respondents use it as income generation. This implies that in the study area people have low awareness of Moringa leaf powder processing.

As indicated in the appendix B the respondents use the plant to prepare different traditional food . The most common traditional food type made from Moringa leaf in the study area are possesse, kita be Haleko and Kurkufa. The majority of the respondents use equally the three types of traditional food. There was similar work by (Yalemtsehay and Amare, 1998) the respective study area people use fresh Moringa leaf in their dish. This implies that the study area people use the plant for food value even though they do not know the nutritional benefit of the plant. In both study area the preparation of these local food is the same.

30

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10 frequency (%) frequency 5

0 daily twice a week weekly monthly never use moringa consumption as food

Figure 7 Frequency of Moringa consumption 4.3. Indigenous processing practices of Moringa in Gofa area 4.3.1. Leaf powder processing As interview made with Ahmed Endris (on April 10, 2016) who processes the Moringa leaf in to powder, the leaf processing will start immediately after harvesting the leaf and transporting the leaves to the processing point. According to my observation and interview with Ahmed the harvesting of the leave was performed by the local women in the study area. This created job opportunities to these poor individuals. Leaf powder processing involves the following processes. These are: Stripping of leaflets, Washing of the leaflets, Drying the leaves, Milling and Sieving.

4.3.1.1. Stripping the leaflets According to Ahmed, the Moringa leaves for the processing were obtained from the local people. The local people provide the already stripped leaflets and sell 1kg of fresh leaves for about four birr. At this stage the processor discard the damaged and diseased leaves. This condition created a new opportunity to generate income for local farmers.

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4.3.1.2.Washing the Moringa leaflets The leaflets were washed by using clean potable water to remove dust and dirt material. However the leaves were not washed by alcohols to remove the microorganisms. This may be limitation or the knowledge gap of the processor of the study area. Therefore the micro organisms may damage the leaf during processing and the processed products.

4.3.1.3. Drying of the Moringa leaves As Ahmed Endris mentioned, drying is very difficult process especially if the leaf processing is in a very large scale. To dry he uses two methods. The first one is room drying. In this method drying Moringa leaf is very difficult if the condition is rainy season; therefore to solve this problem electric power is used to generate heat inside the room. The leaves are placed inside the wooden material shown in fig.9. According to Ahmed the Moringa leaf powder made in this method is preferable by different consumers. According to Fuglie (2001) Moringa leaves could be picked, washed and dried in the shade, since the drying of Moringa in the shade prevents the loss of vitamin A. The second method is solar drying which is the most familiar and frequently used. In solar drying the leaves of Moringa spread on thinly on mesh and dry the leaves for about four hours for three days. During drying time the leaves were stirred continuously to dry uniformly. The final product becomes brittle (personal communication). Fig. 8 below shows the drying Moringa leaves.

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Figure 8 Moringa leaves drying

4.3.1.4. Milling and sieving As Ahmed mentioned the dried leaves were milled by using the mortar and pistil which are made from wood. The local individuals perform the milling process. Sieving is very important process, which is accomplished by different types of screening materials with different size. If the Moringa leaf powder is thoroughly milled the powder become very fine and it is screened with very small sized screening material. The final product is packed with the plastic material and distributed to the consumers. Most of the product is transported to Addis Ababa market.. The dried leaves could then be crushed and run through a sieve to process them into fine granules. In Addis Ababa there are individuals (customers) that buy the product and they export to South Africa, Tanzania and Germany. As Ahmed mentioned the processed Moringa leaf powder costs 1Kg for forty birr in the processing area. There are many challenges that hinder the Moringa

33 processing; for example the manual workers cost. Fig. 9 shows the apparatus used in room drying of leaf

Figure 9 Moringa leaf room drying apparatus

4.3.2. Cooking method of Moringa leaf in the study area

4.3.2.1. Possese food making process According to my personal observation and interview, Possess is the most commonly used food in Gofa area. In the preparation of possesse Moringa leaves were first picked off from the branches of the tree and added in boiling water. After some minutes of boiling, some amount of water is filtered out. A little amount of neutral water was mixed with maize flour so it became like dry dough. Then this dry powdery dough is added to the boiling Moringa leaf. The chopped onion, garlic, pepper, salt and oil or butter is added and stirred thoroughly to mix the ingredients.. At the end the food is served for eating (personal communication and observation).

