CONTEXTUALIZATION of the CHRISTIAN FAITH in GUYANA: USING INDIAN MUSIC AS an EXPRESSION of HINDU CULTURE in MISSION by DEVANAND

CONTEXTUALIZATION OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH IN GUYANA: USING

INDIAN MUSIC AS AN EXPRESSION OF HINDU CULTURE IN MISSION

DEVANAND BHAGWAN

B.A.A. Ryerson University, 1979 MTS, Tyndale Seminary, 1997

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Ministry

Acadia Divinity College Acadia University Fall Graduation 2018

This thesis by Devanand Bhagwan was defended successfully in an oral examination on 6 July 2018.

The examining committee for the thesis was:

Dr. Stuart Blythe, Chair

Dr. Matthew Friedman, External Examiner

Dr. H. Daniel Zacharias, Internal Examiner

Dr. Stephen McMullin, Supervisor

This thesis is accepted in its present form by Acadia Divinity College, the Faculty of Theology of Acadia University, as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of Doctor of Ministry.

I, Devanand Bhagwan, hereby grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to provide copies of my thesis, upon request, on a non-profit basis.

Devanand Bhagwan Author

Dr. Stephen McMullin Supervisor

6 July 2018 Date

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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ...... v Abstract ...... vi Acknowledgements ...... vii Dedication ...... viii Preface ...... ix INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Chapter 1. BIBLICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR CONTEXTUALIZATION OF THE GOOD NEWS ...... 13 2. THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR THE CONTEXTUALIZATION OF MUSIC ...... 71 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 124 4. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY ...... 135 5. PRACTICAL PROJECT FOR MINISTRY ...... 153 CONCLUSION ...... 160 Appendix 1: Genesis Flood Account in View of Ancient Near East Literature ...... 172 Appendix 2: The “Unknown God” In Acts 17:23 ...... 174 Appendix 3: Letter Of Invitation To Persons Of The Hindu Faith ...... 176 Appendix 4: Letter Of Invitation To Persons Of The Christian Faith ...... 177 Appendix 5: Informed Consent Form ...... 178 Appendix 6: Questions Asked Of Hindus Before And After Seeing Videos ...... 179 Appendix 7: Questions Asked Of Pastors Before And After Seeing Videos ...... 180 Bibliography ...... 181

TABLES

Table 1: Pastors’ Attitudes Before and After Seeing Hindustani Christian Videos ...... 151

ABSTRACT

Contextualization of the Christian Faith in Guyana: Using Indian Music as an expression

of Hindu Culture in Mission

Devanand Bhagwan

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which Hindustani (Indian) music might serve as a bridge between Hindus and Christians to spread the gospel among the Hindustani people in Guyana and enrich their worship experience. Hindus have a strong emotional and cultural connection with Indian music. The music in the church in Guyana, however, is a combination of Western and Caribbean-style (Creole) music. The researcher felt that a good understanding of the Hindus’ appreciation of music could help pastors and missionaries in their quest to evangelize Hindus and to enrich the worship experience of the Hindustani people. Using a qualitative approach, 12 Hindus and 12 pastors were surveyed to determine their perceptions of music in the church and how important they felt music could be for attracting Hindus to the gospel. The data from the interviews were utilized to categorize themes and identify the findings of the study. A clear majority of Hindu participants indicated that they would be willing to attend a Christian gathering or place of worship if they knew the church would play Indian instruments or have other expressions of Indian music. Although most of the pastors at first felt that Hindustani music would adulterate the present ‘Christian culture’ of the church and thus lead to syncretism, many of the pastors who had disapproved of any form of Indian music in the church changed their negative attitudes after seeing videos with Indian music containing Christian lyrics. This study concludes that when pastors understand Hindus’ appreciation of Indian music and see evidence of Christian Indian music, through videos, for example, they are more inclined to play Indian music in the church. This in turn, could draw Hindus to the Christian faith and enrich the Hindustani Christian worship experience.

Key words: Hindustani; Hindus; Indian; music; Caribbean; creole; mission; qualitative; research; contextualization; interviews; worship; culture; race

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to thank my advisor Rev. Dr. Stephen McMullin for his guidance, patience, knowledge and encouragement. I have learned a lot about research and writing from his tutelage for which I am grateful.

I thank the numerous authors who have written on the topic on contextualization.

I moved by their insight, passion, knowledge, diligence, vision and their care and love for

God and people as they wrote on various subjects relating to biblical and theological foundations for contextualization. Lesslie Newbigin especially stands out in the ways he expressed contextualization in word and deed.

I thank John Bowen, former Professor of Evangelism at Wycliffe College, for his example and encouragement which he has been to me since my undergraduate university days. His insight, humility and passion about sharing the Good News sensitively to people have been an inspiration in my life.

I am grateful to the librarian Jean Kelly at Acadia University for going the extra mile to help me with books and other resource material.

I am especially indebted to a small group of friends who rendered tremendous prayerful and moral support to me while completing the thesis. They were my ‘Aaron’ holding up my hands when I was tired and weary. I am grateful for their critical support.

Last but not the least, I thank my beloved wife, Rani, for her love, constant support and faithful prayers; with her at my side, I was able to reach the goal!

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DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my late aunt, Dee, with whom I lived for a few years as a boy, whose priority was education for me even though she was illiterate, and who perceived me as the apple of her eye

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PREFACE

I was a Hindu and was raised in the Hindustani (Indian) culture which I relished. When I became a follower of Jesus Christ at age 13, virtually all vestiges of that culture were stripped away since the church in Guyana embraced only Western/Creole culture.

However, a watershed moment happened in Bangladesh when I was a tourist in that country in 1983 - I witnessed people worshipping Jesus Christ in Hindustani (Indian) culture! I was overjoyed to see people worshipping the Saviour in the culture I have treasured. Observing Christians sitting on the floor, wearing saris and kurtas, and worshipping Christ with the dholak and harmonium cajoled me to want to tell the world that one could worship Christ in one’s local culture. This study stemmed from that thrilling experience in 1983 in Bangladesh.

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

This contextualization study seeks to explore the extent which Indian music might serve as a bridge between Hindus and Christians for the church in Guyana to spread the gospel among the Hindustani people and enrich their worship experience. I explored this phenomenon of music by interviewing a sample1 consisting of 12 Hindu individuals and

12 pastors in Guyana. I undertook this study to garner information from the Hindu

Guyanese individuals concerning their nexus with Indian music and also to gather facts from pastors regarding their perception of the music in relation to the Christian faith and to their own ministries. It was anticipated that a better understanding of the contextualization principles, especially as they relate to the phenomenon of music, would help church leaders such as pastors and missionaries to appropriate the role of music as they work with the Hindustani people of the country. It is my hypothesis that an appropriate Hindustani musical/cultural expression could aid in the evangelism mandate of the Guyanese church for sharing the gospel as well as for enriching the worship experience of the Hindustani people who have already become followers of Jesus Christ.

In this chapter2 I shall refer to the following standpoints: the context and background of the study, the problem statement, the statement of purpose and the

1 Details of the sample selection and process are given in Chapter 3: Research Methodology. 2The headings and subheadings in this chapter well as in Chapters 3-6 are adapted from the sequence suggested in the book: Linda Bloomberg and Marie Volpe, Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Roadmap From Beginning to End, 2nd edition (Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 2012).

research question, an overview of the methodology, the rationale and significance, the role and background of the researcher of the study, and the organization of the thesis.

Context and Background of the Study

Social Demographics of the Hindustanis in Guyana

The Hindustani people presently comprise almost 40% of the population of

Guyana – the largest ethnic group in the country.3 The next largest ethnic group in the country is African who account for approximately 29%.4 The number of Guyanese who identify religiously as Hindus has been decreasing for many decades. In 1991, Hindus comprised 35% of the population; in 2002 that figure dropped to 28.4%, and in 2012 it dropped further to 25%.5 Most of the Hindus who changed their religion opted for the

Christian faith.6 Hindu religious leaders are alarmed at this rate of conversion and the effect it has on the culture of the Hindustani people.7 This is a particularly poignant issue in Guyana because conversion of Hindus is a phenomenon that has cultural, social and racial implications.8

Culture and Racial Tensions in Guyana

Shortly before the abolition of slavery in 1833, the British imported labour from

India to work on the sugar estates as indentured servants beginning in the early 1830s.

3 Source: http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/, accessed April 8, 2018. 4 Ibid. 5 http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/pubs/Chapter2_Population_Composition.pdf; www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/download.php?file=93 6 Though there are no official statistics to confirm this, interviews with a Hindu priest and Pentecostal pastor related this observation in April 2017. 7 Peter Manuel, “Music, Identity, and Images of India in the Indo-Caribbean Diaspora,” Asian Music 29, no. 1 (1997): 17–35, https://doi.org/10.2307/834410. 8 See http://www.justiceforhindus.org/breaking-hinduism-in-the-caribbean-de-linking-and- conversion/, accessed April 22, 2018.

Though the work conditions were marginally better than slavery, there was tension between the African and Indian residents in the country.9 The Africans found it easier to adapt to the European culture and took on their names and religion much more easily than the Indians did.10 The “indentured servant” status of the Indians allowed them to continue their culture and religion, compared to the Africans who were brought to the colony as slaves.11

The Hindustanis have held tightly to their culture, music, food and religion in the face of racial and cultural threats. These cultural expressions have continued to grow strong and flourish especially in view of cultural threats.12 Preservation and continuation of the Hindustani music is considered essential for Hindu cultural survival in Guyana – especially in face of the racial tensions that exist in the Caribbean.13

A Brief History of Mission to Hindustanis in Guyana

Most of the indentured servants from India came from the northern part of the country where Hindi was the predominant language. Missionaries from several denominations acknowledged the difference in this distinct “people group” and wanted to reach out to them. The Methodists initiated a work with the Indian people in 1852 but it was H.V.P. Bronkhurst who spearheaded that mission beginning in 1883.14 The

Anglicans sent an Indian clergyman, Ebenezer Bholanath Bose to work with the Indians

9 Peter Manuel, “Ethnic Identity, National Identity, and Music in Indo-Trinidadian Culture,” in Ronald M. Radano, Philip V. Bohlman, and Houston A. Baker, eds., Music and the Racial Imagination (University of Chicago Press, 2000), 319-320. 10 http://www.guyanajournal.com/hinduism_caribbean.html, accessed April 22, 2018. 11 Ibid. 12 Peter Manuel, Tales, Tunes, and Tassa Drums: Retention and Invention into Indo-Caribbean Music (University of Illinois Press, 2015), 12. 13 See http://www.chakranews.com/music-expression-faith-culture-young-caribbean-hindus/5951, accessed April 20, 2018. 14 Paul Younger, New Homelands: Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa (Oxford University Press, USA, 2010), 257.

in Guyana in 1861.15 Canadian Presbyterians, led by Rev. John Gibson in the 1860’s, felt the strong need to minister to the Hindustani people. After his death in 1885, Rev J. B.

Cropper took over the mission in 1895.16 Cropper spoke fluent Hindi and had a burning passion to minister to the Hindus through the Hindi language as well as in Hindi music.

Almost all the Hindi music was derived from India, and most of the Christian songs were

Western hymns that were translated into Hindi and sung with the same Western genre.

By 1917, through the initiative of Rev. Cropper, 28 primary schools and one secondary school were established which attracted not only the Indians but anyone who wanted an education.17 This mission to the Hindus resulted in many Indians turning to the Christian faith. However, not all the converts became Christians out of conviction; some converted because of ulterior motives, such as getting a teaching job.18

It is not clear why the missionaries discontinued their ministry in the Hindi language and with the use of Indian music. One may assume that the ministers might have felt that need was not as pronounced as before because more Indians were becoming increasingly fluent in the English language and were feeling more comfortable in the

Western/creole culture.

Many of the families of the converts were distressed at the conversions, and the converts themselves felt sadness at the loss of culture because they missed participating in Hindu festivals such as Phagwah and Diwali.19 The missionaries of this era identified the firm grip that culture had on the Hindustani people and the difficulty this

15 Ibid. 16 Ron Ramdin, Arising from Bondage: A History of the Indo-Caribbean People (NYU Press, 2000), 76. 17 Ibid. 18 Bridget Brereton, Social Life in the Caribbean, 1838-1938 (Heinemann, 1985), 52. 19 Ibid.

phenomenon caused when working with the Hindus. Commenting on the culture of the

Hindus, one missionary declared, “If the Creoles20 were regarded as clay which could easily be moulded into a Christian and Western shape, the Hindus (and Muslims) of India were more like a stone that could only be worked painfully and with much toil.”21 The strong clutch that culture has on Indians continues with Hindus today.

Culture, Music and Religion of the Hindustanis

Indian music is an integral part of Hindu culture in Guyana and is intricately tied to their religious sensitivity and ethnic identification.22 Bhajans, geet, kirtans, chowtaal- singing and other forms of Indian music are always present when Hindus have their religious gatherings such as jhandi23, katha, or hawan,24 or when they have special occasions such as weddings, births, or funerals. The Indian music bolsters the Indian sense of ethnic distinctiveness as they have continued to use Indian musical instruments such as the harmonium and dholak, as well as the dhantal. In addition to religious Hindu songs, the Hindus also sing “Bollywood” songs which emphasize love of family after the

Hindu rituals are completed at their religious gatherings. These music sessions may go

20 “Creole” culture may refer to that which “traditionally connoted the English-based … syncretic “mainstream” aspects of society, as associated primarily with Afro-Caribbeans and people of mixed race.” (Taken from Peter Manuel, East Indian Music in the West Indies: Tan-Singing, Chutney, and the Making on Indo-Caribbean Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), xix). Horowitz points out that ‘Creole’ “refers… to those portions of the Guyanese and Trinidad populations that had some ancestral contact with Africa,”: taken from Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, Updated Edition With a New Preface (University of California Press, 2001), 311. 21 Peter Manuel, East Indian Music in the West Indies, 6, quoting Donald Wood, Trinidad in Transition, Oxford,1968. 22 http://www.guyanajournal.com/hinduism_caribbean.html, accessed April 18, 2018. 23 A jhandi refers “an elaborate series to ritual acts” from the main stream Hindu religion in Guyana. The ceremonies normally culminate with a flag on top of a bamboo pole with a picture of a deity on it. Johannes Gerrit de Kruijf, Guyana Junction. Globalisation, Localisation, and the Production of East Indianness (Rozenberg Publishers, 2006), 138. 24 Kathas and hawans are normally done by the Arya Samaj sect of Hinduism in Guyana.

for hours as they ad lib and ignore each other’s linguistic (Hindi) and musical mistakes, and relish in their Indian cultural expressions.

Hindu weddings are conducted with a variety of Hindu rituals, followed by revelry in the local Indian chatney25 and “Bollywood” music. Dancing always takes place at Hindu weddings and includes revellers of all ages with the predominantly Indian music.

Indian clothing is also a visible feature of religious and social occasions. Those who can afford it normally don colourful Indian saris or shalwar kameez (for women) and kurtas for men. The food served at Hindu religious functions is invariably Indian including the desserts. The venues housing these functions are also traditionally decorated to portray a visibly distinct Indian ambience.

There are several television and radio stations that carry predominantly Indian programs. These media play a variety of Indian music, including some of the old

“sentimental tunes” that are popular especially with the older Indians in the country.

Indian serial television drama shows are also well-liked by the Indians and so are the

Indian dance shows. With this media exposure coupled with the threat of cultural malignment, there has been a renaissance of the Indo-Caribbean music and culture since the 1970s.26 Consequently, the Hindu people are likely to value their music highly in their quest for cultural survival.

25 This genre of music is also spelled as chutney. It is derived from the Bhojpuri belt in North India – an area that is part of the Western Uttar Pradesh and Eastern Bihar states. See Rajendra Saywack, "A History of East Indian Chutney Music in The Caribbean." Unpublished paper presented at Hunter College, CUNY, NYC, 1999. 26 Peter Manuel, Tales, Tunes, and Tassa Drum, 29.

Music in the Church in Guyana

When one hears Christian music – whether it is from the church in the neighbourhood, television, radio or any other source, invariably it is “American” or creole style of music. On special occasions such as funerals, weddings or other social events, one may render a Christian bhajan27 or a geet.28 When mission groups from the

West visit the country, they never consider the Hindustani genre when they contemplate music for the church in Guyana.29

Even though it is obvious that Hindus (as well as Muslims and other Guyanese people) enjoy Indian music, one never finds any Indian musical instruments in the

Guyanese church. Most churches have a Western-type drum set. Some of the larger churches in Georgetown, the capital city of Guyana, have steel band music (associated with African music).30 Consequently, it could become difficult for Hindus to consider the

Christian faith since they see the church culture as a phenomenon which is not their own.

This is an important point to consider since there has been ethnic tension between the two major races in the country for decades.31

27 Bhajans are Hindu devotional music which has a repetitive form of singing, and reflect an ecstatic form of worship; see Gérard Colas, “History of Vaisnava Traditions: An Esquisse,” in Gavin Flood, ed., The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), 255. 28 These are Hindustani types of religious music. For a description of these genre of music, see Chapter 2. 29 See report on a Lutheran mission trip on Music Education at http://www.glma.gy/about, accessed April 18, 2018. 30 Peter Manuel, Tales, Tunes, and Tassa Drum, 228. 31 Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups, 311.

Problem Statement

Research has shown that music is an effective tool to reach people with the gospel.32 Research also indicates that Hindus have a substantial nexus with Indian music especially when they enter their religious mode or contemplate spiritual things.

The church in Guyana wants to reach the Hindustani people, the largest ethnic group in the country, with the gospel but the music in the church is virtually devoid of any

Hindustani music. The present music in the church may be an obstacle that prevents

Hindus from considering the Christian faith.

Within the last few decades, increasing numbers of missiologists, missionaries, and ethnomusicologists have recognized the need to contextualize the gospel in order to bring the Good News to the people in their local culture. There are many passages of

Scripture in the Old and New Testaments that manifest the crucialness of contextualization.

Pastors or missionaries must build cultural bridges with Hindus to share the gospel. It is therefore necessary to investigate the extent the church could go in utilizing the musical genre of the Hindus to reach them for Christ and ground their faith through this cultural medium.

