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Nudity in Japanese Visual Media: a Cross-Cultural Observation

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Nudity in Japanese Visual Media: a Cross-Cultural Observation Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 19, No. 6, 1990 Nudity in Japanese Visual Media: A Cross-Cultural Observation James F. Downs, Ph.D ~ The depiction of nude human beings in Japanese print, film, and electronic media is reported. Modern practices are then related to traditional Japanese culture. The various contexts in which nudes are regularly presented are described and various types of nude presentations are classified. It is sug- gested that the nude body evokes different responses in Japanese culture and is not always intended to convey sexual or erotic meanings. Sentiment, par- ticularly that evoked by the family and motherhood, and nonsexual humor, are other responses that nudity is intended to elicit. The Japanese situation is compared to presentation of nudity in the United States. KEY WORDS: nudity; erotica; Japanese culture; law; pornography. THE JAPANESE AND NUDITY The Japanese attitude toward nudity is one that has confounded foreign- ers from the earliest days of Japanese-Western contact. This confusion has been compounded in recent years with the proliferation of print, film, and electronic media that convinced many Westerners that the Japanese are either unrestrained libertines or that the human body has, in Japanese culture, no The material upon which this paper is based was collected during 1986-1987 while I was a Visiting Research Professor of Social Anthropology at the Institute for the Study of the Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo Foreign Studies University. The data and conclusions in this paper are entirely mine for which neither the institute, the university, or Ministry of Education of Japan are responsible. ~304 New Mark Esplanade, Rockville, Maryland 20850. 583 0004-0002/90/1200-0583506.00/0 © 1990 Plenum PublishingCorporation 584 Downs affective impact at all. All too often the obvious cultural contrast leads to hurried conclusions based on minimal observation and extremely ethnocen- tric judgments (Abramson and Hayashi, 1984, provide a fairly recent example). 2 A frequently expressed view of Japanese culture is that the Japanese are indifferent to nudity and that the body does not convey erotic messages. My impression is that while the Japanese do react to nudity differently than do Americans, the situation is more complex than generally stated. While there are situations in which the sexual element of nudity is nonexistent or minimal, the nude serves many symbolic, including erotic, purposes in Japan. The apparent basis for this belief is the conviction that mixed bathing in public bathhouses (sento) is the norm. While this was true in the recent past, it is extremely rare today. There are some onsen (resort spas) where mixed (kon-yoku) bathing in indoor or outdoor baths (rotenburo) is permitted, but they are relatively remote and patronized largely by older peo- ple. Some resort hotels advertise mixed bathing in indoor "jungle baths" but in fact provide separate bathing facilities for women who do not want to share a bath with men. All mixed bathing facilities I have seen had at least a symbolic dividing wall projecting into the pool creating separate sections for those who prefer it that way. Further, a very strict code of etiquette is observed in mixed bathing: One avoids looking at people directly and both sexes carry a small towel with which they cover their genitals, at least sym- bolically. On the other hand, in mixed bathing situations I encountered, wom- en who were seeking the woman's section appeared unconcerned about the presence of men and were not overtly concerned about the limitations the small towels placed on their ability to conceal breasts or genitals. This situation is new. Members of the occupation forces after World War II, including myself, recall discovering mixed bathing in many towns and rural areas throughout the country. One writer recounts visiting a rural inn being used by a high school class on a trip and finding the bath full of boys, girls, teachers, and chaperones, all completely naked save for their small towels (Seward, 1969). Saga (1987) described one village in which, until World War II, adults went naked during much of the year although small skirts or aprons might be worn by adolescent girls. In the same area nude bathing in the streams and ponds was universal. The area, women who dive for pearls, seaweed, and other ocean products, until very recently worked in the nude (Decker and Decker, 1978). Practicality rather than prudery led to the use of the wet suit in some areas (Plath and Hill, 1988). Early travelers in Japan mention seeing nude people working in the fields (Kaemfer, 1737). Bird (1880/1987) traveling in northern Japan in the late 1870s regularly mentions total and partial nudity in work and social situations. Disapproval by foreign- ers led the Meiji