Understanding Career Criminal Kidnapping: A study of offending dynamics, subcultural tolerance and policing in Malaysia MOHD KASSIM NOOR MOHAMED A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2010 © “This work is the intellectual property of the author. You may copy 5 per cent of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner of the Intellectual Property Rights.” Understanding Career Criminal Kidnapping PhD __________________________________________________________________________ Abstract I subscribe to the notion that criminology needs to seek information about crime from successful criminals. Alohan is a Malaysian, ethnic Chinese, Triad member, businessman and police informer who also kidnaps people for ransom. He is a serious offender who has, so far, escaped conviction for kidnap, which is a capital offence in Malaysia. This thesis seeks to understand the factors underpinning Alohan’s lengthy and apparently successful criminal career but is subject to methodological constraints imposed by ethical and safety concerns. With methods such as participant observation ruled out, the research is based on a series of life history, narrative interviews, conducted with Alohan in a secure location. These are supplemented by semi- structured interviews with: officers from Royal Malaysian Customs; officers from the Specialist Police Kidnap Unit of the Royal Malaysian Police, and ethnic Chinese businessmen. Alohan provides an account that can be examined and compared against influential strands of criminological thought in such areas as criminal careers, cultural criminology, subcultural tolerance of deviance and techniques of neutralisation. Alohan’s story reveals the highly culturally specific nature of most influential criminological theorising, which has almost exclusively been generated from a ‘western’ perspective. It uncovers the need for more comparative research in order to fill gaps and correct faulty assumptions that have arisen from the fairly narrow world-view that currently informs the field. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Mohd Kassim Noor Mohamed Page 3 2010 Understanding Career Criminal Kidnapping PhD __________________________________________________________________________ Acknowledgements This thesis was completed with kind help from many people. First, I acknowledge the great debt owed to my Director of Studies, Dr. Mike Sutton, whose positive criticism, instructive insights, patience, friendship and kindly shoulder were critical. I am also grateful to my second and third supervisors Professor Nick Tilley and Mr Michael Ahearne for their valuable input. Thank you to Nottingham Trent University for awarding me the Vice- chancellor’s bursary – I would not have been able to undertake PhD study without this financial support. The staff of the Graduate School deserve special mention, including Sandra Odell, Sarah Troy-Brown and Rachel Cicinski for their practical help throughout and Professor Matt Henn for the confidence he has always shown in me – I hope this has been justified. The motivation provided by both my Malaysia and UK families is inestimable. Mak, thank you for the all the ways in which, throughout my life, you have encouraged me to realise my potential. Boy, Shiz and Nadheera, thank you for being so patient and understanding even when being without Dad was hard. To Ruby, never underestimate how much I appreciate your sacrifice and hard work in juggling the finances and holding the family fort. Anei, Dad and Sheila - thank you, too, for showing your support in ways too numerous to mention. No list of credits would be complete without the person who stood by me every second of the way and without whom this thesis could never have been completed – my editor-in-chief, wife and best friend, Jayne. Finally, my deep gratitude goes to my research participants: the officers from Royal Malaysian Police and Royal Malaysian Customs, for their hospitality and generous contribution and, of course, Alohan – this is your story. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Mohd Kassim Noor Mohamed Page 4 2010 Understanding Career Criminal Kidnapping PhD __________________________________________________________________________ Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................ 3 Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... 4 Contents .......................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures .................................................................................................. 9 List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................... 10 1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 11 1.1 The Crime of Kidnap ..................................................................... 12 1.2 Criminal Careers ........................................................................... 18 1.3 Cultural Criminology ...................................................................... 18 1.4 Subculture and Subcultural Tolerance of Deviance ...................... 19 1.5 Rationalisations and Justifications ................................................ 21 1.6 Methods ........................................................................................ 22 1.7 Research Questions ...................................................................... 23 1.8 Structure of the Thesis .................................................................. 24 2 Methodology ........................................................................................... 26 2.1 Methodological Framework ........................................................... 27 2.2 A First-Person Narrative ................................................................ 30 2.3 Research Participants ................................................................... 30 2.4 Access .......................................................................................... 32 2.4.1 Alohan ............................................................................ 32 2.4.2 Specialist Police Kidnap Unit .......................................... 34 2.4.3 Customs Officers ............................................................ 35 2.4.4 Others ............................................................................ 37 2.5 Understanding Narrative Research ............................................... 38 2.6 Interview Styles used in Narrative Research ................................. 41 2.7 Life-history Interviewing in Practice ............................................... 43 2.8 Corroboratory Interviews ............................................................... 46 2.9 Quality Control .............................................................................. 48 2.10 Data Processing ............................................................................ 50 2.11 Data Analysis ................................................................................ 54 2.12 Ethical Standards .......................................................................... 57 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Mohd Kassim Noor Mohamed Page 5 2010 Understanding Career Criminal Kidnapping PhD __________________________________________________________________________ 2.12.1 Informed Consent and The Balance of Power ................ 58 2.12.2 Researcher Safety .......................................................... 65 2.12.3 Harm to Research Participants ...................................... 70 2.12.4 Psychological Harm to Participants ................................ 71 2.12.5 Arrest .............................................................................. 73 2.12.6 Other Physical Harm ...................................................... 77 2.12.7 Other Concerns Around Anonymity and Confidentiality . 78 2.12.8 Appearing to Endorse or Encourage Criminal Behaviour ....................................................................... 79 2.12.9 The Rights to a Life ........................................................ 81 2.12.10 Insider versus Outsider .................................................. 82 2.12.11 Other Ethical Business ................................................... 83 2.13 Chapter Summary ......................................................................... 84 3 Understanding Kidnap and Abduction .................................................... 85 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 85 3.2 Kidnapping in History .................................................................... 88 3.3 Defining Kidnap and Abduction ..................................................... 90 3.4 ‘Western’ Definitions of Kidnap and Abduction ............................. 91 3.5 Malaysian Definitions of Kidnap and