Statement of Purpose and Research Question

The purpose of this study is to explore with 12 Hindus and 12 pastors their perceptions of music in the church. It is anticipated that a better understanding of the

32 Martin Clayton, Herbert, Trevor, and Richard Middleton, eds., The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction (Routledge, 2013), 38.

Hindus’ nexus to Indian music will help church leaders such as pastors and missionaries to consider the music and culture of the Hindustani people as they plan musical programs and play musical instruments in the church. To shed light on the problem, the study addresses the research question: How might the use of Indian music as an expression of

Hindu culture serve as a bridge between Christians and Hindus to spread the gospel among Hindus and enrich the worship experience of Hindustani Christians in Guyana?

Overview of Methodology

A qualitative approach has been used to study the problem stated above. I conducted in-depth interviews with 12 Hindus and 12 pastors and recorded a rich description of the participants’ perceptions of the problem. These conversations were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. I then colour-coded significant words or terms which were then grouped and re-grouped until I could distinguish patterns. These patterns were then grouped and re-grouped so as to identify the themes that surfaced from the analyzed data.

Rationale and Significance

The rationale for this study arises from my desire to see Hindus come to faith without any unnecessary burdens (Acts 15:10). It appears as if music in the church in

Guyana could be a barrier that prevents Hindus from coming to faith in Christ. If the music in the church is of a genre that will make Hindus feel culturally relevant, it would be easier for them to be attracted to the gospel. Church leaders such as pastors and missionaries would also be better equipped to make evangelism with Hindus easier and

allow for a richer, fuller opportunity to worship the Lord in a culture with which they feel at home and with their heart music.33

Role and Background of the Researcher

I conducted the research design and interviewed all the participants because I was the sole investigator for the study. I also transcribed, coded, and analyzed the data and described the findings without any assistance.

Personal Background

I was born a Hindu in the Arya Samaj34 sect of Hinduism in Guyana. My family and I were displaced as a result of racial riots in the 1960s in Guyana. One of the entities that kept us going was the powerful combination of our religion, culture and music. As a young teenager, I was steeped in my religion and hoped to become a prominent Hindu priest or leader. But God had other plans and saved my soul through the witness of Indian

Christians in the village where I lived. God changed my life and he gave me joy, hope and love. I became zealous for the gospel and passionate to see others come to faith in

Christ. However, it was extremely difficult for me culturally as virtually everything from the Indian culture was stripped away when I started to attend the church.

Almost all Hindustani expressions were considered evil and sinful by the church even though all of the members and adherents of the church were Indians. I had to cease wearing Indian clothes, could not observe or participate in any Indian festival, could not

33 “Heart music” refers to one’s traditional music with which one feels comfortable and “at home”; see Tom Avery, "Music of the Heart: The Power of Indigenous Worship in Reaching Unreached Peoples with the Gospel." Mission Frontiers." The Bulletin (1996), 13-14. 34 The Arya Samaj means “noble society.” It is a Hindu sect that started by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875. Those who embrace the faith are monotheistic and reject the worship of idols.

refer to the Hindustani arts and certainly could not listen to Indian music. It was not taboo to watch “wholesome” Western movies such as The Sound of Music or Gone with the

Wind but it was unacceptable for a Christian to watch an Indian movie. I loved Indian movies so I used to sneak into the Indian cinemas and hoped and prayed that no one from the church would see me indulge in such a horrible “worldly” venture.

I suffered the agony of losing my culture which was so precious to me. I had thought that Jesus Christ could only be properly worshipped sitting on pews and in

“proper” Western culture and ideally with Western music. However, this trajectory changed in 1983 when I travelled across Asia. I was thrilled to see Christians in

Bangladesh wearing Hindustani-type clothes, sitting on the floor and singing praise to

God with the Indian instruments such as the harmonium and dholak like the Hindus do in

Guyana. That first encounter was a watershed moment in my life which prompted me to promote contextualization principles wherever I go.

I recognize that my personal experience, though serving as an asset in this study, could also be a liability in making judgements of analysis and findings. I have therefore checked a sample of analysis and findings with a colleague (a graduate student who is familiar with the patwa language and Guyanese culture) and he concurred with my analysis and findings.

Organization of the Thesis

The first section of this study gives an introduction and overview of my thesis:

Contextualization of the Christian Faith in Guyana: Using Indian Music as an

Expression of Hindu Culture in Mission. Chapter 1 addresses the biblical foundation for

contextualization of music. Chapter 2 renders the theological foundation for the study.

Chapter 3 describes the research methodology employed, and Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study. Chapter 5 gives a description of the practical project I have designed for my ministry. The last chapter contains a brief chapter-by-chapter summary of the thesis and suggestions for future research.

CHAPTER 1

BIBLICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR CONTEXTUALIZATION OF THE GOOD NEWS

Introduction

With the intention of substantiating biblical legitimacy for my thesis,

Contextualization of the Christian Faith in Guyana: Using Indian Music as an

Expression of Hindu Culture in Mission, this chapter will establish that there are solid biblical foundations for demonstrating the concept of contextualization.35 Such a discussion is vital in view of legitimate concerns of syncretism which traverse the contextualization conversation. When one establishes that there is ample evidence of

Bible36 writers utilizing the local language, music, culture and musical genre in the composition of God’s Word, then one can stand on solid biblical ground for utilizing

Hindu culture in mission.

The Bible, a collection of 66 books, is a contextual book. The contents of the

Bible from the beginning to the end of the book are about a real God and real people and a relationship between the creator and his created beings. In every page of God’s Word, humankind throughout the world can learn about God and his relationship with his creation because God is seen from the context of the authors of the Bible. God has revealed himself to humankind through various circumstances and situations because “In the past God spoke to our ancestors through the prophets at many times and in various ways” (Heb 1:1).

35 Contextualization is defined in Chapter 2. 36 In this paper, the word ‘Scripture’ is used interchangeably with ‘Bible,’ the ‘Word of God,’ or ‘God’s Word.’

Contextualization in the Bible

In their local settings, humans wrote the Bible over a period of 1,500 years in three languages, on three continents by 40 authors who came from a variety of occupations including those of prophets, kings, shepherds, Jewish zealots and a physician.37 The books of the Bible are in various literary forms which include narratives, laws, poems and wisdom literature, sermons and letters, with the first book beginning with the creation narrative. A remarkable feature of the biblical books is that all of them relate to each other in substantiating God’s character and his relationship with his creation. Commenting on the inter-relationship of the books of the Bible, Erwin Lutzer notes that in spite of the diversity in geography, time, genre and backgrounds of the different authors, “their writings dovetail with one another, not superficially, but intricately and brilliantly.”38 Each book in the Bible has a thread that binds it in perfect harmony with the rest of the books, as there is consistency and coherence in the message of Scripture even though the books were written in different time periods and in different circumstances. Such a unity pervades because the ultimate author of God’s Word is the

Holy Spirit who inspired the writing of the Bible (2 Tim 3:16).

The inspiration of God’s Word does not mean God dictated Scripture with humans functioning as mere scribes to write what God instructed them to record. Mark

Strauss points out that though there were instances of prophetic utterances, “in most cases inspiration means that God worked through the author’s own circumstances, thought and

37 Robert A. Stein, Luke: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture (B&H Publishing Group, 1993), 20. 38 Erwin W. Lutzer, Seven Reasons Why You Can Trust the Bible (Moody Publishers, 2008), 42.

intentions to communicate his divine message.”39 The authors experience God in their own way, and they recorded Scripture according to these perceptions. Gordon Fee and

Douglas Stuart agree, and emphasize the human and other dimensions in the composition of God’s Word. They explain that when the Bible was being recorded, it was not a case of “Chairman God” imposing a series of “propositions and imperatives.” Instead, God

chose to speak his eternal truths within the particular circumstances and events of human history. This also is what gives us hope. Precisely because God chose to speak in the context of real human history, we may take courage that these same words will speak again and again in our own “real” history, as they have throughout the history of the church.40

God spoke to people in their local dwellings, and they were able to understand his communication. The authors of the Bible sometimes chronicled their experiences as ordinary humans, and these chronicles became the basis for Scripture. The reader of the

Bible, therefore, is able to relate to the stories in the Word of God because these are stories to which ordinary people from any part of the world could relate. Christopher J. H.

Wright, Old Testament Professor and a key figure in the Lausanne Movement41 in 2010, agrees that the Bible is not a document that materialized out of nowhere and was given to humankind. He argues that the Bible authors wrote Scripture because of the narratives that emanated from their struggles with God and the understanding that stemmed out of those struggles. He explains that many of the texts in Scripture

emerged out of events, or struggles, or crises, or conflicts, in which the people of God engaged with the constantly changing and challenging task of articulating and living out their understanding of God's revelation and redemptive action in

39 Mark Strauss, “Introducing the Bible,” in Philip S. Johnston, The IVP Introduction to the Bible (InterVarsity Press, 2013), 2. 40 Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Third Edition, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2014), 22. 41 “The Lausanne Movement connects influencers and ideas for global mission, with a vision of the gospel for every person, an evangelical church for every people, Christ-like leaders for every church, and kingdom impact in every sphere of society.” See https://www.lausanne.org/about-the-movement, from which this quotation is taken.

the world. Sometimes these were struggles internal to the people of God themselves; sometimes they were highly polemical struggles with competing religious claims and worldviews that surrounded them. Biblical texts often have their origin in some issue, need, controversy or threat, which the people of God needed to address in the context of their mission. The text in itself is a product of mission in action.42

Many of Paul’s letters, for example, are a result of his missionary zeal and concern for the believers and unbelievers in different cities.43 Similarly, the first four books of the

New Testament (NT) are referred to as the Gospels,44 since those books speak of “the good news of Jesus of Nazareth, especially his death and resurrection.”45 Similarly, most of the books written by Paul bear the names of the individuals or the location of the particular church to whom these were written. The book of Titus, for example, was given that name because Paul wrote the letter to Titus, and the book of Romans was written as a letter to the church located in the city of Rome. Wright emphasizes that the Bible writers wrote in response to a local need. He argues, “The Scriptures, after all, are not disembodied pronouncements dropped from heaven, but collections of texts that addressed living people in specific contexts, who were therefore called upon to respond to them, in faith and action.”46 He also points out that the prophet Jeremiah addressed various political, social, and religious issues that were present in his day when he wrote the book of Jeremiah.47

42Christopher J. H. Wright, “Mission and Old Testament Interpretation,” in Craig G. Bartholomew and David J. H. Beldman, eds., Hearing the Old Testament: Listening for God’s Address (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2012), 205. 43 Ibid. 44 The term ‘gospel’ is derived from the Greek term euangelion. It is also translated as ‘Good News’ in many of the contemporary New Testament versions. For a discussion on the nuances of this word, see discussion in Thomas Lewis Stegall, The Gospel of the Christ: A Biblical Response to the Crossless Gospel Regarding the Contents of Saving Faith (Grace Gospel Press, 2009), 252-260. 45 Christopher J. H. Wright, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative (InterVarsity Press, 2013), 49. 46 Christopher J. H. Wright, “Mission and Old Testament Interpretation,” 204. 47 Ibid., 207.

The Bible authors were not of one mould where stories or accounts followed the same format. Rather, the authors wrote God’s Word in a way that reflected their individual characters, personalities, or gifts. The prophet David, for example, recorded

Scripture in the form of poetry; Luke gave accounts of what took place in the life of Jesus

Christ, and the apostle Paul wrote letters to churches. Therefore, the human influence had an impact on the composition of the Bible since they recorded God’s Word according to how they understood God speaking to them. Lee J. Gugliotto highlights the human design in the architecture of God’s Word. He points out that “the Bible writers had the flexibility to pick and choose what was important and meaningful to them – and still be historical.”48 Gugliotto supports the argument that the authors of the Bible were more than mere chroniclers of events. He argues:

The Bible writers were more than mere collectors or dispensers of facts. They did not write simply to preserve or report what had happened. They were "witnesses" who testified to others, either as history-makers themselves or as Spirit-led chroniclers of people, places, and things who made history. They wrote what they knew from their various experiences or the experiences of others—in specific contexts—painting a picture of God for the audience (or readers, though most common people at that time were illiterate) in each situation so that they could see Him as the writers saw Him and share their experience with Him. John made this very clear in the introduction to his first epistle when he said: "That which we have seen and heard we declare to you, that you also may have fellowship with us; and truly our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ" (l John 1:3, NKJV). He and his fellow witnesses (be used the plural “we” and “us”) wrote to make God real and near to others. They enjoyed sharing facts more as writers than as simple historians (verse 4).49

What Gugliotto is basically saying is that the Bible is more than a mere history book; the

Bible writers recorded God’s Word as part of their personal experience or observation of

God working in or through them. These authors were not simply recorders or annalists

48 Lee J. Gugliotto, Handbook for Bible Study (Review and Herald Pub Assoc, 2000), 20. 49 Ibid., 73.

who made declarations about God; their documentation was a result of their experiencing and observing God from a personal vantage point. In other words, the Bible authors chronicled God’s Word according to the context of their historical, physical, social, and spiritual environments. The omniscient and omnipotent God can communicate with humankind irrespective of culture, language, race, or environment. As Lamin Sanneh observes, this contextualized nature of the Bible makes it relevant to all cultures.50 It is

God’s desire for humankind to discern and realize him, and thus, he took the initiative to communicate with his creation in diverse ways.

Since the incarnation is a prominent doctrine of the Christian faith, Charles H.

Kraft surmises that alongside the deity of Christ in the theological curricula, theologians should place more emphasis on the human aspect of the bridge between humankind and

God as a “legitimate theological specialization.”51 Though Jesus was fully God, he was also fully human. He demonstrated his human frailties in many episodes in his life. For example, he was weary and thirsty (John 4:6), tempted (Matt 4:1-11), betrayed (Mark

14), and struggled to do God’s will (Luke 22:42). God created humankind in his image and he himself came down to earth and identified fully with humans. Speaking of God’s longing to make himself known to humankind, Kraft observes:

In communicating to humans, then, he chooses to express himself in ways human beings can understand and respond to. His concern is to be understood, so he chooses ways that will be intelligible at our end of the process…

Our God is a communicating God. His desire to communicate with his creatures is obvious from the very beginnings of human existence. God’s communicational aim is not simply to inform. He desires a relationship with his creatures. They may philosophize about him or about that relationship. But that philosophizing or

50 Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture, 2nd edition (Orbis, 2015), 3. 51 Charles H. Kraft, “Contextualizing Communication,” in Dean Gilliland, The Word Among Us: Contextualizing Theology for Mission Today (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2002), 123.

theologizing is merely a by-product, never to be confused with his true aim: to relate and interact with humans.52

The essence of Kraft’s argument is that God communicated to humankind in a meaningful way because be desires a dynamic and intimate relationship between himself and his creation. God is not an object or person who is unknown by those who pay homage to him. He communicates with humankind because he knows each one to the minutest detail – to the point of knowing the numbers of hairs on their heads (Luke 12:7).

He desires that humankind knows him as well, for his commands are just and right, and he requires that they live according to his instructions (Psalm 119:1-8; Ezek 36:26-27).

These precepts, ordinances, and prescriptions are present both in the Old and New

Testaments of the Bible.

Contextualization in the Old Testament

God has revealed himself in each book of the Bible. In the first book, God’s presence was evident as he spoke to humankind at the time of creation, and humankind had the ability to recognize God’s voice, know his will, and communicate with the creator (Gen 1 and 2). Contextualization in the Bible, therefore, started at the time of creation the moment God created humankind in his image (Gen 2:4-8).53 This conversation and relationship which began in the Garden of Eden continued in Scripture to the last book. The consequence of God making himself known throughout the world is reflected at the apocalypse, where humankind joins hearts and voices in unity and totality

52 Ibid, 123-124. 53 Richard W Engle, “Contextualization in Missions: A Biblical and Theological Appraisal,” Grace Theological Journal 4, no. 1 (1983): 85–107.

“from every nation, from all tribes and peoples and languages” in declaring who God is and worshipping him (Rev 7:9-10).

Contextualization and Imago Dei

Humankind was God’s extra-ordinary creation because God created male and female in his image and likeness (Gen 1:26-27). Adam, the first human, was a special creation because “God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being” (Gen 2:7). After God created humankind, he “endowed them with his image” and put them in charge to manage the rest of his creation.54 Imago Dei55 is a crucial concept of the Christian faith because it reflects the intrinsic value of humankind to God. Humans are different from animals because God made the former in his image. The concept of imago Dei also appeared in ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian literature, but the term was reserved only for kings, and occasionally priests. By indicating that God created humankind in the image of God, the writer of the Genesis account elevates all persons as creation with the

54 John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (InterVarsity Press, 2000), 29. The authors also point out (on the same page), “In the ancient world an image was believed to carry the essence of that which it represented. An idol image of deity, the same terminology as used here, would be used in the worship of that deity because it contained the deity’s essence. This would not suggest that the image could do what the deity could do, nor that it looked the same as the deity. Rather, the deity’s work was thought to be accomplished through the idol. In similar ways the governing work of God was seen to be accomplished by people.” 55 Imago Dei is a Latin term that refers to the "image of God,” with the first Biblical reference found in Gen 1:26-27. Steve Lemke, Professor of Philosophy and Ethics at New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, examines the term, and attempts to address what aspects of the image of God that were created in humankind, and to what extent this image was damaged at the Fall; see Steve W. Lemke, “The Intelligent Design of Humans: the Meaning of the Imago Dei for Theological Anthropology,” (paper presented at the Southwest Regional Meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society Meeting, Houston, Texas, 2008). .

highest status – equivalent to kings and priests.56 Notable Bible teacher, John Stott, opines that this godlike imprint on humankind mentioned in Genesis allows for “such capacities as rationality, conscience, dominion and love. This divine image or imago Dei gives us an intrinsic dignity or worth, which belongs to us regardless of race, religion, colour, culture, class, sex or age.”57 Every human could live each day with the confidence that she or he is precious and wholesome because each one is made in God’s image – despite the human frailties that one encounters. Humans are therefore able to know who they are, whose they are, and what they are worth; they can submit themselves to God as the one who they can know and trust.58 Before the Fall, humankind had an unblemished relationship with God and knew where they were located geographically, socially, emotionally and spiritually regarding their relationship with the creator.