4.3.2.2. Kurkufa Kurkufa is the second most commonly used food in the study area. During the preparation of Kurkufa the Moringa leaves were picked off from the branches and the leaves were added in boiling water. Then maize flour was mixed with water to make dough and the dough was shaped as small ball and added in to the boiling Moringa leaf. After some minutes all important

34 ingredients were added and stirred thoroughly to make it uniform. Finally the cooked dish is served for eating. From this it can be concluded that discarding some amount of the boiling water before adding the maize dough reduces the nutrient contents of Moringa leaf.

4.3.2.3. Kita be Haleko Kita be Haleko is another commonly used traditional food in the study area. For the last dish called “Kita Be Haleko” which means “bread with Moringa leaf”, the bread was prepared first. For the preparation of bread, Water and maize flour were mixed to form dough and which was folded to bread or’ kita.’ During baking of’ kita’ the dough was put inside ‘inset’ leafs to prevent from burning when it was baking over a fire, about five minutes on each side. While the breads were preparing, the same procedure with picking the Moringa leaves was done as explained in the description of the above two dishes. After the bread was baked it was served on the side of the Moringa dish. According to Yalemtsehay and Amare (1998). similar study was carried out elsewhere in Ethiopia with the same preparation method.

4.4. Knowledge about other uses of Moringa As indicated in table 4.1, 100% of the respondents replied “No” for the question do you use Moringa seed for water purification. This implies that the study area people do not know about the water purification of the Moringa seed. The same table indicated that 90% of the respondent replied that no and the rest replied “Yes” for the question the use of Moringa for tea preparation. This implies that majority of the local people do not know the use of Moringa leaf powder for tea preparation.

As indicated in the same table most of the respondents replied no for the question that says do you think that the local government encourages the cultivation of Moringa in the study area. This implies that there is no involvement of local government to encourage the cultivation and the consumption of Moringa plant.

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5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Conclusions In this study, data on the consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices of M. stenopetala were analyzed and the following conclusions were made based on the result of investigation.

 Majority (65%) of the study area people do not use the plant because of the negative perception of the plant  Traditional food types (possesse, Kurkufa and kita be Haleko) are consumed by economically low status people.  The indigenous leaf powder processing and the consumption of the Moringa powdering process is less (about10% of the respondents) in the study area.  Some people (5% of the respondents) of the study area use the plant to treat different types of illness; particularly to treat malaria and hypertension.  Most of the consumers of Moringa are economically low level individuals and well educated people ( people with awareness of Moringa benefit)  Education or knowledge about Moringa and family size are significant factors and positively influence the consumption of Moringa in the study area  The local communities use M. stenopetala for food value; however they do not know other benefits (water purification, income generation, animal fodder and seed oil) of the plant  The local government has less involvement in the awareness creation of cultivation and consumption of this miracle tree

5.2. Recommendation Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were forwarded.  Awareness raising on the overall use of M. stenopetala should be carried out to those who cultivate the plant as they concentrate only on the use of the leaves for food consumption  The local government and nongovernmental organization have to develop programs to create awareness about the nutritional and medicinal benefit of the Moringa plant.

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 Finally further research is required to explore the side effect of regular consumption of Moringa leaf as food in relation to goiter development.