government to pass laws forbidding public nudity. One of the primary duties of the police in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was to enforce these laws (Waley, 1984; Dore, 1958). Past practices notwithstand- Nudity in Japanese Visual Media 585 ing, the Japanese today are a seemingly modest population. There is no nudist movement in Japan and only one person is listed by the International Feder- ation of Naturists as a correspondent. The nudity depicted in public media is referred to using a word of foreign origin nudo which is used to describe any picture of a partially clothed person, particularly a woman, and is dis- tinguished from harada, the Japanese word for naked or undressed. Nudo also refers to the fairly common strip shows in some night clubs. Advertisements in travel magazines suggest in a subtle manner that top- less bathing is possible at such popular Japanese tourist destinations as Sai- pan. Also, some new resorts which have mixed bathing facilities appear to be trying to attract younger people. Whether this is in fact the case and if so whether it can be related to the frequency of nudity in the media is be- yond the scope of this report. Even in Tokyo and other larger cities many people are still dependent on public baths and, while mixed bathing is forbidden, are completely at ease in single-sex group bathing situations. Many Japanese with whom I have spoken who now have a bath in their home recall the sento with nostalgia; a time when one relaxed in the hot water with friends to share neighborhood gossip and discuss business or the latest news. CENSORSHIP AND THE NUDE Any discussion of the nude in Japan must first make clear the restric- tions of Japanese censorship. Put simply, full frontal nudity is illegal. Although the media are constantly devising means of avoiding or at least pushing the limits of this law, most pictures of unclothed people do not rev- eal pubic hair or genitals. The term nudo includes totally unclothed people posed to avoid revealing the genital areas, partially clothed in panties, for example, or pictures of people which have been obscured using various kinds of inkouts or plastic overlays or by rubbing abrasive paper over the offend- ing areas. The latter is done too in the case of American men's magazines legally imported into the country. Magazines featuring photographs of women occasionally run a picture revealing at least some pubic hair. In some con- texts sheer panties or panty hose (and in one case a tennis racket) that cover, but do not in fact conceal, escape censorship. (These examples were found in magazines sold to swingers seeking partners for spouse exchange or group sex which are found only in adult book stores. In general even these publica- tions adhere to the censorship rules.) Or, models may be completely depilat- ed. This enables the magazine to reveal everything except the sexual organs themselves which are hidden by careful posing. In comic books (manga) the genital regions may simply be left out, erased, or obscured in shadow. In recent years the absolute nature of this prohibition appears to be becoming more relaxed. There are situations when complete and undisguised 586 Downs nudity appears to be permitted. One situation was in a foreign film being shown at the 1986 Tokyo film festival-the first time frontal nudity had been permitted on film. Also, a "coffee table" book dealing with hot spring spas, published in 1985, showed young women in full frontal poses. Since that time several other publications devoted to art photography have published occasional full frontal poses. In erotic films with explicit scenes the actors are either posed so that genital areas are obscured or various electronic devices are used to mask the forbidden areas. Even when the genitals are not visible, sexual intercourse by unclothed people is defined as obscene. However such scenes are deemed legal if the junction of their bodies is obscured or some piece of clothing is retained. With this background we proceed to examine the public presentation of the unclothed human body. TYPES OF NUDE PRESENTATIONS One major element of contrast between Japan and the United States, at least as perceived by Americans, is that nudity and erotica are much more widely available in Japan. However all nudity is not the same and in this section I discuss the role of the nude in Japanese art and attempt to develop a classification of these representations. The Nude in Art The nude as such has not had a great role in Japanese art. Naked peo- ple have been involved in some action, working, bathing, dressing, sexual intercourse. Early erotic monochromal woodblock prints usually depicted lovers without clothing, but the nudity was clearly incidental to the activity (Evans and Evans, 1949; Grosbois, 1964). After the Restoration and the in- troduction of Western ideas during the Meiji period (1868-1912) many Japanese artists began and have continued to experiment with Western paint- ing styles including the nude.
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