Contextualization is evident from the geographic circumstances in which God placed the first humans, Adam and Eve. They were positioned in a particular context as

God prepared the Garden of Eden to be their place of dwelling so that they could blossom and enjoy their relationship with God (Gen 2:8-12). God gave clear commandments to his created beings which they understood in their local environment. Adam knew, for example, the tree (of the knowledge of good and evil) from which he could not eat (Gen

2:17). David J. Hesselgrave and Edward Rommen observe, “Contextualization, culture, and theology all have a simultaneous beginning. Along with the shafts of light that broke through the foliage of Eden on the first morning of human life, the silence was broken by

56 J. Richard Middleton, The Liberating Image: The Imago Dei in Genesis 1 (Brazos Press, 2005), 26-27. 57 John Stott, The Lausanne Covenant: Complete Text with Study Guide (Hendrickson Publishers, 2012), 30. 58 William Golson Jr., A Case for Christianity: Establishing a Foundation for Faith (Trafford Publishing, 2016), 48-49.

the voice of God.”59 Engle agrees: “contextualization was introduced at the moment

Adam first experienced personhood. The infinite God created finite man and then communicated with him in "finite" ways, i.e., ways which allowed man to internalize and live out God's message.60 God prepared a perfect environment for humankind so that he could relate and communicate perfectly with human creation. God and his most precious creation, humankind, were able to understand each other, and existed in perfect harmony.

Humankind had the choice of obeying these commandments or catering to their selfish whims. They chose the latter and strayed from God’s commandments – and sinned against God. This misuse of the culture which God instituted resulted in a fracture in the relationship between the creator and the created. God created a perfect environment for humankind to inhabit when he breathed life to humans. After God had created the earth, he placed Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and expected total obedience from them.61 Instead of trusting God and obeying him, humankind sinned against the Creator and ignored God’s perfect communion with his creation. Referring to this rebellion,

Engle explains that the Fall “occasioned radical changes in the content, means, and forms of divine communication, due to the change in the receptors.”62 As a result, God has had an active relationship with humanity from the time of creation because of his love for all his creation.63

59 David J. Hesselgrave, and Edward Rommen, Contextualization: Meanings, Methods, and Models. (William Carey Library, 2000), 33. 60 Richard W. Engle, 91. 61 Christopher J. H. Wright, The Mission of God, 56. 62 Richard W. Engle, “Contextualization,” 92. 63 Stephen B. Bevans, Roger P. Schroeder, and Roger Schroeder, Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for Today (Orbis Books, 2004), 290.

There is a nexus between imago Dei and missio Dei64 because of “God’s boundless and matchless love for the universe he has created, and particularly for the beings within it that bear his image.”65 J. Richard Middleton notes the missional message that emanates from the term, and posits, “When the clues within the Genesis text are taken together with comparative studies of the ancient Near East, they lead to what we could call a functional – or even missional – interpretation of the image of God in

Genesis 1:26-27.”66 For this reason, the meanings of the terms imago Dei and missio Dei are significant and relevant for this study. God is cognizant of his creation – irrespective of race, culture or geographic location - and requires them to acknowledge and worship him. In her article, Missio Dei: Envisioning an Apostolic Practical Theology, Heller underscores the importance of Pope John-Paul II’s statement at the Second Vatican

Council regarding the “re-evangelization… to entire portions of populations in the variety of their situations, surroundings and cultures.”67 She holds that the church needs to become practitioners of theology and consider new horizons to involve communities and their interests – including that of music.68 Missio Dei, therefore, is the undercurrent that can move the church to consider how Indian music can be applied in a Hindu setting to accomplish the mission of God.

64 Missio Dei is a Latin Christian theological term that can be translated as the "mission of the God," or the "sending of God."; theologians have pointed out that Karl Hartenstein, a German theologian, coined this term in 1934 after taking up Karl Barth’s notion that God is the progenitor of missions, not the church. This information is garnered from the discussion on the origin of the term, found in Bevans et al; Constants in Context, 290-291. 65 J. Andrew Kirk, What Is Mission?: Theological Explorations (Fortress Press, 2000), 28. See also discussion on the relationship between imago Dei and missio Dei in Craig Van Gelder, The Missional Church and Leadership Formation: Helping Congregations Develop Leadership Capacity (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2009), 52-53. 66 J. Richard Middleton, The Liberating Image, 27. 67 Karin Heller, “Missio Dei: Envisioning an Apostolic Practical Theology,” Missiology 37, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 47, https://doi.org/10.1177/009182960903700105. 68 Ibid., 56.

It is God’s will to restore humankind to their rightful relationship with God because missio Dei “presupposes that we are speaking about a personal God with particular characteristics” who cares about each person.69 Christian J. Anderson agrees that missio Dei started at the time of creation. He argues that for one to have a complete perspective of the mission of God, one needs to “begin at the beginning,” and recognize that missio Dei started in the first chapter of the first book of the Bible, and not in

Genesis 12 as many theologians surmise.70

God’s plan to redeem humankind started in the Garden of Eden and culminated in the Garden of Gethsemane where the incarnated Christ acquiesced his human desires to do God’s will (Matt. 26:39). The incarnation, manifested in the Philippians 2 passage (at the beginning of the chapter) denotes how Jesus Christ, in humility, left his heavenly realm and came down to earth as a human so that God’s message of redemption could be given as completely, and humanly as possible. This incarnational divine act of God humbling himself as a normal human so that humankind could appropriate his redemption message reflects the essence of the concept of contextualization. God’s incarnational act is made manifest in the Old and New Testaments in various ways, including that of music.

Ancient Near East Culture and Literature in the Old Testament

Just as God spoke with Adam and Eve in the place where they were situated (in the

Garden of Eden), God continued to speak to their descendants in their local context. Cain

69 Ibid., 25. 70 Christian J. Anderson, “Beginning at the Beginning: Reading Missio Dei from the Start of the Bible,” Missiology 45, no. 4 (October 1, 2017): 414–25, https://doi.org/10.1177/0091829617728533.

and Abel, the first children of humankind, interacted with God within their physical abode. After Cain killed his brother Abel, God conversed with Cain in the same field where the bloodshed took place. Cain moved out from the Garden of Eden to the land of

Nod where he and his offspring continued to experience God’s grace despite their sin.

In their pursuit of having their own way, humankind appeared with “one language and a common speech” (Gen 11:1) and was in the process of building the Tower of Babel to pursue their own agenda while disregarding the creator’s. God, however, destroyed their plans by confusing their language and scattering them throughout the world (Gen

11:1-9). The scattering of the people resulted in the proliferation of different languages and cultures on earth. The Israelites lived alongside the people whose religious ordinances were different from that instituted by God and often ignored God’s commandments to indulge in pagan activities. Consequently, God rebuked and punished them for confirming to the pagan religious practices but blessed them when they acknowledged him and obeyed his commandments (Gen 11:1-8; Lev 26:27-45; Zech 10).

The first Adam sinned against God, but it was God's will to restore humankind’s relationship to himself through the second Adam – referring to Jesus Christ (Rom 5:12-

21; 1 Cor 15:22). God carried out this purpose by using prophets as well as ordinary people in their context to convey his message. Through his sovereign grace, God called

Abraham to be a prophet who was from a pagan society to be a blessing to the nations, and to redeem humankind through his lineage. This calling is significant because

Abraham came from Mesopotamia – a society that had its own ideas of pagan worship.71

71 Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis (InterVarsity Press, 2009), 74-76.

Abraham witnessed many religious customs and experienced several cultures as he and his progenies journeyed to Canaan. God’s people increasingly began to experience various aspects of his qualities and character as they trusted his power and might in their physical and spiritual journeys while traversing several cultures. With this background in mind, missiologist Arthur F. Glasser notes that there is evidence in the Old Testament where “God continually used a contextualizing process in his progressive self-disclosure of himself to his people.”72 This process occurred with God’s people located in various geographic, political, religious and cultural situations. Glasser explains:

The particular epochs in "salvation history" took place in a variety of ancient cultures. His people knew themselves as nomads (the patriarchs), slaves (the Egyptian oppression), desert wanderers (the wilderness years), a loose tribal federation (under the judges), citizens (the various monarchies), exiles (in Babylon), and finally as a minority people, ruled by a succession of gentile powers.

On the divine level, this changing historical and cultural sequence became the context in which God disclosed himself to them. The Old Testament contains the record of his "mighty acts" over more than a thousand years of history coupled with specific revelations of their meaning. All this took place in the same ancient world in which the gods of the peoples round about were likewise allegedly at work on behalf of their devotees.73

God revealed himself to the Israelites as they lived surrounded by pagan societies and a myriad of competing circumstances. His laws and edicts were given within real-world local contexts and God expected his people to carry out his precepts even though pagan influences might have besieged them to do otherwise. Eventually though, as the Israelites intermingled with different peoples and cultures, the Israelite culture and those of their neighbours were indistinguishable and became “largely Canaanite in nature” since they

72 Arthur F. Glasser “Old Testament Contextualization: Revelation and Its Environment,” in Dean S. Gilliland, ed., The Word Among Us: Contextualizing Theology for Mission Today (Dallas: W Pub Group, 1989), 33. 73 Ibid., 34.

lived side by side with those communities.74 John L. McLaughlin observes that “Israel did not exist in a vacuum,” and the culture and literature from the societies that existed in

Egypt and Mesopotamia had a profound influence on the religious texts of the Israelites.75

Wright agrees that the Bible was influenced by circumstances in pagan societies. He argues, “if we look carefully we can see that many Old Testament texts emerged out of the engagement of Israel with the surrounding world in the light of the God they knew in their history and in covenantal relationship.”76 Gugliotto also concurs and acknowledges that the literature of ancient societies impacted the way the Scripture was composed. He emphasizes, “The Bible is a product of the ancient Near East. Although it is true that the

Israelites received special revelation from God that made them distinctively different from their neighbors in many ways, they were nevertheless ancient Near Easterners who reflected the culture of the world in which they lived.”77 In order to understand the Old

Testament scriptures, it is essential to consider the ancient Near East literature and recognize the evidence of contextualization in the Bible.

Similarities in Genesis 1-11 and Ancient Near East Literature

Before the 19th and 20th Centuries, Jewish and Christian theologians generally viewed the Old Testament as a unique, historical piece of literature given by God.

However, the discoveries of archaeological findings since that era have revolutionized the way scholars have viewed the OT. In 1902 German Assyriologist, Professor Friedrich

74 Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, 2nd edition (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 2002),7. See also John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels Between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Zondervan, 1994), 13. 75 John L. McLaughlin, The Ancient Near East (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2012), xi. 76 Christopher J. H. Wright, “Mission and Old Testament Interpretation,” 187. 77 Gugliotto, Handbook for Bible Study, 2000, 71.

Delitzsch, stunned Christian and Jewish scholars by claiming that Babylonian civilization had a significant influence on how the Bible writers wrote Scripture.78 Some of

Delitzsch’s claims were indeed “false,” but all the same, it was a watershed moment that prompted Bible scholars to scrutinize Ancient Near East (ANE)79 literature in an attempt to understand their relation to the Bible and scriptural truths.80

Another significant moment in studying the ANE literature came in 1958 by eminent Assyriologist Jacob J. Finkelstein, when he published in a journal called

Commentary, with his article, “Bible and Babel: A Comparative Study of the Hebrew and

Babylonian Religious Spirit.” He re-ignited the interest of Bible scholars in ANE literature as he expounded the similarities of biblical and Babylonian texts. Today, researchers have found more than a million ANE inscriptions that might have some bearing on the culture and literature of civilizations in the ANE and might throw some light on having a better understanding of the Bible.81

For Bible scholars to have a fuller understanding of the first book of the Bible, it is essential to study the literature of the surrounding nations that existed at the time of the composition of the Bible. Wright emphasizes the need to examine the missional nature of

Old Testament texts and feels that it is necessary to consider the setting and locale of the texts to decipher their meanings. He argues:

78 Jeremiah Unterman, Justice for All: How the Jewish Bible Revolutionized Ethics (U of Nebraska Press, 2017), xvi. 79 The Ancient Near East refers to an area “from the eastern Mediterranean coast to central Iran, and from the Black Sea to the Red Sea. Egypt, whose ancient history intersects with that of the Near East at many times, is not included, except when its empire extended into Asia in the second half of the second millennium.” Included in the area is Mesopotamia, an area “between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq and northern Syria.” See Marc Van De Mieroop, A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC (John Wiley & Sons, 2015), 1. 80 Jeremiah Unterman, Justice for All, xvii. 81 Ibid.

… we should take into account not only the missional locatedness of today’s readers, but also the missional locatedness of the very first readers of the canonical texts. The Scriptures, after all, are not disembodied pronouncements dropped from heaven, but collections of texts that addressed living people in specific contexts, who were therefore called upon to respond to them, in faith and action.82

One is better able to untangle difficult passages when one understands the culture and meanings of symbols, words, phrases, and concepts. In this vein, John H. Walton and

Victor H. Matthews posit that the most helpful material to understand the first eleven chapters of Genesis is ANE literature since “both Mesopotamian and Egyptian mythology provide a wealth of materials concerning contemporary perspectives on the creation of the world and human beings.”83 Walton underscores this distinction as he writes:

It is profitable to compare the Israelites to the peoples living around them. The historical and linguistic connections are undeniable, and the Israelites' awareness of the cultures and literature of the ancient Near East is demonstrable from the biblical record as well as from the archaeological data. The basic premise of this book is that Israel, while being the recipient of divine revelation that gave her a unique theological distinctiveness, reflected in many ways the culture of the ancient Near East. Such a reflection implies that Israelite thinking cannot be understood in isolation from its ancient Near Eastern cultural context. The similarities that exist can be very instructive and should not be ignored.84

The literature of the ancient Near East, therefore, must be considered in an attempt to decipher the meanings of the OT texts. Moshe Weinfeld, Professor Emeritus of Bible at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, acknowledges the importance of deliberating ANE literature when studying the Old Testament. He holds:

Almost every one of the literary types of the Old Testament has its prototype in the ancient Near Eastern literature. Law, epic, historiography, psalms, wisdom, all of them are established literary genres in the civilization of Mesopotamia and

82 Christopher J. H. Wright, “Mission and Old Testament Interpretation,” 204. 83 John H. Walton and Victor H. Matthews, Bible Background Commentary: Genesis- Deuteronomy (InterVarsity Press, 2000), 21. 84 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, 13.

Egypt. Furthermore, in some cases it is even possible to prove direct dependence of the Biblical creation upon foreign sources.85

Jeremiah Unterman agrees that there are stark similarities between the ANE literature and biblical texts and highlights the case in Exodus 19, where “the biblical description of

God’s treaty with Israel at Sinai has been shown to have extraordinary similarities with international Hittite suzerain-vassal treaties of the Late Bronze Age (1450-1200 BCE).”86

With obvious similarities between these two sources of literature, Roberto Ouro recognizes that “if we do not bring the information from the ancient cognitive environment to bear on the text, we will automatically impose the paradigms and models of our modern worldview, thus risking serious distortion of meaning.”87

McLaughlin agrees that there are benefits in examining ANE literature, and observes that there are distinct parallels between the Babylonian literature and the biblical text, and the former probably influenced the latter.88 The Code of Hammurabi, for example, is remarkably similar to Exod 20:23-23:19.89 Some of the Hittite religious practices were also quite similar to those of the Israelites.90 There is also similarity in the

komer) is similar to the) םיִרָמְכּ ”religious vocabulary; the Hebrew word for “foreign priest

Hittite word kumra.91 Such similarities and differences in the vocabulary and content of religious and cultural literature can throw light on the biblical text and assist Bible

85 Moshe Weinfeld, “Ancient near Eastern Patterns in Prophetic Literature,” Vetus Testamentum 27, no. 2 (1977): 178, https://doi.org/10.2307/1516995. 86 Ibid., 14. Unterman gives a striking list of similarities between Hittite Suzerain-Vassal Treaties and the Sinai Treaty on pages 16-17. These similarities include (1) Identification of the Treaty-maker, (2) Historical Prologue, (3) Stipulations, (4) List of Witnesses, (5) Blessings and Curses, (6) Provision for Deposit and Periodic Public Reading, and (7) Ratification. 87 Roberto Ouro, “Similarities and Differences between the Old Testament and the Ancient Near Eastern Texts.,” Andrews University Seminary Studies 49, no. 1 (2011): 12. 88 McLaughlin, The Ancient Near East, 10-12. 89 Ibid., 11. 90 Ibid., 55. is taken from http://biblehub.com/hebrew/3649.htm םיִרָמְכּ Ibid. The Hebrew word 91

scholars in understanding how the Bible writers recorded Scripture. Walton points out that the student of the Bible is able to “understand Israel better once we know what informed the assumptions of the surrounding cultures. Israelite theology becomes more meaningful if we are aware of the world in which it took shape and of the tensions that were tugging at its perimeters.”92 Bible scholars agree and posit that the Genesis account should not be seen as “borrowing” from ANE literature, for there were elements in the ancient Israeli culture that were typical of the ANE.93 McLaughlin observes that biblical texts were typical of the genre of ANE literature and claims

many aspects of biblical literature were not unique to ancient Israel but rather part of a larger cultural perspective shared by Israel and its neighbors. Other times, a foreign text might clarify what to us, reading the biblical texts thousands of years later, is an obscure idea or practice but was more common place in the ancient world we know. Finally, sometimes it is possible to demonstrate that individual biblical texts were directly dependent on outside sources, and that recognition provides a fuller understanding of the passage or book.94

Other literature that existed when the Bible was written gives light for understanding biblical text because “the most interesting and the richest reading of the biblical creation accounts takes place in the light of the rival accounts of the ancient Near East.”95

Some of the creation and flood accounts that exist in ANE literature are discussed below.

