Spread of Islam - (c. 636 – parts of Byzantine Empire and Syria), (c. 642 - parts of northern Africa), (c. 650 – Persian Empire), (c. 725 – most of North Africa and Spain)
After Muhammad’s death in 632, his father-in-law Abu Bakr succeeded him. This was the beginning of the Rashidun Caliphate which lasted until 661. Following Abu’s death in 634, no clear line of succession had been established. The first two caliphs succeeding Abu were assassinated. Muhammad’s son-in-law (Ali Hussein) became caliph in 656 and was assassinated five years later. These first four successors to Muhammad are referred to as the “Rightly Guided Caliphs”. In 661, Mu’awlyah (general of Syria) became caliph beginning the Umayyad dynasty.
Umayyad Dynasty
The Umayyad installed a hereditary means of succession and moved the Islamic capital to Damascus in Syria. Under the Umayyad, Muslim conquests continued across northern Africa and by 725 most of Spain had become a Muslim state with its capital at Cordoba. The Muslims were turned back in 732 at the Battle of Tours in Gaul (contemporary France) stopping their European expansion. This gave Christianity opportunity to grow and flourish in the region. During this period, Muslims continued their assault on the Byzantine Empire and ventured into western India. Only Islamic Arabs were allowed to fill important positions in the Umayyad dynasty. Around 680, a group of Muslims known as Shiite advocated that only a descendant of Ali Hussein should be caliph. A sect of Muslims known as Sunni took the opposing position and submitted to the Umayyad leadership. Today, most Muslims are Sunni. However, in Iraq and Iran, most Muslims are Shiite. Non-Arab Muslims (Mawali) grew discontent with being treated as “second class citizens”. The Umayyad leadership grew progressively corrupt. These two factors led to the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty at the hands of Abu al-Abbas (descendant of Muhammad’s uncle) who in 750, ushered in the Abbasid dynasty.
Abbasid Dynasty
In 762 the Abbasids built a new capital city in Baghdad on the Tigris River. This allowed for good access to the Persian Gulf and was on a busy trade route from the Mediterranean to Eastern Asia. It also provided for a fresh start in a new location. The culture began to change from military prominence to government officials and merchant dominance. All peoples in the empire were allowed to become part of the military and hold government offices. Also, Arabs began to intermarry with other ethnicities. During the Abbasid Dynasty in the 700s, culture and intellect were valued, particularly under the leadership of caliph Harun al-Rashid. The leadership during this period began to take on a more regal sedentary (stationary) tone. Operation of the government became more complex with the caliph having a vizier (assistant) acting as his intermediary. This isolation of leaders and delegation of authority led to a weakening of centralized power. After the death of Harum al-Rashid, two of his sons engaged in a battle over succession. The empire had been weakened by the elaborate lifestyle and graft associated with its leadership. Also, many non-Arabs had found their way into prominent governmental and military positions. Their allegiance was not entirely reliable. Spain had come under the leadership of a Umayyad prince, Morocco was independent, and Egypt was under the leadership of the Fatimid dynasty.
Fatimid Dynasty and Seljuk Turks - Fatima was Muhammad’s daughter who married Ali. The name Fatimid was taken on by Shiite Muslims who in 909, under the leadership of Abu Abdallah, defeated the Sunni ruler in North Africa. In 969 the Fatimid conquered Egypt and established their capital in Cairo
The Fatimid was deeply involved in the vigorous trade from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. They hired non-Arabs for military purposes including the Seljuk Turks. The Seljuk Turks were nomads from Central Asia who made their way into the eastern part of the Islamic empire as the Abbasid caliphate was on the decline. In 1055 Bagdad was captured and a Turkish leader was installed as sultan. The Turks began to threaten what was left of the Byzantine Empire and in 1071 the Byzantines suffered defeat at Manzikert, whereupon they turned to Western Europe for help.
Crusades
Byzantine ruler Alexius I called on Christian states in Western Europe to help fight the Turks. A series of crusades commenced in 1096. In 1169, Saladin took over as sultan in Egypt (ending the Fatimid dynasty). He soon dominated Syria then in 1187 began to attack the crusaders occupying the Christian states in that region. He expelled the crusaders except for a few cities along the Mediterranean in Palestine. The crusades had little lasting impact on the Muslim world but seeded new and forgotten culture into Western Europe. They also sparked a European appetite for the finery of the Muslim world. The real threat to Islam would be the Mongols who were methodically moving in their direction. .