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Appendix A: Background information of the respondent households No. Variable frequency Percentage 1 Sex Male 11 55 Female 9 45 Total 20 100 2 20-30 years 3 15 Age 31-40 years 7 35 41-50 years 7 35 51 and above 3 15 Total 20 100 3 Educational level Never attained school 1 5 First cycle complete 1 5 Second cycle complete 2 10 High school complete 4 20 Preparatory level complete 6 30 Tertiary 6 30 Total 20 100 4 Family size Two people 3 15 Two-five people 6 30 Six-ten people 8 40 11 and above 3 15 Total 20 100 5 Religion Christian 10 50 Muslim 3 15 Protestant 6 30 Other 1 5 Total 20 100 6 Marital status Single 1 5 Divorced 3 15 Married 15 75 Widowed 1 5 Total 20 100 7 Occupation Merchant 5 25 Civil servant 4 20 Farmer 11 55 Total 20 100 8 Monthly income 500-1500 birr 11 55 1501-3000 birr 6 30 Above 3000 birr 3 15

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Appendix B: The consumption pattern of Moringa No Variable frequency percentage 1 How often do you use M. stenopetala daily 2 10 plant as food Twice a week 2 10

weekly 8 40

monthly 7 35 Never use 1 5 Total 20 100 2 Yes 2 10 Do you use M. stenopetala plant for No 18 90 medicinal value? Total 20 100 3 If your answer for question 2 is yes for Malaria 17 51.3 what type of illness do you use the Arthritis 5 2.6 plant? Diabetics 5 6.4 Hypertension 15 19.2 Stomach pain 3 3.8 All 13 16.7 Total 78 100 4 Do you use M. stenopetala as a source Yes 4 20 of income? No 16 80

total 20 100 5 What type of local food is prepared from Possesse 1 5 Moringa? Kita be Haleko

Kurkufa all 19 95 Total 20 100

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Appendix C: knowledge about indigenous processing No. Variable frequency Percentage 1 leaf 20 100 Which part of the plant is used as food root - -

stem - - seed - - flower - - Total 20 100 2 Do you know Moringa leaf powder processing Yes 2 10 No 18 90 total 20 100 3 If your answer for the above question is yes Direct sun 2 100 how do you dry the leaf? light Room drying 0 0

Mechanical 0 0 drying other 0 0 total 2 100 4 Do you think that drying the Moringa leaf by yes 0 direct sun light affects the nutrient content No 0

I don’t know 20 100 Total 2 100 5 How do you get access to the leaf from I buy Moringa 3 15 Moringa tree? From my own 17 85 Moringa tree Collect from 0 0 bush total 20 100

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Appendix D: The other uses of Moringa No Variable frequency percent 1 Do you use Moringa seed for water Yes 0 0 purification? No 20 100 Total 20 100 2 Do you use Moringa leaf powder for tea Yes 2 10 preparation? No 18 90 Total 20 100 3 Which method is important for Moringa vegetative 11 55 propagation? Seed propagation 1 5 Both methods 8 40 Total 20 100 4 What is the main use of Moringa in your Medicinal 2 10 family? Environmental 0 0 protection Nutritional or food 18 90 Water purification 0 0 total 20 100 5 Do you think that the local government Yes encourages the cultivation of Moringa? No 20 100 Total 20 100

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Appendix E:one sample t test for educational level of the respondents Calculated t- Tabulated t- mean Mean difference 95% confidence intrval value value lower upper 4.477 0.00 3 1.35 0.72 1.98

One-Sample t- Test family size of the respondents

Calculated t- Tabulated t- mean Mean difference 95% confidence intrval value value lower upper 4.972 0.00 2.55 1.05 0.61 1.49