Genesis Creation Account in View of ANE Literature

It is fundamental to grasp the general meaning and gist of the first two chapters of

Genesis since the understanding of these chapters impacts one’s understanding of God in

92 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, 13. 93 John H. Walton and Victor H. Matthews, Bible Background Commentary, 8. 94 McLaughlin, The Ancient Near East, xii. 95 Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis, 72.

the Bible.96 The Genesis creation passage is significant because the “cosmogony, such as one finds in Gen 1, is as much prescriptive as it is descriptive, if not more so.”97 The early church fathers such as Origen (184 - 253/54 AD) and Augustine (354 - 430 AD) recognized the importance of the creation accounts as they debated and wrote on the subject matter.98 Augustine reasoned that part of the creation account does not have to be taken literally but allegorically.99 The interpretation of the Genesis creation account has been debated since the beginning of the church, or even before.100 The traditional interpretation has looked at Adam and Eve in the Genesis account as historical figures.

Though Bible scholars acknowledge the presence of creation accounts in ANE literature, there is disagreement on the degree of significance and relevance this literature has on the interpretation of the Genesis narratives. A riveting discussion among evangelical scholars occurs in Reading Genesis 1–2: An Evangelical Conversation,101 edited by J. Daryl Charles. This book is the outcome of a symposium at Bryan Institute,

Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 2011, where five (evangelical) scholars, Richard Averbeck,

Todd Beall, C. John Collins, Tremper Longman III, and John Walton, discuss the premise of their interpretation of Genesis 1–2, and respond to each other’s premise. Some highlights of the scholars’ premises are given below.

Averbeck points out the presence of “A deep, dark, watery abyss was a most natural and understandable starting point for a creation story in the ancient Israelite

96 Victor P. Hamilton, "Introduction,” in Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, ed. J. Daryl Charles (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Pub, 2013), 1. 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 100 Ibid. 101 Charles, Reading Genesis 1-2. For a review of the book, see S.J. Richard J. Clifford, “Book Review: Reading Genesis 1–2: An Evangelical Conversation. Edited by J. Daryl Charles,” Theological Studies 75, no. 2 (May 20, 2014): 452–53, https://doi.org/10.1177/0040563914528089b.

world.”102 Averbeck also surmises “the first set of three days in Gen 1 corresponds to the names of Baal’s three daughters,”103 and the author of Genesis “shaped the story of creation around what was observable and understandable to the ancient Israelites.”104 He holds that the “six/seven pattern is common in biblical and ANE literature”105 the “days” mentioned in Gen 1 and 2 were “snapshots of the world as they observed it in that ancient day.”106 Averbeck emphasizes his point about understanding the text by asking poignantly, “How does God himself intend us to read Gen 1?”107 Todd Beall does not see eye to eye with Averbeck’s premise on interpreting the creation days mentioned in

Genesis. He opines that Gen 1-11 should be read as a historical account which should be taken literally.108

Beall acknowledges the similarities of the ANE literature and the Genesis creation account but points out the significant differences in the accounts, and emphasizes that

“the Lord continually tells the children of Israel in the OT not to be like all the other nations in their worship of other gods, in their worldview.”109 Beall underscores the point that God categorically warns his people not to indulge in traditions and outlook of others who worship other gods.

Walton holds on to The Ancient Cosmology premise that God has

“accommodated” his plan and revelation about creation through ANE background and

102 Richard Averbeck, "A Literary Day, Inter-Textual, and Contextual Reading of Genesis 1-2,” in Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, ed. J. Daryl Charles (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Pub, 2013), 12. 103 Ibid., 14. 104 Ibid., 7. 105 Ibid., 7. 106 Ibid., 8. 107 Ibid., 7-8. 108 Todd S. Beall, “Reading Genesis 1-2: A Literal Approach,” in Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, J. Daryl Charles ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2013, 46-47. 109 Ibid., 52.

literature, and that the author of Genesis “is approaching cosmology in a way that was familiar in the ancient world and not at all the way we would approach cosmology.”110

Like Averback, Walton emphasizes that it is vital that the reader of the Bible comes to term in understanding the Bible from the audience that it was meant for. He states, “the

Bible, though written for us and all humanity, was not written to us,” and that we

“understand the words as an Israelite would have understood them; that we think of the cosmos the way that an Israelite would have thought of it.”111

C. John Collins claims that the first 11 chapters of Genesis should be taken

“liturgically” rather than literally.112 He argues that this section of the Bible should be read and understood like those who wrote Mesopotamian literature who based “their stories on what they thought were actual events, albeit told with a great deal of imagery and symbolism.”113

Tremper Longman III makes a very important point that “most people today are unaware of the rival creation texts and flood stories of ancient Israel's neighbors. But the ancient writers and readers of Scripture knew them well. And they likely understood the biblical stories against the background of these texts.”114 Relating this point to the creation account, Longman III emphasizes:

Indeed, one of the biggest mistakes we can make in interpretation is to read it as if it were written for us today. For instance, later we will criticize those who read Genesis 1—2 as if it was an apologetic against modern scientific understanding of the origins of the world (Darwin), when in actuality it was an apologetic against rival ancient understandings of creation (Enuma Elish). But even though these are issues that we need to recognize, we still haven't named the most important cause

110 John H. Walton, “Reading Genesis 1 as Ancient Cosmology,” in Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, J. Daryl Charles ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2013), 152. 111 Ibid., 141. 112 C. John Collins, “Reading Genesis 1-2: Analogical Days,” in Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, J. Daryl Charles ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2013), 86. 113 Ibid., 77. 114 Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis, 69.

of our sense that Genesis describes a foreign world to us—its theology. The world of Genesis fully embraces supernatural realities. The characters may struggle with God, but they certainly never question his existence. God acts in space and time; indeed he creates space and time.115

Longman III’s explanation accommodates his belief in “theistic evolution,” that is, embracing the idea that God is the creator of the earth, but the creation process did not happen in the literal six-day description in Genesis. He believes that Adam was not a historical person as he argues that the genre of the text point to a concept of creation – which the people of that era would understand.116 Longman III emphasizes the significance of the context and importance of the genre of the text because “it is important to recover the ancient context of a biblical text in order to understand its message according to its original intention.”117

The Genesis flood account also bears remarkable parallelisms with narratives recorded in ANE literature, as indicated in Appendix 1.118

Other Similarities Between Biblical Texts and ANE Literature

There is a plethora of similarities between the biblical texts and the ANE literature that are described in The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament119 by Walton, Matthews, and Chavalas. They point out, for example, that David’s songs of victory (Psalm 18 and 2 Sam. 22) were similar to the victory celebrations that were

115 Ibid., 22. 116 Tremper Longman III, “What Genesis 1–2 Teaches (and What It Doesn’t),” in Reading Genesis 1-2: An Evangelical Conversation, J. Daryl Charles ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2013), 121. See also Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis, 19-38. Longman III discusses principles he believes that are important to understand the book of Genesis. 117 Ibid., 105 118 See Appendix 1 gives a description of the Genesis Flood Account in view of ANE literature – focusing on The Gilgamesh Epic, the Eridu Genesis, and the Atrahasis Epic. 119 John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (InterVarsity Press, 2000).

present in the ANE.120 They observe that the “cords of the grave” in Psalm 18:6 and 2

Sam. 22:6 were a familiar concept, as noose snares are evidenced in ANE literature.121

The authors also hold that notion of “righteousness and justice” (referred to in Psalm

89:14) was a “fundamental obligation of the king is expressed throughout the ancient

Near East. It is graphically portrayed in Egyptian art.”122

In his book, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of

Parallels Between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts, for example, John H. Walton details how the culture, language and literature influenced the Israelites.123 Walton gives a thorough outline of the similarities and differences between the Biblical literature and that of the Near East during the time the Book of Genesis was written.124 The author examines a wide range of relevant topics including that of cosmology, personal archives and epics, legal texts, covenants and treaties, historical literature, hymns, prayers and incantations, as well as literature relating to wisdom, prophecy and the apocalypse. Some of the significant similarities in his research are:

(a) The casuistic form that is used widely in Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy is also the primary form used in the legal collections of the ancient Near East.

(b) The matters of legal formulation overlap considerably, but such would be the case in any two societies. More importantly, the formulations and penalties often show great similarity.

(c) Covenants of the Old Testament share the closest formal similarities with the Hittite treaties of the second millennium B.C. Comparison reveals that, typically, similar paragraphs are often in the same order. Furthermore, the apodictic form used in the Decalogue and elsewhere in the Old Testament is also paralleled in the stipulations sections of the Hittite treaties.

120 John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 352. 121 Ibid. 122 Ibid., 560. 123 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context. 124 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context:19-226.

(d) The content of the treaties is similar to the covenant in broad outline, but since the covenants of Israel are religious documents while the treaties of the ancient Near East are political documents, the similarity is not carried into the detail.

(e) Israel's concept of history is more similar to the general ancient Near Eastern perspective than to our own modem Western view, especially with our own modern Western view, especially with regard to the role of Deity in history.

(f) There is general similarity in the praises and laments of Israel and Mesopotamia. People in Israel and Mesopotamia have many common complaints, and they offer praise to deity for common thanksgivings.

(g) The dialogue/monologue forms, instructional literature, pessimism literature, and love poetry are all genres common to both Israel and the ancient Near East.

(h) The wisdom of the Old Testament is not unlike the wisdom of the ancient Near East on “secular” matters. Books like Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes share a general content, though not necessarily a similar perspective, that is found throughout the ancient Near East.125

Covenants are a significant feature both in the Old Testament and in ANE literature and call for special mention.

Covenants in the Old Testament

God’s promise to Abraham came in the form of a covenant (Gen 12:2-3). God bestowed this covenant to the prophet in his home setting and this covenant was like covenants made in his pagan society. Parts of the Mosaic covenant, for example, is much like the Hittite treaty pattern, where imperatives and prohibitions were a distinct feature and in the same vein as that of Deuteronomy 27.126 The Hittite covenant, however, required invocation of the gods of the suzerain as witnesses.127 Old Testament scholar,

125 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, 230-231. 126 Meredith G. Kline, The Structure of Biblical Authority (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1997), 38. 127 Ibid., 116.

Meredith Kline highlights the differences with God’s covenants with the Israelites, and writes:

Obviously, in the case of God's covenant with Israel, there could be no thought of a realistic invocation of a third party as divine witness… The immediate contextual application of this commandment is that the Israelite must remain true to the oath he was about to take at Sinai in agreement with the standard procedure in ceremonies of covenant ratification.128

God is sovereign and shares his power with no one. He is the sole authority and makes his precepts known to whom he wishes. God is faithful with his covenant, for he remembers his covenant forever (Psalm 105:8). Wright observes that many of the Old

Testament texts are derived from God’s engagement with the Israelites and his covenant relationship with them.129

Inspiration of Biblical Text in View of ANE Literature

Though Bible scholars have recognized the need to consider the ANE literature when studying biblical text, evangelical scholars maintain the inspiration of God’s Word.

Bruce K. Waltke emphasizes the need to highlight the differences between the biblical accounts of creation, compared to that in the ANE literature. He opines:

While there is a similarity in literary form and in rudimentary content, the biblical account radically differs from the creation myths of the ancient Near East in its theological stance. For one thing, the creation myths are stories about numerous gods and goddesses personifying cosmic spaces or forces in nature.130

Though there are elements in ANE literature that have striking similarities with the Bible,

God’s Word is distinct because he is presented as the one true God of the Israelites whose grace has encompassed the world. Unlike the biblical concept of God, the gods in some

128 Ibid. 129 Wright, “Mission and Old Testament Interpretation,” 187. 130 Bruce K. Waltke, "The Creation Account in Genesis 1: 1-3." Bibliotheca Sacra 132 (1975): 332.

of the ANE literature, could have been manipulated since they could have accepted

“bribes,” for example.131 J. Daryl Charles agrees that consideration of ANE literature does not negate the inspiration of the Bible. He holds, “Although the biblical account of creation is communicated through human language that is poetic, artistic, and theologically rich, the fact that this literary account is set in an ancient Near Eastern

(ANE) context in no way diminishes the authoritative and trustworthy character of divine revelation.”132 Similarly, despite Averbeck’s emphasis on the need to consider the culture of peoples in the ANE literature, he writes, “Yes, God spoke his revelation into this ANE context, but he also spoke against it. He is meeting the readers where they are in the world, but he is also taking them where they need to go from there. This is how communication works – divine revelation too.”133 The Bible remains the inspired Word of God even though it might be necessary to decipher a fuller biblical understanding by scrutinizing extra-biblical text from the ANE.

Similarities Between the Psalms and Pagan Literature

The Psalms form the longest, and probably the most loved and read book in the

Bible. The book is fundamentally a book of songs, written as poems intended to be sung,134 and regarded as the hymnbook of God’s people since the time of the prophet

David. However, the genre of the Psalms is not unique to Hebrew literature, for psalms

131 John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 651. 132 J. Daryl Charles, "Foreword,” in Reading Genesis 1-2, x. 133 Richard Averbeck, "A Literary Day, Inter-Textual, and Contextual Reading of Genesis 1-2,” in Reading Genesis 1-2: 9. 134 C. S. Lewis, Reflections on the Psalms (Lexington, KY: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014), 3.

were a common form of ANE literature.135 Rober Alter observes “the Hebrew poets did not hesitate to borrow images, phrases, or even whole sequences of lines from the Syro-

Palestinian pagan psalmodic tradition, written in a language closely cognate to

Hebrew.”136

There are many instances of contextualization in the book of Psalms. However, I shall examine Psalm 29 because it is one of the most analyzed Psalms by every branch of

Christianity and Judaism.137

Psalm 29

The text, form, theme, history and grammar of Psalm 29 have striking similarities with Babylonian literature and have caught the attention of many students of the Bible from various religious and secular backgrounds. The commonalities of Psalm 29 with that of the surrounding culture make this Hebrew poem perhaps the most contextualized passage of scripture in the Old Testament because of its noteworthy resemblance with

Ugaritic literature with its Canaanite elements.138 The motif of thunder in Psalm 29 has an astounding parallel in Canaanite worship, as demonstrated in “Yahweh’s theophany in the thunderstorm (vv. 3-9), his exaltation in the divine assembly (v. 1) and enthronement as king over the cosmic sea (v. 10) are all parallel in the Baal mythology of the Ugaritic texts.”139

135 Rober Alter, “Psalms,” in Robert Alter and Frank Kermode, eds., The Literary Guide to the Bible (Harvard University Press, 1990), 244. 136 Ibid. 137 Lowell K. Handy, Psalm 29 through Time and Tradition (James Clarke & Co, 2011), 1. 138 D. Pardee. “On Psalm 29: Structure and Meaning,” In The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception, ed. Peter W. Flint et al., (Brill, 2005), 153. 139 John Day, "Echoes of Baal's Seven Thunders and Lightnings in Psalm XXIX and Habakkuk III 9 and the Identity of the Seraphim in Isaiah VI." Vetus Testamentum 29, no. 2 (1979): 143. doi:10.2307/1517435.

The Psalms and other Hebrew Scriptures reflect the social setting of the Near

East, and Psalm 29 could be “derived from Canaanite religion and was appropriated for use in the Jerusalem cult by YHWH worshippers.”140 The prominent similarities between the Canaanite poem and Psalm 29 have caused some commentators to feel that it could be a case where the name of Baal was simply substituted with Yahweh in the Psalm.141 John

Day, while recognizing the close resemblance of the two texts, disputes such a premise.

He points out that some of the commentators who have made the substitution claim have also acknowledged that verse 11 is a Yahwistic addendum.142 In addition, Day maintains that verse 8 refers to the shaking of the wilderness by Yahweh in connection to his theophany, and alludes to his theophany at Sinai.143 Day, therefore, maintains that “Psalm

29 is an Israelite composition largely modelled on the language used by the Canaanites about Baal, rather than to suppose that it is a Baal psalm …with the substitution of the name Yahweh for Baal.”144

Ugaritic texts

The discovery of the Ugaritic texts in 1929 (in present-day Ras Shamra, Syria), indicates that several of the Psalms have remarkable parallels with pagan writings at a time when Bible writers recorded Scripture. Shortly after the discovery, Hebrew

Professor of rabbinic literature, H.L. Ginsberg, (in 1935) hypothesized that Psalm 29 was a Phoenician hymn which ended up in the Book of Psalms.145 Ginsberg observed many

140 Walter Brueggemann, William H. Bellinger Jr, and W. H. Bellinger, Psalms (Cambridge University Press, 2014), 147. 141 John Day, Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010), 97. 142 Ibid. 143 Ibid. 144 Ibid., 98. 145 Peter C. Craigie, “The Poetry of Ugarit and Israel,” Tyndale Bulletin 22 (1971): 16.

pagan notions present in the Psalm, the most notable being the glorification of Yahweh’s voice, were identical to the laudation given to the storm god Baal or Hadad.146 Other considerations for his premise included “issues of meter, word pairs, morphology, type of parallelism, very syntax, and vocabulary.”147 Ginsberg was also convinced that the

“topography and toponomy” of Psalm 29, as well as the inclusion of the last verse of the

Psalm contributed to his firm conviction of the Phoenician nature of the text.148

Approximately a decade after Ginberg’s hypothesis, Biblical scholars T.H. Gaster and

Sigmund Mowinckel surmised that Psalm 29 could have been a pagan expression of

“ritual laudation of the victorious god which formed part of the seasonal pantomime of the New Year Festival,"149 and the Psalm was a classic case of Canaanite literature being

“detached from its mythic context and ‘Yahwized’.”150 Alastair Hunter also feels strongly about the contextualization of the Psalm. He argues:

In the case of Psalm 29, we have no obvious historical narrative; but the work already carried out suggests several interpretative moves. We might begin, for instance, with the proposal to see it as either an original Baal hymn transformed into a Yahwistic piece, or as a hymn celebrating Yahweh as a god 'like Baal'. In either case, the theme of transformation from one culture, one theological context, to another is significant. Yahweh 'supersedes' Baal (in the most common form of this reading) or, more subtly, like Baal he replaces and humiliates the old high God, El.151

146 Ibid. 147 Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, 166. 148 Peter C. Craigie, “The Poetry of Ugarit and Israel,” 16. 149 John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels Between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Zondervan, 1994). 150 Ibid.; see also Sigmund Mowinckel, Psalm Studies (Society of Biblical Lit, 2014), 224. 151 Alastair G. Hunter, Psalms (Routledge, 2005), 37.

Psalm 29 uses the greatness of the pagan god and applies it to the God of the Old

Testament. I concur with those Bible scholars who feel that the writer of Psalm 29 probably borrowed the poem (song) from Canaanite literature.152

Peter C. Craigie, an authority on Ugarit literature and Israel, points out that though the OT prophets constantly chided the people for their indulgence in the

Canaanite religion, the Psalmist saw it fit to use the pagan poem and include it in the

Book of Psalms. Craigie surmises that one of the purposes of Psalm 29 was to assert that

Yahweh was not only the God of history, but also of nature. Craigie argues:

Psalm, 29 is one of the most distinctive affirmations in the Bible, not only that God was Lord of Nature, but also that all the forces of nature so commonly attributed to Baal by the persons living in and around the Promised Land were actually attributes of the Lord. The language and imagery of the psalm not only transfer all attributes of weather control from Baal to the Lord, but also by implication mock the supposed powers attributed to Baal.153

The author of the Hebrew poem did not limit his view narrowly on the Israelites; he used the so-called “greatness” features of the pagan gods in such a way that the Israelites could extol God for who he is. Some of the instances where God demonstrated his power over nature include the great flood (Gen 7 and 8), Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed with fire from heaven (Gen 19), the Red Sea parted (Exod 14), and the stilling of the sun and moon (Josh 10). The composer of Psalm 29 wanted to apply the religious notions of

152 Several Bible scholars support the premise that Psalm 29 is virtually a Canaanite hymn. Others, however, such as Jewish scholar B. Margulis, claim that there is “no room for doubting that the original subject of the poem was Yahweh, not Baal, and that its author was accordingly a Yahwist;” see B. Margulis, "The Canaanite Origin of Psalm 29 Reconsidered." Biblica 51, no. 3 (1970): 332. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42609528. 153 Peter C. Craigie, Psalms 1-50, Word Biblical Commentary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2005), 249.

Psalm 29 as more than a mere poem of triumphalism. Yahweh is exalted in this Psalm and is perceived as the one who is Lord over nature; he is the LORD154 who is enthroned as King forever, who gives strength to his people, and who blesses his people with peace

(Psalm 29:10-11).

Contextualization in Psalm 29:1

Psalm 29:1 is a difficult verse to translate because it appears that the writer of the

Psalm has embraced polytheism.155 Translation of Bible languages is a complicated task and often requires the translator to interpret texts to suit the language and culture. Some of the texts in the Bible are more difficult than others because of grammar, vocabulary, references to animals or concepts that the modern-day reader is unable to relate, and so on. Anthony Gleston points out some of these challenges in translation and application:

It is always interesting to observe how the ancient translators handled passages in the current Hebrew biblical text that were already perceived as difficult or obscure. At the end of the day the translators were required to produce a translation that would make some kind of sense when it was read out in the context of an act of worship. Often minor difficulties could be dealt with by discreet emendation or by transliterating a particular Hebrew term such as ‘ephod’, but on some occasions the translators seem simply to have resorted to a guess.156

Brooks Schramm agrees that translation of certain Hebrew texts could be a dubious task that requires a judgement call from the translator. He writes:

Ancient Bible translators were faced with the same dilemma that faces all translators, which is whether to translate more literally, more periphrastically (in a

154 "LORD" (in capital letters) refer to the Tetragrammaton – the Hebrew word for “God,” being .The Jews refrained from pronouncing this sacred name lest they accidentally take God's name in vain . הָוֹהְי These Jews adopted the practice of reading the Tetragrammaton as "Adonai,” which is the Hebrew word for "Lord.” 155 There is more detailed discussion on the Hebrew translation of this verse below. 156 Anthony Gelston, “The Ancient Versions of the Hebrew Bible: Their Nature and Significance,” in Ada Rapoport-Albert and Gillian Greenberg (Ed.), Biblical Hebrew, Biblical Texts: Essays in Memory of Michael P. Weitzman (A&C Black, 2001), 157. An excellent discussion on the challenges of translating Bible texts is found John F. A. Sawyer, Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts (Psychology Press, 1999), 76- 96.

round-about manner), or somewhere in between… This means that the interpretive moves made by these translators tend to be subtle ones and can easily go unnoticed.157

The translation challenge, however, becomes more far-reaching if a text seems to conflict with the translators’ personal sense of canon. Schramm asks some discomfiting questions regarding translation in cases that conflict with a translator’s personal convictions:

But what happens when a translator encounters a text that seems to be in tension with, or even contradict, the religious convictions of the translator him/herself or of the community of which the translator is part? This is where things become interesting. Sometimes translators will leave the text as is, that is: they will allow the theological problem to remain (apparently relying on the subsequent commentary to clarify the matter). At other times, they will subtly alter the original text so as to take the edge off the problem, or to make it less readily apparent to the reader or hearer. At still other times the translator will boldly change the text so as to eliminate the theological problem altogether.158

Translators, therefore, could inadvertently change the meanings of the original texts of the Bible because of difficulty in interpretation and translation for the language. These disquieting questions may be relevant to Psalm 29 – especially the first verse. It appears as if almost all the Bible translators might be guilty of Schramm’s concerns mentioned above. Such translation challenges seem to be the case in Psalm 29:1, as the undertaking becomes quite problematic when the text seems to contradict one’s sense of canon.159

Peter C. Craigie translates Psalm 29:1 as “A Psalm of David. Ascribe to the Lord,

O sons of God.”160 However, the literal translation of the verse from the original Hebrew to English may be rendered as follows: “A psalm of David. Ascribe to YHWH, O sons of

157 Brook Schramm, “Adapting Psalm 29 Through Translation,” in Lowell K. Handy, Psalm 29 through Time and Tradition (James Clarke & Co, 2011), 9-10. 158 Ibid., 10. 159 This text of this verse will be examined by looking at the original Hebrew and its meaning, and the way this verse has been explained in English. 160 Craigie, Psalms 1-50, 242.

(the) G(g)ods, ascribe to YHWH glory and strength.”161 Craigie might have opted to translate into English the last phrase in that verse, as O sons of God, because of the translation difficulties with such a text. Schramm points out several problems facing the translator with Psalm 29:1: first, there is no “linking verb” in the Hebrew to correspond easily for an English translation. Second, the Tetragrammaton (YHWH) was eventually changed since Jews subsequently had ceased to pronounce the name of God out of reverence, and chose to call him “Lord” (adonay). Third, the verse appears to embrace the concept of polytheism.162

in ,. ֵנְבּ י םיִלֵא Even though Craigie himself acknowledges that the Hebrew term ‘elim the text literally means “sons of gods,” the author translated the term in such a way as to

ֵנְבּ י םיִלֵא give it a monotheistic rendition. Craigie acknowledges that the Hebrew expression could be interpreted simply as a plural form of … “son of God,” which was analogous to

is always used in , ֵנְבּ י םיִלֵא ,the Ugaritic “sons of El.”163 However, this Hebraic expression

was not , םיִהלֱא reference to polytheism; the commonly used expression, ‘elohim rendered.164 Schramm explains the significant differences between the two words and the

:poses in this context ֵנְבּ י םיִלֵא difficulty that

The difference between the two words is as follows: while the formally plural word ‘elohim has both singular and plural meanings, the formally plural word ‘elim always has a plural meaning, at least as it is used in the Bible. Technically speaking, then, “sons of ‘elohim would be ambiguous, but “sons of ‘elim,” which is used in this psalm, is not.165

161 Brook Schramm, “Adapting Psalm 29 Through Translation,” in Lowell K. Handy, Psalm 29 through Time and Tradition (James Clarke & Co, 2011), 11. 162 Ibid., 13. 163 Ibid. 164 Ibid., 13. 165 Ibid.

The translators of this verse, therefore, have had to exercise a degree of contextualization in concert with the rest of the Old Testament that proclaims that the God of Israel embraces solely the concept of monotheism.

Schramm also comments on the rendering of the capital letter in the spelling of

God and a lower-case letter for god or gods in Bible translations. In ancient Canaan “El was the proper name of the grandfather deity of the Canaanite pantheon (the father of

Baal).”166 Schramm also observes that the original Hebrew version of the text does not distinguish the “true god” with a capital letter as in the English “God,” but it is presented with the common letter that is used for other pagan gods.167 He notes that making such a distinction, the “English translator is making an ultimate theological claim.”168

The sovereignty of God used the despicable Canaanite culture in pointing the people of God to honour him as the only true God and King worthy of all praise and glory. Psalm 29 is an archetypal case of contextualization in the Bible where the writer used a pagan anatomy to bring praise and honour that is due to the only holy, true God.

Contextualization in the New Testament

Like the OT, the NT has substantial evidence of contextualization in virtually every book. The writers of the New Testament were conscious of the different individuals and people groups that were present and wrote their books with the context in mind. The gospels appropriately begin with the life of Jesus Christ who is the embodiment of contextualization.

166 Ibid. 167 Ibid., 13. 168 Ibid.

The Writers in the New Testament

The writers in the New Testament did not write their material in the same genre.

The contents of each book reflected the background and personality of the writers, as well as their audience.169 Their levels of education, upbringing, the people with whom they communicated and their desire to communicate God’s love affected the way they wrote the pieces that compose the NT. The writers were conscious of their target audience as they catered to different peoples in the Greco-Roman world.170 Dean

Flemming points out that the writers wrote with an objective in mind – to persuade their audiences about their conviction of The Truth (John 14:16). Commenting on the gospel writers, he holds, “Like other ancient writings, they are intended not simply to provide information but to persuade their readers and move them to action.” Though the writers of the Gospels (the first four books of the NT) all wrote on the life of Jesus Christ, they had their own audiences, style, and emphases as they scripted their writing.

Matthew wrote his book mainly with the Jews in mind. His frequent references to

“the Jews” is the main reason some Bible scholars feel that the Jews were his target audience. This focus on the Jews is manifest from his “evocation of Moses and other typological events from Jewish history.”171

Mark was an “intercultural character” whose roots were Jewish but wrote in

Greek and but also employed Aramaic words and phrases in writings.172 It appears as if

169 Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament (InterVarsity Press, 2014), 41. 170 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament: Patterns for Theology and Mission, (Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Academic, 2005), 239. 171 William G. Thompson and David Edward Aune, eds., The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study: Studies in Memory of William G. Thompson, S.J. (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2001), 17. 172 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 241.

Mark wrote his gospel with contemporary happenings in mind such as the persecution that took place during the time of Nero, as his writing elaborated on persecution, suffering and the cost of discipleship.173

Luke, the assumed author of the Gospel of Luke and Acts, was probably educated in Hellenistic principles which were used in those books.174 Luke was Gentile and he wrote Luke and Acts mainly for the Gentile audience.175 In the account of the friends who paved the way for the paralytic to be healed by Jesus, there is a marked difference in the accounts given by Mark and Luke. Mark indicated that the man's friends got to Jesus by

"digging through" the roof (Mark 2:4) while Luke reported that they had "lowered him on his mat through the tiles" (Luke 4:19). This difference in these accounts could be because of Luke’s medical background and target audience.176 Luke normally gives a fuller description when healing was involved; he also omits instances of touching and laying on of hands.177

John was adept in the use of the Greek language and employed words and phrases that captured his message so that his audience could resonate with both Jews and

Gentiles.178 He probably had a “Johannine community” as well an audience beyond.179

Lamin Sanneh, holds that the word “logos” resonates in many cultures and points out that

John’s employment of that word in John 1:1 was a “master-stroke” because that word

173 Ibid. 174 Andrew James Prince, Contextualization of the Gospel, 113. 175 Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen, and Douglas McConnell, The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues and Trends (Baker Academic, 2005), 334. 176 Henry J. Cadbury, The Style and Literary Method of Luke (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2001), 47. 177 Ibid. 178 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 260. 179 Ibid., 258.

inculcated several religious and philosophic concepts.180 However, the genius of John was his concealed messages in his delivery. Frank Kermode observes John’s mastery in his communication and discerns that the gospel writer gives subtle messages when he chronicled his episodes – especially as they relate to feasts. Kermode explains John’s reference to the Festival of Tabernacles in John 7:1-13:

By associating this part of the gospel story with Succoth, John is suggesting the presence in it of shadowy themes and images, never clearly expounded; the reader must make of them what he can. He must understand how much depends on the vast contextual resources of the Jewish Bible—that the harmonics of John's tones are inaudible except in relation to that background. According to an important rule of Jewish exegesis every mention in the Bible of any word—water, for example—is related to every other mention of it; and it is John's assumption that his allusions will join all these texts in a harmony that must defeat simple paraphrase. He uses the doubtful collocations, the difficult or ambiguous relations. as he does the multiple senses of single words.181

John capitalizes on the Jewish festival (Succoth) to bring the connection with Jesus. The gospel message is much deeper than it appears. The occasion is not a case of Jesus merely being part of a feast; rather, John wants to point out that the Messiah is ultimately the bread of life (John 6:35) and water of life (John 4:14) to all humankind.

Jesus Christ – The Quintessence of Contextualization

The incarnation of the Lord is a vivid example of God becoming human so that he could be one of us. Jesus was born of a virgin, lived, died and rose again after three days.

The birth of Jesus signalled to humankind that the Messiah was born as human, fulfilling prophecy that Emmanuel happened "God with us" (Matt. 1:23). God came from above to dwell with humankind so they could be saved. There was a time when the blood of lambs

180 Sanneh, Translating the Message, 21 181 Alter and Kermode, The Literary Guide to the Bible, 455.

was sacrificed for the sins of humankind. However, such a sacrifice was only a symbol of the coming of the ultimate Lamb of God who came into the world for the redemption of humankind (John 1:29 and Heb 10:1-4).

Jesus was the perfect example of a contextualizer. The holy God came on earth as an ordinary human to dwell among mortals. Flemming points out various ways that Jesus expressed contextualization. He writes:

Through his incarnation, Jesus explained or “exegeted” (exegesato) the Father to us (Jn 1:18). Jesus was no Melchizedek figure, someone cut off from any cultural past (Heb 7:3). Rather, he embraced the human context in all of its “scandalous particularity” - as a male Palestinian Jew, in a specific time and place, he immersed himself in Jewish culture, spoke Aramaic with a Galilean accent, had distinctive physical and personality traits.182

John Bowen, former Professor of Wycliffe College, University of Toronto, expresses similar views about the contextualization of Jesus. He argues:

Jesus endorsed the culture of his time: using the Aramaic language, telling stories of agriculture and slaves and masters, referring to current events and controversies, and attending the synagogue. Jesus also challenged the culture of his day, particularly its attitudes to women, foreigners and lepers, its dependence on the Temple, and the expectation that the Romans would be defeated militarily.183

Jesus was part of the culture of the people with whom he interacted. Those who associated with him perceived him as an ordinary citizen in the land rather than a divine being who is out of touch with the real world. Jesus was part of their culture and spoke their language so that he could relate to them in every way possible, referring to crops, weddings, architecture, clothing, animals, taxes, etc.184 He understood people perfectly for he was not a mere prophet; he was fully God and fully human. Christians have a high

182 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 20. 183 Unpublished class notes that were given by Prof. John Bowen, Wycliffe College, University of Toronto, October 2009. 184 Andrew James Prince, Contextualization of the Gospel: Towards an Evangelical Approach in the Light of Scripture and the Church Fathers (Wipf and Stock, 2017), 73.

priest who can sympathize with their weaknesses, for there is “one who has been tempted in every way, just as we are – yet he did not sin” (Heb. 4:14-16).

His Sensitivity to People

Jesus did not always interact with people in the same manner. He was sensitive to individuals and groups in his interactions with them. At a very young age, he engaged the learned of society (Luke 2:41-45). He did not allow society’s limitations (in this case, age) to stand in the way of the Father's will. He had a unique calling, and his obedience to

God takes precedence over his earthly parents' concerns. Doing the will of God by listening to the religious teachers and asking them questions prepared him for the ministry God had for him.

Jesus’ engagement with Nicodemus (John 3) reflects a conversation between two

Rabbis. The Lord referred to the type of Old Testament circumstances with which he knew Nicodemus would be familiar. He was very direct and almost harsh in his banter with the Jewish ruler. One could have a sense of impatience with Jesus as he pointedly instructed the Rabbi, saying, "You must be born again” (John 3:7). Jesus reminded

Nicodemus of Moses lifting the serpent in the wilderness to connect with him through their common Jewish lens. This could be regarded as a “contextualization” strategy of

Christ to bring him the gospel.185

In the next chapter in the Gospel of John, the writer narrated Jesus' encounter with the Samaritan woman at the well. One quickly senses the patience exercised by

Jesus in bringing God's truths to the woman. Unlike his interaction with Nicodemus,

185 Joshua Caleb, The Return of Elijah, John the Baptist, and Jesus: The Jewish and Christian Christ (iUniverse, 2006), 26.

Jesus gently engaged her in a conversation when such an interaction was unheard of because of racial, cultural, and religious hostilities. However, Jesus would not allow any such differences to be a reason to keep anyone from hearing the Good News.

Jesus met her where she was – physically, psychologically, and spiritually. He convened with her at the well because he was thirsty. He sensed her social defences and put her at ease with the way he approached her and proceeded with the conversation.

Unlike his banter with Nicodemus, he was very gentle with her in communicating the point about the role and purpose of the Messiah – though he did ask her questions pointedly.

Jesus had several points of connection with the woman. He put himself in a position of need (thirst) to gain her attention – at a physical spot (Jacob’s well) that had significant social and spiritual significance for her. He spoke of water to lead her to the message of spiritual water he gives. He acknowledged her respect for the mountain that they were on – he used all these pieces of information to bring the Good News to her.