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Appendix F Questionnaires

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, DEPARTEMENT OF BIOLOGY Questionnaire to be answered by households of selected kebeles General Direction: This questionnaire is prepared to collect data that will be used to write master’s thesis on consumption pattern and indigenous processing practices of Moringa. It has two parts; therefore, provide your responses according to the direction of each. Part one is about your background information and part two is asking your opinion about the consumption pattern and the indigenous processing practices of Moringa. Depending on your degree of agreement, please express your perception to each statement. The general objective of this study is to determine the consumption pattern and the indigenous processing practices of Moringa stenopetala among some selected kebeles in demba Gofa district. Thus, you are kindly requested to complete the questionnaire carefully and honestly. Your response is the only way to reach to reliable conclusion. Thank you for your cooperation PART ONE - background information Directions: Please answer the following questions by circling the letter your choice. 1. Sex: A. male B .female 2. Age: A.20- 30 years B.31- 40 years C. 41- 50 years D. 51 and above years 3. What is the highest level of education you attended? A. Never attended school C Second cycle complete (8 year) B. First cycle complete (4 years) D. High school (9-10 grade) E. Preparatory level (11-12 grade) F Tertiary (diploma/ or above) 4. The size of your family is: A. Two people B. 2 – 5 people C. 6- 10 people D. 11 and above 5. What is your religion? A. Christian B. Muslim C. protestant D. Other 6. What is your marital status? A. Single B. Married C. divorced D. widowed

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7. What is your occupation? A. merchant B. civil servant C. no job D. NGO employee E .Farmer 8. What is the estimated monthly income of your family in Birr if you are the government or NGO employee? A. 500-1500 birr B. 1501-3000 birr C. above 3000 birr PART TWO – Questionnaire on consumption patterns and indigenous processing practices of Moringa 1. Do you know the Mo. stenopetala plant? A. yes B. No 2. Do you use Moringa plant as food? A. yes B. No 3. If your answer for question no. 2 is yes, why do you consume Moringa plant as a food? Because: A. of its nutritional value B. it is tasty C. of its medicinal value D. it is easily available 4. Do you harvest, process and store Moringa? A. yes B. No 5. If your answer for question no.4 is yes which part of the plant is used? A. Leaf B. stem C. root D. flower 6. . Which part of Moringa plant is most commonly used as food? A. Leaf B. Root C. Stem D. Seed E. flower 7. Do you know the Moringa leaf powder processing? A. yes B. No (skip to question no.9) 8. If your answer for question 7 is yes how do you dry the leaf? A. Direct sun light B. Room drying C. Mechanical drying D.Other (please mention) 9. Do you think that drying the Moring leaf by direct sun light affects the nutrient content? A. Yes B. No C.I don’t think 10. How do you get access to the leaf from the Moringa tree? A. I buy the Moringa B. From my own Moringa tree C.Collect from bush 11. How often do you use Moringa plant as a food? A. daily B. twice a week C. weekly D. monthly 12. Do you use Moringa for medicinal value? A. yes B. no ( skip to 14) 13. If your answer for question no. 12,.is yes, for what type of illness do you use the plant? A. Malaria B. Typhoid C. Arthritis D. Diabetics

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E. Hypertension F. Stomach pain G. All 14. Do you use Moringa plant as a source of income? A. yes B. No (skip to q.16) 15. If your answer for question no. 14 is yes which part of Moringa plant is used for income generation? . A. Leaf B. stem C. Flower D. root 16. If your answer for question no. 15 is leaf, how do you get income from leaf? A. By selling fresh leafs in the market B. By selling of processed leaf powder 17. What type of dish is prepared from Moringa? A. Possese B. Kita be Haleko C. Kurkufa D. All 18. If your answer for question no.17 is all which type of dish is frequently used? A. Possese B. kita be Haleko C. Kurkufa 19. Do you use Moringa seed for water purification? A.Yes B. No 20. Do you use Moringa leaf powder for preparation of tea? A.Yes B. No 21. Which method is important for Moringa propagation? A. Vegetative propagation B. Seed propagation C. both A and B methods 22. What is the main use of Moringa plant in your family? A Medicinal value C. nutritional value B. environmental protection D. water purification 23. Do you think that the government encourages the cultivation of Moringa? A. yes. B. No

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