Engle observes Jesus “neither ignores nor offends her cultural sensitivities, nor does he compromise his message.”186

Jesus’ Teaching about Spreading Good News to Everyone

Jesus emphasized the need to share the gospel instead of “hiding it under a bushel” (Matt. 5:15). He calls his followers to “Go out to the roads and country lanes and compel them to come in, so that my house will be full” (Luke 14:23). He sent out the 72 disciples to every town and place because “the harvest is plentiful, but the workers are few” (Luke 10:2). In Matthew 28:19-20, he commanded his followers to “Therefore, go

186 Richard W. Engle, “Contextualization,” 93.

and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you.”

Anthropologists and missiologists indicate that the key Greek word, ethnos, in this passage emphasizes the need to share the gospel to every ethnic group – in their environment, language, and culture.187

Examples of Contextualization in the Book of Acts

The book of Acts is a “contextual document,” and the readers of this document would have recognized it as Hellenistic writing given the way the narratives, speeches, episodes, and stories were written.188 Luke, the traditional writer of Acts (as well as Luke) wrote with a particular audience in mind – the Greek-speaking Gentiles.189 There are numerous examples of contextualization in Acts.

Pentecostal Blessing in the Early Church: Acts 1-3

The Lord Jesus came to earth to liberate and redeem humankind from sin. The

Messiah completed his task on earth by being born of a virgin, lived like an ordinary human being, taught as one having divine authority, died a cruel death on the cross, and rose again after three days. After his resurrection, he met with his disciples. He reminded them that he would bless and empower them by the Holy Spirit. With this promised blessing, he instructed, "you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and

Samaria, and to the ends of the earth" (Acts 1:8).

187 Scott Aniol, By the Waters of Babylon: Worship in a Post-Christian Culture (Kregel Publications, 2015), 86. 188 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 26. 189 Ibid., 28.

This last commandment of Jesus is seminal in executing the mission of God. Jesus was no longer on earth, and his disciples were entrusted with the task of sharing the Good

News not only with the Jews in Jerusalem but those outside of this physical and spiritual demarcation. He required them to proclaim the gospel to all peoples of the world (Matt

28:19-20), including the Samaritans and Gentiles, whose culture, values and worldview differed from theirs.

The Holy Spirit at Pentecost

Jesus Christ fulfilled his promise about the Holy Spirit in supernatural, powerful ways on the day of Pentecost. All the disciples who were gathered were filled with Holy

Spirit and they spoke in different languages as the Spirit enabled them.

The astonishing blessing about this gift was each person heard the Good News in their mother tongue. It was not limited to Hebrew, Greek, or Aramaic – the more popular languages of the day in Jerusalem, but people heard about God in their language even though they came from faraway places. The blessings of everyone hearing the gospel at

Pentecost was God's way of informing his people that Christ would indeed fulfil his promise in Acts 1:8.

The resulting excitement, disquiet, and commotion prompted the apostle Peter to explain the Pentecostal blessing and preach to the curious observers. Consequently, three thousand persons repented from their sins that day and God's church grew both numerically and spiritually. This spiritual revolution caused the Jewish Sanhedrin to summon Peter and John and to put them in jail because they preached about the resurrection of Christ.

Subsequently, the disciples began to be persecuted. Despite the persecution, the church continued to grow, and they had a sense of immense oneness – spiritually and materially – as they met in homes and shared their material possessions. The unity the believers experienced did not preclude them from experiencing the challenges of diversities in culture and ethnicity. Being mindful of the diversity became a concern for the church leaders as they sought to look after the physical and spiritual needs of different peoples in the church. The church needs to be sensitive to varied languages, cultures, or ethnicities.

Peter’s vision and meeting with Cornelius

After the day of Pentecost, thousands of people came to faith in Christ. These converts were virtually all Jews – as a result of the preaching of the apostle Peter. Walls observes, “The earliest church, as we meet it in the early chapters of the Acts of the

Apostles, was utterly Jewish. It was made up, virtually without exception, of people of

Jewish birth and inheritance.”190

In this thoroughly Jewish context, however, a vision given to Peter dramatically changed his cultural and spiritual paradigms. While Peter was praying on a rooftop, he had a vision in which there were many living creatures that in Jewish life were classified as "unclean," and a voice told him to kill and eat them. Being mindful of the Judaic Law that forbids this, he did not want to follow the vision. However, he sensed God's voice telling him it was the dawning of a new era and he should not deem something "unclean" if God has made it clean (Acts 10:15). This experience was repeated three times.

190 Ibid.

The meaning of this vision came to light with his encounter with a pious Gentile,

Cornelius. Before Cornelius, all the Gentiles who had accepted Jesus as Messiah had been “either near or full” proselytes.191 Peter entered Cornelius' home and declared immediately that God had shown him that he should no longer think of anyone as impure or unclean (Acts 10:28), God accepted all who feared him and showed no favoritism among humankind.

God’s favour with the Gentiles became even more obvious to Peter. When the apostle was sharing with Cornelius, his family, and close friends, the Holy Spirit fell on each one present, and all spoke in tongues, including the Gentiles. This new phenomenon of Gentiles receiving the Holy Spirit overwhelmed the Jewish believers. To these Jews, it was at first unfathomable that God’s saving grace would come in its full blessing to these outsiders. Peter felt so convinced of God’s love for all that he gave orders for the Gentiles to be baptized after being filled with the Spirit of God. This was a new social and spiritual world for Peter – a phenomenon that changed his life and his evangelism.

Contextualization by Paul in his missionary mandate

Paul, who before his conversion was determined to destroy the propagation of the gospel, became the greatest propagator of the Good News. God transformed Paul's life dramatically, and this one-time persecutor of the faith was resolute in wanting to share

Good News with all wherever he went. He did whatever he could to relate to others so as to be a good witness of his Lord even though he faced many troubles and persecutions.

191 Richard N. Longenecker, “The Acts of the Apostles” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Volume 9) - John and Acts. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. (Zondervan, 1984), 440.

Paul’s sharing of the gospel with different people backgrounds in Acts 17 is perhaps the most classic case of contextualization in the New Testament and may be deemed a

“model for missional contextualization.”192

Contextualization of Paul’s ministry in Athens

After he reasoned with the Jews in Thessalonica and discussed Scripture with believers in Berea, he waited for Silas and Timothy, his travelling companions, in

Athens. While waiting, the apostle was heart-broken at the widespread idolatry which the residents practised in the city, and therefore reasoned with the Jews and God-fearing

Greeks in the synagogue (Acts 17-16-17). However, he did not limit his conversation to the confines of the synagogue. Like a typical philosopher, he was in the centre of the polemics with the people in the marketplace as he preached on Jesus and the resurrection.193 The debate in Athens was significant because it was “the cultural, intellectual, and religious nerve center of the Greco-Roman world” when Luke narrated the event in the Book of Acts.194

Paul’s preaching drew the interest and ire of the Athenians, especially the

Epicureans and the Stoic philosophers – the main schools of philosophy in Athens at that time195 who believed that Paul was advocating the worship of foreign gods. They therefore summoned the apostle to explain his “strange ideas” about divinity to the

Areopagus. The main characteristic which made Paul’s religious idea “strange” was the

192 Scott Aniol, By the Waters of Babylon, 102. 193 Dean Flemming, "Contextualizing the Gospel in Athens: Paul's Areopagus Address as a Paradigm for Missionary Communication." Missiology 30, no. 2 (2002): 200. 194 Ibid. 195 Darrell L. Bock, Acts. (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2007), 561.

resurrection.196 Luke, the author of Acts might have deliberately presented the apostle as

“Socratic” because like Socrates, he was accused of introducing foreign gods in the city.197 J. Daryl Charles correctly highlights Luke’s portrayal of Paul’s apologetic prowess. He writes:

Showing the apostle to the Gentiles in the marketplace, engaging in dialogue like Socrates and the great philosophers of the past, and then addressing a select audience (perhaps the educational commission of the Council of the Areopagus), Luke has hit an apologetic homerun. Paul is seen operating at his apologetic best, engaged in moral discourse with the intellectual and cultural elite of his day.198

Paul was conscious of the geographical, social, intellectual, and spiritual barometers of his audience and engaged them accordingly.

Even though the ubiquitous sight of the idols was reprehensible, the apostle exhibited great respect for his audience. His tone was much gentler than when he addressed the church in Rome (Romans 1:18-32).199 When Paul began his address with

“People of Athens,” he made his listeners feel at ease because an introduction with such a format was thoroughly Greek.200 By using the word deisidaimotesterous201 the apostle seemed to compliment his listeners for their desire to be religious even though their ideas about divinity were misplaced. The apostle then looked for common ground to share the gospel. Paul was sensitive to his audience in such a way that be “began his discourse with

196 Ibid., 563. 197 J. Daryl Charles, "Engaging the (neo) pagan mind: Paul’s encounter with Athenian culture as a model for cultural apologetics (Acts 17-16-34)." Trinity Journal 16, no. 1 (1995): 53. 198 Ibid. 199 Darrell L. Bock, Acts, 564. 200 J. Daryl Charles, "Engaging,” 53. 201 This is a nuanced word which could emit either a positive or negative message; Jews often refer to Greek spirituality in this fashion: taken from Darrell L. Bock, Acts, 564.

a point of contact with his audience.”202 This approach may be described as “pre- evangelism” today.203

“Unknown god”

In his address to the Council of the Areopagus, Paul chose to speak about one of their visible indigenous objects of worship – the “unknown god;” see the explanation of the background of the “unknown god” in Appendix 2.204

Paul’s reference to this “unknown god” opened the way for the apostle to discuss the truths about the one true God.205 Using the local touchstone of the “unknown god” allowed the apostle leverage for the Athenians to perceive him as one who is not speaking about a foreign god.206 He then utilized some of the teachings and quotations of the Epicurean and Stoic poets to point out the truths about God which corresponded to

Old Testament texts or Jewish apologetics.207 The Epicureans, for example, recognized that God is creator of everything, and cannot be contained in a temple.208 Similarly, the

Stoics were able to speak of “god” in the singular even though they believed in a pantheon.209 Paul’s concern was, however, their easy transition from the singular concept of god to the pantheon of gods210 and therefore recognized the importance to elucidate on

202 John B. Polhill, Acts. The New American Commentary. Vol. 26 (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1992), 371. 203 J. Daryl Charles, "Engaging,” 57. 204 See Appendix 2: The “Unknown God” in Acts 17:23. 205 Darrell L. Bock, Acts, 564. 206 Dean Flemming, "Contextualizing the Gospel,” 203. 207 Darrell L. Bock, Acts, 565. 208 Ibid. 209 Eckhard J. Schnabel, "Contextualising Paul in Athens: the proclamation of the gospel before pagan audiences in the Graeco-Roman world." Religion & Theology 12, no. 2 (2005):179. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed August 19, 2018). 210 Ibid.

“God’s character, revelation in nature, and relationship to humanity.”211 For those who are unfamiliar with Scripture, this seems to be the apostle’s approach as he addresses their basic worldview assumptions before proclaiming the cross of Christ and his resurrection.212

Some lessons from Paul’s contextualization of the gospel at the Areopagus:

• The content and form used by Paul to address the Greeks were very different to

that when addressing Jews in other passages in the Book of Acts where OT

quotations are a common feature for the latter group.213

• He used common entities of the Greek philosophers (their claimed beliefs which

corresponded with Scriptural truths) as well as their polemic format to address

spiritual issues to the philosophically-minded Greek audience.214

• He did not confine himself to the church; he went to the marketplace to debate

philosophic ideas on an equal footing with the philosophers where they plied their

trade.215

• The common ground which he used to inform his arguments was not merely

utilized as a bridge with his audience; it was used to transform the worldviews of

his hearers.216

• After Paul made his declaration on the “unknown god,” he proceeded to explain

the true character of God before focusing on the person of Jesus Christ.217

211 Dean Flemming, "Contextualizing the Gospel,” 203. 212 Ibid. 213 Ibid., 201. 214 Ibid., 199. 215 Ibid., 200. 216 Ibid., 202. 217 Ibid., 203.

• There were non-negotiables regarding the truths of Jesus Christ and Scripture.218

This episode with the Council of Areopagus is remarkable because of the apostle’s ability to “clothe biblical revelation in a cultured and relevant argument to his pagan contemporaries.”219 Paul was sensitive to his audience and communicated with them in such a manner that commanded the respect of his hearers. He recognized that there was a time for everything (Eccl 3:1-8) – a time for pre-evangelism and a time for evangelism; a time for sowing and a time for reaping. Paul was conscious of his audience and catered the form and content of his message to that audience. To the philosophers he became a philosopher so as to win them for Christ (1 Cor 9:19-23).

Paul’s longing to sacrifice everything to “win” some

Though Paul emphasized that there is only one gospel message for all humankind

(Rom. 3:29-30; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal. 3:28), the apostle was willing to do whatever it takes to present the gospel differently in order to reach the world with the Good News.220 First

Cor 9:19-23 is probably the most prominent passage to which missiologists refer in their support of contextualization. Paul modeled himself after Jesus Christ in being willing to give up what was rightfully his.221 Though he had total freedom in Christ, he became a slave to others for the sake of the salvation of others.222 This gist of that passage is similar to the Apostle’s emphasis in 1 Cor 10:23-33, for in both of these passages the primary concern in both passages is the salvific needs of all peoples as he makes his behavioural

218 Ibid., 207. 219 J. Daryl Charles, "Engaging,” 53. 220 Klaus Haacker, The Theology of Paul’s Letter to the Romans (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 115. 221 John N. Rietveld, “A Critical Examination of 1 Cor 9:19-23 as It Pertains to Paul’s Missionary and Apologetic Strategy,” Calvin Theological Journal 18, no. 1 (November 1983): 292. 222 Ibid.

choice.223 He is willing to sacrifice that which pleases himself and changes his approach and behaviour to “save” some (1 Cor 9:22 and 1 Cor 10:33). The Apostle is mindful of the people he meets; he is sensitive to their religious, intellectual and social standing, and wants to relate to them in their circumstances so as to share the Good News with them.

The exaltation of his reputation is the least priority; what is foremost in his mind is the furtherance of the gospel (1 Cor 9:15-16).

Bible commentator David E. Garland points out that the phrase, “I enslave myself” ἐµαυτὸν δουλαγωγῶ (verse 19) is significant because “slavery to Christ necessitates slavery to all.”224 Paul’s willingness to be a slave demonstrates that he “does not lead from a secure position above others but from a position below them, incarnating the folly of the cross.”225 The apostle’s cultural alacrity caused several Bible commentators to reckon that “Paul did not become a Jew in reality but only in appearance.”226 He had a burning desire to feel with those who are without and was predisposed to forego his rights and make personal sacrifices for the sake of bringing others to Christ. Though the Apostle fought vehemently against those who insisted that

Gentiles be circumcised in order to embrace the faith, he circumcised Timothy (see Gal

2:3-5; Acts 16:3). He knew that circumcision was a sensitive issue with the Jewish brethren, so he did whatever he could with his team to win others – despite the suffering and pain that might have been required. The Apostle would do anything within his power to bring others into God’s kingdom; that was his mission and goal.

223 Michael Barram, “The Bible, Mission, and Social Location: Toward a Missional Hermeneutic,” Interpretation 61, no. 1 (January 2007): 42–58, 6. 224 David E. Garland, 1 Corinthians (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) (Baker Academic, 2003), 429. 225 Ibid. 226 Ibid.

A Contextualization Crisis of the Early Church: Acts 15

The Holy Spirit paved the way for Paul and Barnabas to actualize Jesus Christ’s command to spread the Good News where they were and beyond (Acts 1:8). God’s promised blessings were being realized as Gentiles were brought to faith in Christ. The

Jewish brethren in Jerusalem, however, were furious at the two missionaries because they were not encouraging the converted Gentiles to follow the Mosaic laws like the Judaic believers. Essentially, they believed that for Gentiles to be Christians they had to follow the Mosaic Law after their profession of faith. Consequently, the Church Council summoned the missionaries to meet in Jerusalem to settle the matter.

The importance of the events described in Acts 15 is so large that some scholars contend that this episode is probably the most significant moment in church history since

Pentecost. Witherington claims, “it is no exaggeration to say that Acts 15 is the most crucial chapter in the whole book,” and this chapter is “structurally and theologically at the heart of the book.”227 Polhill also underscores the importance of this chapter by observing “Acts 15:1-35 stands at the very center of the book. Not only is this true of its position halfway through the text, but it is also central to the development of the total plot of the book.”228 Brown and Soards emphasize the significance of this event in asserting that it was “the most important meeting ever held in the history of Christianity.”229 The turmoil that emerged hinged on the issue of contextualization: should those who come to faith in Christ conform to the culture and traditions of the missionary or not?

227 Ben Witherington, The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1998), 439. 228John B. Polhill, Acts. The New American Commentary. Vol. 26 (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1992), 320. 229 Raymond E. Brown and Marion Soards, An Introduction to the New Testament: The Abridged Edition (Yale University Press, 2016), 109.

The passage of Scripture is very important for the Christian who is involved in evangelism. Paul and Barnabas had a successful and penetrating ministry among some

Gentiles who responded positively to the Good News. However, instead of rejoicing in the new-found faith, many of the Jewish followers of Christ became angry because these

Gentiles were not circumcised after accepting the gospel. Circumcision was not the only concern. Brown concludes that though the author Luke did not specifically mention food in Acts 15, that was a monumental issue with the Judaic believers.230

Decision at the Jerusalem Council

Peter shared with the council leaders about how God changed his outlook about evangelism after his watershed experience with Cornelius. He further explained how the

Holy Spirit was given to the Gentiles in the same way the Spirit was given to the Jews.

The Apostle was disheartened by those who insisted on the Mosaic Law for the Gentiles and asked the pivotal contextual question, “why do you try to test God by putting on the necks of Gentiles a yoke that neither we nor our ancestors have been able to bear?” (Acts

15:1). Barnabas and Paul articulated to the Council the divine miracles that took place among the Gentiles, as recorded in Acts 13 and 14. After Peter’s heart-rending speech, there was a hush.

James spoke with a sense of awe and respect as he addressed the Council with his opening words, “Brothers, listen to me …” James referred to Peter’s statement about God imputing his favour to the Gentiles and strengthened Peter’s argument by referring to the prophets before. He then quoted from Amos 9:11-12 to back up Peter’s argument and to

230 Jeff Brown, Corporate Decision-Making in the Church of the New Testament (James Clarke & Co, 2014), 154.

show that throughout history God has had a plan for all peoples of the world to be saved.

This apostle’s “reputed attachment to the Jewish law must have made his defence of the position already adopted by the previous speakers the more impressive.”231

James’ use of the Septuagint version of the Amos text has been a topic of interest with Bible scholars.232 The Apostle undoubtedly used the Septuagint version to emphasize the universality of God’s grace to all peoples of the world, including the

Gentiles. To achieve this objective, the apostle probably opted for this translation since

“the LXX will often translate a Hebrew term with a word that carries a different connotation, and yet the sense of the passage will not be injured.”233 James wanted to make it as clear as possible that God’s saving grace extends to all peoples of the world, and so Evans feels that “James justifies his comments by an appeal to the LXX of Amos

9:11 as a basis for accepting the Gentiles into the church rather than the Hebrew where it is less clear.”234 Kaiser emphasizes James' desire to underscore the point of God's universal grace to all, and states that the apostle's use of the LXX was a plain, simple, and straightforward hermeneutic, and it was a veritable "charter for all humanity."235

After Paul and Barnabas met with the Jerusalem Council, the Council decided to send a delegation with these missionaries back to Antioch, along with a letter written to

231 David J. Williams, Acts (Hendrickson, 1990), 264. 232 An excellent detailed discussion on the question of James’ use of the Amos passage is found in Edward. W. Glenny, "The Septuagint and Apostolic Hermeneutics: Amos 9 in Acts 15." Bulletin for Biblical Research (2012): 1-25. See also M. A. Braun, "James' use of Amos at the Jerusalem Council: Steps Toward a Possible Solution of the Textual and Theological Problems (Acts 15)." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 20. 2 (1977): 113-21. 233 James A. Arieti, “The Vocabulary of Septuagint Amos,” Journal of Biblical Literature 93, no. 3 (1974): 339, doi:10.2307/3263383. 234 Craig A. Evans, ed. The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts – Philemon (Colorado Springs: Cook, 2004), 102. 235 Walter C. Kaiser, Jr. "Davidic Promise and the Inclusion of the Gentiles (Amos 9:9-15 and Acts 15:13-18): A Test Passage for Theological Systems," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 20, no. 2, (06/01, 1977), 111.

the Gentile believers. In this letter, there was no mention of needing to be circumcised.

Rather, out of consideration for the sensitivities and traditional convictions of the Jewish believers, the letter requested that they needed to be mindful of their dietary intake and to avoid idolatrous worship and sexual immorality.

One of the important lessons learned in this passage is that the grace of God alone saves a person - through faith in Jesus Christ. No ceremonial rite or any form of tradition or “good work” is necessary as a prerequisite for salvation; the redeeming work of Christ on the cross is enough. Those who share the Good News to others should do whatever they could so that they do not impose an unnecessary yoke to others as they proclaim the gospel. The Gentiles were “not to be required to take on Jewish identity and practice in order to be joined to Israel's God, but by the same token, Jewish believers were not to be required to abandon their religious and cultural identity to follow God in Israel's

Messiah.”236

Some Contextual Lessons Learned from the Book of Acts

The Book of Acts contains much evidence of contextualization. This is seen in how God, through his sovereignty and grace, brought the Good News to different peoples in several languages and in various circumstances. Through conversations, crisis situations and special events, the author of Acts demonstrates how the Good News is appropriated to different peoples.

Referring to some of the speeches in Acts to Jewish insiders (Acts 2:14-31; 7:1-

53; 13:13-47) and Gentile outsiders (14:8-18; 17:16-34), Andrew Prince claims that these

236 The comments were given at the thesis defence by Matthew Friedman (Program Director and Professor of Global Ministry at Kingswood University), on July 6, 2018.

speeches are highly contextualized to their respective audiences - both in method and message.237 From these speeches, Prince outlines the following contextual principles:

Principle 1: The early establishment of common ground provides a platform for the gospel to be heard;

Principle 2: For contextualisation to be effective, the gospel needs to be explained in ways that engage the worldview of the target audience;

Principle 3: Faith in Jesus Christ does not necessarily mean social dislocation;

Principle 4: There is no fixed presentation of the gospel as contextual sensitivity requires flexibility;

Principle 5: There is a core content to the gospel, which is for all cultures;

Principle 6: Cultural pressure must not lead to a dampening down of the challenging demands of discipleship;

Principle 7: Existing cultural terms and forms can be used and imbued with new meaning in light of the gospel;

Principle 8: Culture is both positive and flawed and needs redemption through the gospel.238

These principles could serve as guidelines for those who desire to share the Good News with peoples of different cultures.

Summary and Conclusion

The Bible authors wrote the various books with people in mind. These authors came from diverse backgrounds and cultures and their writings reflect these backgrounds.

Humankind had a significant part in the way Scripture was composed. Their personalities, culture and circumstances played a part in how the Word of God came into being.

237 Andrew James Prince, Contextualization of the Gospel, 113. 238 Ibid.

The writers of the Bible gave their accounts in such a way that the people to whom it was written could understand. The stories in the Bible are stories about ordinary people and about their relationship with God. Consequently, all peoples of the world could relate to the Bible, and God’s Word has relevance to all peoples of the world.

The Bible ended the way it started – with God’s ultimate creation, humankind, worshipping him in a culture that God had intended.239 In Genesis, the Biblical scene was the Garden of Eden; in Revelation, that scene changed “from a garden to a city, from

Eden to the new Jerusalem.”240 In the beginning, humankind had perfect communion with

God before the Fall. In the end, God’s grace effected a chorus of voices from “every nation, tribe, people and language” to give praise and glory to his name (Rev 7:9).241

The next chapter examines the theological foundation for the contextualization of music.

239 Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis, 15. 240 Victor P. Hamilton, "Introduction,” 1. 241 Scott Aniol "Toward a Biblical Understanding of Culture." Artistic Theologian 1 (2012): 48. Aniol points out in this article observes that the four words “[φυλῆς] and language [γλώσσης] and people [λαοῦ] and nation [ἔθνους]” in Rev 7:9 are also found also in Rev 11:9, 13:7, and 14:6; he argues that these phrases connote the universality of the church rather than emphasizing cultural distinctions – thereby underscoring the notion that God welcomes worship from all peoples – irrespective of race, colour, culture or geographic background.

CHAPTER 2

THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR THE CONTEXTUALIZATION OF MUSIC

Introduction

This chapter examines the importance of contextualization of the gospel from a theological perspective. The study considers how the phenomenon of music is contextualized and applied in local settings and especially focuses on music within the

Hindustani context.

Definition of Contextualization

In order to provide a context for a discussion of contextualization and music, it is helpful to provide a brief survey of contextualization. The notion has been defined as:

• “the dynamic and comprehensive process by which the gospel is incarnated

within a concrete historical or cultural situation.”242

• “the attempt to communicate the message of the person, works, Word, and will of

God in a way that is faithful to God’s revelation, especially as it is put forth in the

teachings of Holy Scripture, and that is meaningful to respondents in their

respective cultural and existential contexts.”243

242 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 19. 243 Hesselgrave, David J., and Edward Rommen. Contextualization, 200.

• A situation “whereby Christians adapt the forms, content and praxis of the

Christian faith so as to communicate it to the minds and hearts of people with

other cultural backgrounds.”244

• “…communicat[ing] the gospel message in a way that is both faithful to the Bible

and meaningful to respondents in their respective cultural and existential

contexts.”245

• [An attempt] “to communicate the Gospel in word and deed and to establish the

church in ways that make sense to people within their local cultural context,

presenting Christianity in such a way that it meets people's deepest needs and

penetrates their worldview, thus allowing them to follow Christ and remain within

their own culture.”246

• “showing the whole Bible relevant to the total individual in all of life’s

relationships.”247

I understand contextualization as the attempt to share the gospel and apply Biblical truths in a culturally sensitive form in a local situation.

A Short History of Contextualization

Ever since theologians began to employ the term “contextualization” in the early

1970s, there has been an explosion of discussions on the topic.248 At first, Christian

244 A. Scott Moreau, Contextualization World Missions: Mapping and Assessing Evangelical Models (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2010), 36. 245 Roy Musasiwa, “Contextualization,” in John Corrie, ed., Dictionary of Mission Theology: Evangelical Foundations (Nottingham, England ; Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Academic, 2007), 66. 246 Darrell L.Whiteman, "Contextualization,” 2. 247 Richard W. Engle, “Contextualization,” 90. 248 For the historical use of the term, see Daryl Balia and Kirsteen Kim, eds., Edinburgh 2010: Witnessing to Christ Today (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2010), 150. This book examines the themes of the

leaders identified the need to “indigenize” the gospel in various countries and “[to] respond meaningfully to the gospel within the framework of one’s own situation.”249

Indigenization focused on the importance of bringing the gospel to be understood into local cultural terms because of the concern for local missions to be self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating.250 However, many theologians felt that indigenization was limited in its scope for the church. They suggested that a new word was necessary to encompass the holistic needs of peoples of the world, even going so far as to include social justice. Contextualization was deemed a better term as it was perceived to be a more vibrant and encompassing notion.251

Several terms emerged after the first reference to the contextualization discussions by theologians. These include accommodation, adaptation, indigenization, incarnation, translation, transposition, and inculturation. Inculturation is the term that Roman

Catholics prefer to use when speaking about contextualization. The main difference between inculturation and contextualization is the former focuses more on human cultures whereas the latter considers the overall environment, including the social, political, economic, and religious situations.252 The contextualization of music is a special

Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 2010 and makes references on how these themes are relevant for evangelism today. Also, Scott A. Moreau, "Evangelical Missions Development, 1910 to 2010, in the North American Setting: Reaction and Emergence." Evangelical and Frontier Mission Perspectives on the Global Progress of the Gospel, Oxford: Regnum Books International (2011): 6. William R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations: A History of The International Missionary Council and Its Nineteenth-Century Background (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2002), 100. See also other information on the IMC, by Mission Historian, John Roxborogh at http://roxborogh.com/REFORMED/IMC.htm. Roxborogh claims that “Lesslie Newbigin and David Bosch are among the many Reformed historians and theologians of mission who developed their missiology through their involvement with the IMC.” Craig Van Gelder, The Ministry of the Missional Church: A Community Led by the Spirit (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2007), 183. 249 Bruce J. Nicholls, Contextualization: A Theology of Gospel and Culture (Regent College Publishing, 2003), 21. 250 Krikor Haleblian, “The Problem of Contextualization,” Missiology 11, 1 (January 1983): 97. 251 John Parratt, An Introduction to Third World Theologies (Cambridge Press, 2004), 8. 252 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 18.

entity that has been an evolving topic of discussion not only by missiologists and scholars, but also pastors and worship leaders.

Study of Culture and Music

Over the last few decades, local church leaders in the West and elsewhere have joined missiologists and scholars in the debate on contextualization. This is evidenced by the increasing number of voices on the issue of culture and music in the form of books, articles, blogs and other formats on the internet.

Missiologists have recognized that music and culture are inextricably related.253

The acknowledgement of this relationship have strengthened the resolve of missiologists and worship leaders to apply contextualization principles in many parts of the world with the phenomenon of music.254 I-to Loh, Adjunct Professor of Worship, Church Music, and

Ethnomusicology at Tainan Theological College and Seminary, feels that the contextualization issues that are debated by theologians also apply to the way music is shared with those of different ethnic or cultural backgrounds.255 He argues, “No theologian, liturgiologist, church musician or educator can ignore the issues of contextualization, if they are serious in dealing with their fields in the contemporary context.”256 Loh points out that contextualization discussions were instrumental in

253 Martin Clayton, Herbert, Trevor, and Richard Middleton, eds., The Cultural Study of Music: A Critical Introduction (Routledge, 2013), 46. 254 An excellent compilation of essays on trends in various cultures as they relate to music is found in Jeffers Engelhardt and Philip V. Bohlman, eds., Resounding Transcendence: Transitions in Music, Religion, and Ritual (Oxford University Press, 2016). 255 I-to Loh, “Revisiting Ways of Contextualization of Church Music in Asia,” in Theology and the Church, 30, Theological Journal of Tainan Theological College and Seminary, 2005. (Taken from http://globalchurchmusic.org/en/article-revisiting-ways-of-contextualization-of-church-music.html, accessed on March 25, 2018. 256 Ibid.

shaping new paradigms for Christian music in Asia.257 He holds that contextualization principles seek ways to interpret God’s incarnation and “to utilize the imago Dei in human beings to fully develop our skills and art forms, using them to express our

Christian faith and to participate in God’s continuing creation.”258 M. David Sills, theologian and missionary, also underscores the importance of holistic contextualization.

He writes: “Just as we must put the gospel in the context's language, it is also helpful to contextualize the music, art, architecture, clothing, and other expressions of the cultures where we are evangelizing, discipling and planting churches.”259

The study of music within one’s culture gave rise to the term, ethnomusicology – the study of music pertaining to an ethnic or cultural group. Ethnomusicology is an interdisciplinary study that draws from the fields of anthropology, linguistics and musicology.260 Though this term has been used for decades, a new word, ethnodoxology, emerged in the 1990s by worship leader and missionary, Dave Hall, who coined the word by combining three Greek terms, “ethne (peoples), doxa (glory), and logos (word)”261 and defined the term as “the study of the worship of God among diverse cultures.”262

Referring to the notion of ethnic groups having the ability to praise God in their own cultural expressions, Robin Harris underscores the point that “A foundational principle of

257 I-to Loh, “Ways of Contextualizing Church Music: Some Asian Examples,” in Worship and Mission for the Global Church (Kindle Locations 1445-1446). William Carey Library. Kindle Edition. 258 Ibid. 259 M. David Sills, “Paul and Contextualization,” in Robert L. Plummer and John Mark Terry, eds., Paul’s Missionary Methods: In His Time and Ours (InterVarsity Press, 2012), 213. 260 R. King, “Ethnomusicology,” in A. Moreau, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions (Grand Rapids, Mich. : Carlisle, Cumbria, UK: Baker Academic, 2000), 327. 261 Worship and Mission for the Global Church (Kindle Location 2995). 262 Ibid.

ethnodoxology is that music is not a universal language.”263 Music is expressed differently with different cultures and in diverse contexts.

Contextualization and Music

Church leaders, including missiologists, theologians, pastors and worship leaders have been emphasizing the importance of contextualization in several spheres of ministry, including music. At the Lausanne Congress in 1974, there was a call to proclaim the gospel to the peoples of the world while bearing in mind the plural context of cultures.264 In 1996, Christians from five continents gathered in Nairobi to discuss the biblical and historical foundations of Christian worship and culture. The Nairobi

Statement on Worship and Culture265 outlined four dimensions of the dynamic relationship between worship and culture:

First, it is transcultural, the same substance for everyone everywhere, beyond culture. Second, it is contextual, varying according to the local situation (both nature and culture). Third, it is counter-cultural, challenging what is contrary to the Gospel in a given culture. Fourth, it is cross-cultural, making possible sharing between different local cultures.266

263 Robin P. Harris, “The Great Misconception: Why Music is not a Universal Language,” in Worship and Mission for the Global Church (Kindle Locations 2913-2914). William Carey Library. Kindle Edition. Harris explains some of the negative consequences that the statement, “Music is a universal language” has had on people and cultures. The International Council of Ethnomusicologists (ICE) has been formed to encourage the worship of God in people’s native music. See https://www.worldofworship.org/, accessed May 14, 2018. Several seminaries such as the Calvin Institute of Christian Worship have specialized studies in ethnomusicology and ethnodoxology. 264 See https://www.lausanne.org/content/gospel-and-cultures-in-the-lausanne-movement, accessed on March 23, 2018. 265 The full text of the Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture can be found at https://worship.calvin.edu/resources/resource-library/nairobi-statement-on-worship-and-culture-full-text, accessed on March 27, 2018. 266 Anne Zaki, “Shall we dance? Reflections on the Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture,” in Worship and Mission for the Global Church, (Kindle Locations 2414-2422). William Carey Library.

Church practitioners ought to be sensitive to the local culture and determine how the gospel would best relate to the culture from a musical perspective. There is a need to sense how music could impact culture and vice versa for the furtherance of the gospel.

Theologians, such as Stephen Bevans, have written extensively on the topic of contextualizing the Christian faith. Bevans underscores the importance of contextual theology:

Doing theology contextually is not an option, nor is something that should only interest people from the Third World, missionaries who work there, or ethnic communities within dominant cultures. The contextualization of theology- the attempt to understand Christian faith in terms of a particular context - is really a theological imperative.267

When one minsters to a group of people, one should ponder on how theology is packaged; one should be conscious of the message, the messenger and the listener in one’s communication. It is essential to consider the human dimension when formulating one’s theology since people groups have their “particular thought forms.”268 Bevans’ commentary also applies to theology as it relates to music. Those who are responsible for shaping the music of a community must also recognize that they are practising theology in this calling.

The issue of contextualization is not a clear-cut formula. Jeffers Engelhardt addresses some of these challenges as he writes:

Thinking, hearing, and writing in terms of inculturation bring ongoing debates in anthropology and ethnomusicology about the meaning of religious symbols and sounds to the fore. At the heart of these debates is a set of questions concerning the divergent theological, practical, and ethical approaches to inculturation: Is inculturation the expression of existing religious truths or the negotiation of new religious truths? Should religious practices be isomorphic across cultures or should they be similarly efficacious but formally different? Are similar practices

267 Stephan B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, Revised edition edition (Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis Books, 2002), 3. 268 Ibid., 4.

the expressions of similar beliefs? To what extent is religious and cultural translation possible?269

Engelhardt presents those questions to stimulate thinking about the depth and breadth one may need to go to decipher meanings and symbols.270 Christopher Wright also acknowledges commonalities and differences in cultures and emphasizes the importance of being sensitive to groups of people when applying biblical texts.271 Like Engelhardt, he holds that those share the Good News need to examine one’s context and ask relevant questions. Wright emphasizes, “contexts do matter, that in the act of reading and interpreting the Bible, the questions of who you are, where you are, and whom you live among as a reader make a difference. The Bible is to be read precisely in and for the context in which its message must be heard and appropriated.”272

Context may refer to various group characteristics, including “regionality, nationality, culture, language, ethnicity, social and economic status, political structures, education, gender, age, religious or theological tradition, worldview or values.”273 As indicated in Chapter 2, there is solid biblical evidence for contextualization. Like Jesus and like St. Paul, those who share the Good News need to take into consideration the local context and present the truths of the Christian faith in ways in which each group can relate to the Good News.

Herbert Lockyer, Jr. also acknowledges the variety in local theologies and refers to a biblical example. Pointing to the prophetess Deborah, he writes “music is a reflection

269 Jeffers Engelhardt, "Inculturation: Genealogies, Meanings, and Musical Dynamics." In Yale Institute of Sacred Music Colloquium: Music, Worship, Arts, vol. 3, (2006), 2. 270 Ibid. 271 Christopher J. H. Wright, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative (InterVarsity Press, 2013), 41 272 Ibid., 42. 273 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 20.

of the context and culture in which it is created, as is all art, and there is no better example of this fact than the Old Testament story of an unusual judge, a military leader, and a formidable foe.” 274 Hence, it is not a case for one type of theology that is tailor- made for all peoples; one must be conscious of the group one is working with and respond appropriately with that (peculiar) group. Ott et al., therefore, articulate well the need to bringing the gospel in appropriate ways to different cultures:

Contextualization is necessary for several reasons. First, whenever the gospel is presented, it is presented in cultural clothing. Evangelicals rightly root their theology in the Bible, God’s unchanging, eternal Word. But only the Bible itself is God’s actual revelation of his truth to humankind. Every explanation of the gospel is inevitably coloured by the person’s own culture and personal background. One might say that every perception of Christian truth is contextual. The question is not whether we will contextualize the gospel. The question is whether we will do good contextualization or bad contextualization.275

Lesslie Newbigin, who spent most of his life as a missionary in India, concurs about the need for appropriate local theology and holds that “We must start with the basic fact that there is no such thing as a pure gospel if by that is meant something which is not embodied in a culture.”276

The missional church needs to “exegete” the cultures that they work with.277 It needs to sense the heartbeat of the community that it is part of and reflect its dynamic cultural expressions.”278 The missional church seeks to be sensitive to the goings-on in

274 Herbert Lockyer Jr., All The Music Of The Bible (Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson, 2004), 30. 275 Craig Ott, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent, Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, Historical Developments, and Contemporary Issues (Baker Academic, 2010), 266. 276 Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids, Mich. : Geneva SZ: Eerdmans, 1989), 297. 277 I am borrowing Van Gelder’s use of the word “exegete” as he emphasizes the need to understand the interpret the cultures of people, including those in the West. See discussion in Craig Van Gelder, (ed.), Confident Witness, Changing World: Rediscovering the Gospel in North America (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999), 1-15. 278 Alan Hirsch and Leonard Sweet, Forgotten Ways, The: Reactivating the Missional Church (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Publishing Group, 2013), 143.

the community and sense what factors propel and inhibit people in all spheres - financially, physically, emotionally and spiritually. The apostle Paul did not merely serve as a missionary and theologian; he also functioned as an interpreter of traditions when he interacted with various cultures of his day.279

When people know that their culture is “cultured,” that is, their culture has worth and value, they are apt to express their culture more readily.280 Hughes Old observes that when Americans realized that they had a place of cultural importance in the world, they began to prize that culture and were able to express themselves more in the arts, including art, music, and literature; this sense of cultural pride had an impact on the American hymnody.281 Missiologists from South Korea are also recognizing the importance of using Korean music in the church. Seung Min Hong laments the Westernization of the

Korean church and feels that there is an urgent need for Koreans to have a Korean theology that reflects the Korean culture, including music.282 Hong observes that the

West's lack of knowledge of Korean culture and music has been a reason why Koreans have not made use of Korean music and advocates implementation of the Korean concept of the Han, as well as celebration folk music.283 Plummer and Terry are right as they

279 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 152. 280 See Tim Keller’s explanation on ‘culture’ in this chapter, under sub-section ‘“Appropriate” Music for the Church’. 281 Hughes Oliphant Old, Worship: Reformed According to Scripture (Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 54. 282 Seung Min Hong, “Toward Korean Contextualization: An Evangelical Perspective,” International Bulletin of Mission Research 41, no. 1 (October 28, 2016): 20, https://doi.org/10.1177/2396939316664699. 283 Seung Min Hong, "Korean Contextualization: A Brief Examination." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 47, no. 2 (2011): 206-212; https://missionexus.org/korean-contextualization-a-brief- examination/, accessed on March 30, 2018.

declare, “Just as there is no culture whose members do not need to hear the saving gospel message, there is none that cannot receive its truth in an understandable way.”284

What these theologians are saying is that missionaries and others who share the gospel must make a conscious effort in deciphering how to share the Good News with a community. Norman Geisler recognizes the challenge in contextualization as he writes,

“The Christian accepts as axiomatic that his task is to communicate Christ to the world.

That sounds simple enough, but in fact it is very complex. It is complex for at least three reasons: First, there are many views of "Christ"; second, there are many ways to

"communicate"; and third, there are many "worlds" to which Christ must be communicated.”285 They need to treat each group with respect and conduct themselves in humility – being mindful of their limitations. It is therefore vital to be conscious of the mission of God and see how God is at work in the local neighbourhood.

Local Culture, Music and Missio Dei

The mission of God is more than simply speaking about the gospel; it requires

“penetration into every aspect of a people’s life and worldview.”286 In a purposeful attempt to sense how God is at work, the missional church needs to be part of the community to have a feel of how a community thinks and perceives life. Chuck Colson captures this thought as he emphasizes, “We must enter into the stories of the

284 Robert L. Plummer and John Mark Terry, Paul’s Missionary Methods: In His Time and Ours (InterVarsity Press, 2012), 213. 285 Normal L. Geisler, "Some Philosophical Perspectives on Missionary Dialogue," in David J. Hesselgrave, ed., Theology and Mission: Papers and Responses Prepared for the Consultation on Theology and Mission, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, School of World Mission and Evangelism, March 22-25, 1976 (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Book House, 1978), 281. 286 Craig Ott et al, Encountering Theology of Mission, 265.

surrounding culture, which takes real listening. We connect with the literature, music, theater, arts, and issues that express the existing culture’s hopes, dreams, and fears. This builds a bridge by which we can show how the Gospel can enter and transform those stories.”287

Richard Mouw and his pastor friends did exactly this when they planned to visit a

Rolling Stones concert in the 1990s. Mouw contemplated missio Dei in his contemporary situation and then asked a critical question as he writes, “Missionary vision might be defined as an insightful awareness of how the Spirit of God is already at work in a culture before we go there. The critical question is: How do we apply this to our contemporary situation in North America?”288 Mouw and his friends attended the Rolling Stones concert not because they wanted to be entertained; rather, they desired to have first-hand experience of what goes on at such a concert and "engage in theological reflection on the

Rolling Stones concert."289 It was instructive to Mouw, and his friends as 80,000 fans in the stadium joined Mick Jagger in chanting, "I can't get no satisfaction, ‘cause I try, and I try, and I try’…"290 That experience was helpful to the pastors, causing Mouw to declare:

We need to exegete [that] culture in the same way that missionaries have been doing with diverse tribal cultures of previously unreached people. And we need to exegete not only the cultural themes of the Rolling Stones . . . Dennis Rodman, Madonna, (and) David Letterman. . . . We need to comprehend that the Spirit of the Living God is at work in these cultural expressions, preparing the hearts of men and women to receive the gospel of Jesus Christ. We have to find, in a good missionary fashion, those motifs and themes that connect with the truths of the gospel. We need to learn how to proclaim, “That which you worship as unknown, I now proclaim to you.” This is missionary vision at its best.291

287 Chuck Colson quoted in Lori Copeland, Stranded in Paradise (Thomas Nelson, 2002), 371. 288Richard J. Mouw, “The Missionary Location of the North American Churches,” in Craig Van Gelder, ed., Confident Witness Changing World: Rediscovering the Gospel in North America (Grand Rapids, Mich: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999), 13. 289 Ibid. 290 Ibid. 291 Ibid., 14-15.

Mouw’s willingness to entrust himself in a situation such as being in a rock concert is an excellent example of what it is to sense how God is at work in a community. Those who wish to share Good News need to be in the midst of the action to have a proper sense of the culture so that they can minister appropriately, as “The Gospel of Jesus Christ can be incarnated, given shape [and] lived out, in any cultural context.”292

Mouw’s experience at the Rolling Stones concert could enable him to formulate

“good theology,” thus enabling the theologian or missionary to “use a variety of modes of thinking, forms of art, and styles of communication as situations dictate.”293 Christians should engage whatever modes of communication are effective in a local setting to bring the Good News.294 Andrew Walls also emphasizes the need to interact with the community. He writes:

No one ever meets universal Christianity in itself: we only ever meet Christianity in a local form, and that means a historically, culturally conditioned form. We need not fear this; when God became man he became historically, culturally conditioned man in a particular time and place. What he became, we need not fear to be. There is nothing wrong with having local forms of Christianity – provided that we remember that they are local.295

Interacting with the community allows the missionary to have a good sense of what type of music “moves” that group of people. Randall Bradley, Professor of Music Ministry at

Baylor University feels that those in ministry “should tell stories that are meaningful and understandable to the people within a local context” as well as listen to the stories of the

292 Charles H. Kraft, ed., Appropriate Christianity (Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2005), 187. See Kraft’s discussion on “Appropriate Contextualization as Translatability,” 187-188. 293 David K. Clark and John S. Feinberg, To Know and Love God: Method for Theology (Place of publication not identified: Crossway, 2010), xxx. 294 Ibid. 295 Andrew Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in Transmission of Faith (Maryknoll, N.Y. : Edinburgh: Orbis Books, 2002), 235.

people.296 People are apt to have the attention of the missionary if they use the local music because “people like to hear the songs that they know and understand.”297 Handel’s

“Hallelujah Chorus” is a prized musical piece by many Christians in the West. However, the Senufo people in Ivory Coast thought it sounded like “crying music.”298 Tibetans thought is was quite “unsteady,” and wondered how a musical piece such as that could be appreciated with so many high and low volumes.299

Christian practitioners need to be conscious of theology as they work with groups of people. Tim Keller articulates this point well as he argues, “Actual Christian practices must have both a Biblical form or shape as well as a cultural form or shape. For example, the Bible clearly directs us to use music to praise God - but as soon as we choose music to use, we enter a culture.”300 Sandra Van Opstal, author of several books and articles relating to multicultural worship and music also recognizes the importance of thinking seriously about the relationship between culture and music. She emphasizes that worship ought to be contextual, and “the theme of the lyrics we sing, the musical style, the type of instruments we use” should have some bearing on the culture of the group.301 Van

Opstal’s argument is note-worthy – especially as one works with groups that have disparate cultural backgrounds. Constance Cherry agrees when she states, “Not every song is well suited for every community. Some that fit one church may not at all fit

296 C. Randall Bradley, From Memory to Imagination: Reforming the Church’s Music (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 2012), 123. 297 Ibid. 298 https://worship.calvin.edu/resources/resource-library/ethnodoxology-calling-all-peoples-to- worship-in-their-heart-language/ 299 Ibid. 300 Tim Keller, “Advancing the Gospel into the 21st Century, Part III: Context Sensitive,” speech given to the Mission America Coalition, New York City, October 2003. 301 Sandra Maria Van Opstal, The Mission of Worship (Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Books, 2012), 16.

another, as a direct result of the differences in context.”302 The missional church attempts to appropriate music in such a way so as to disseminate the Good News to the world and thereby strengthen the “song of the church.”303 As Stetzer points out, the ultimate idea with this kind of music orientation is to have a "Seeker-Comprehensible Worship" so that unbelievers could learn about God through the worship and witness of believers.304

Consequently, several benefits could arise from the situation. Some of these benefits include: (1) Recognition and respect given to the music of the receptor, (2) Greater understanding and more opportunities for conversation with peoples of different backgrounds which relate to music.305

“Appropriate” Music for the Church

The choice of music is a significant entity for Rick Warren. He writes emphatically of the importance of the worship leader's choice of music as he states, “You must match your music to the kind of people God wants your church to reach.” 306

Warren feels strongly about this issue – which has tremendous relevance to those interested in reaching out to peoples of different cultures. He claims, “If you were to tell me the kind of music you are currently using in your services I could describe the kind of people you are reaching without even visiting your church. I could also tell you the kind

302 Constance M. Cherry, The Worship Architect: A Blueprint for Designing Culturally Relevant and Biblically Faithful Services (Baker Academic, 2010), 186. 303 C. Randall Bradley, From Memory to Imagination: Reforming the Church’s Music (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 2012), 154. 304 Ed Stetzer, Planting Missional Churches (B&H Books, 2006), 271. 305 Roberta R. King, “Bridges in Christian Communication: Lessons for the Church,” in Worship and Mission for the Global Church (Kindle Locations 3635-3638). William Carey Library. Kindle Edition. 306 Rick Warren, The Purpose Driven Church: Every Church Is Big in God’s Eyes (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 1995), 280.

of people your church will never be able to reach.”307 This statement is significant for those who wish to attract a particular ethnic or cultural group.

Warren’s observations on intonation and musical style are also noteworthy – especially as they relate to Guyana. He categorically argues:

I reject the idea that music styles can be judged as either "good" or "bad" music. Who decides this? The kind of music you like is determined by your background and culture. Certain tones and scales sound pleasant to Asian ears; other tones and scales sound pleasant to Middle Eastern ears. Africans enjoy different rhythms than South Americans. To insist that all "good" music was written in Europe two hundred years ago is cultural elitism.308

Gene Green’s stance on music is identical to Warren’s, and argues that “One does not have to become culturally Western in order to be a Christian. Christianity may be expressed in the languages of the world, through the music of the world and through the cultural idioms of the world.”309 These statements about music are relevant to Guyana because of an experience that a pastor had related to me. He told me of an instance where a former Hindu convert was casually singing an English song in a small church which consisted predominantly of East Indians. The woman was singing the song with a bit of

Indian predilection because that (Indian) style was what she was used to in the Hindu mandirs (temples). When the woman’s pastor (who also happened to be of Indian origin) heard that style of singing, he rebuked her publicly and reminded her that she was no longer in a mandir but in a church! That pastor smothered her sense of beautiful music as well as other Hindustanis who attended that church. Pastors and missionaries, therefore, need to be reminded that "There is no such thing as Christian music; there are only

307 Ibid., 281. 308 Ibid. 309 Gene L. Green, “Introduction,” in Jeffrey P. Greenman and Gene L. Green, eds., Global Theology in Evangelical Perspective: Exploring the Contextual Nature of Theology and Mission (InterVarsity Press, 2012), 10.

Christian lyrics. It is the words that make a song sacred, not the tune. There are no spiritual tunes."310 Bradley makes a similar point in stating that “God doesn’t necessarily value one type of music more than another. While we may place different values on different types of music, we can never be fully confident of God’s value.”311

Missiologists observe the increasing need for contextualization in the West. When

Newbigin returned from India, he was shocked to see that the “Christian” society he had left had changed to become more secular – and articulated the need to bring the gospel in a pluralist society.312 There is a widening gap between what takes place in the church and the culture in today’s society.313 The church planter, whether in New York or in New

Delhi, needs to consider the local community they work with when using music.314 Andy

Stanley, pastor of a large church in Georgia, U.S.A., underscores the necessity of keeping the unbeliever in mind when planning the music and conducting the service.315 Stanley explains why this is vital:

…we plan our weekend services with our inviters and their invitees in mind. Our service programming teams view themselves as partners in evangelism with our members and regular attendees. Does that mean we tailor the content to non- Christians? Nope. We tailor the experience to non-Christians. There’s a big difference.”316

310 Rick Warren, The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For? (Zondervan, 2009), 66. 311 C. Randall Bradley, From Memory to Imagination: Reforming the Church’s Music (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 2012), 48-49. 312 Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids, Mich. : Geneva SZ: Eerdmans, 1989). 313 Ed Stetzer and David Putman, Breaking the Missional Code (B&H Publishing Group, 2006), 89-90. 314 See discussion in Ed Stetzer, Planting Missional Churches (B&H Books, 2006), 195-202. 315 See “Andy Stanley Tells Pastors: To Reach Unchurched People, Make Church Appealing and Engaging.” 2016. Christian Post. Accessed January 22. http://www.christianpost.com/news/andy-stanley- tells-pastors-to-reach-unchurched-people-make-church-appealing-and-engaging-91920/. 316 Andy Stanley, Deep and Wide: Creating Churches Unchurched People Love to Attend, (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2012), 197.

The programs in the church should be designed so that those who are targeted are able to relate to what is said and sung. Keeping the community in mind in such a way, therefore, helps “to form and be informed by its sense of communal understandings of aesthetics.”317 Ed Stetzer and David Putman feel that it is important to present the gospel in such a way to relate to people, which may necessitate the need to “break cultural codes and lead the people in their context to consider the claims of Christ.”318 They explain that breaking codes “is not about programs; it is about values,” thereby necessitating that church leaders incarnate the gospel in the community in a meaningful way.319 It might be necessary, therefore, to remove religious clichés and expressions with which only the church is familiar so that the community with which the church is working could have a sense that their culture is being understood.320 When the means of communication

(language, terminologies, modes of worship and music) become comprehensible, people would become more apt to respond to the message.

This type of approach is essential for the missional church especially with regards to music, as the music of the church “must be noticeably linked to the music of the surrounding culture, its context.”321 This “appropriateness” of music could be realized by editing archaic terms from songs, using musicians in a contemporary way, and recognizing that “for 2,000 years, the Holy Spirit has used all kinds of music.”322

317 Bradley, 131. 318 Ed Stetzer and David Putman, Breaking the Missional Code (B&H Publishing Group, 2006), 16. 319 Ibid., 72. 320 Lori Copeland, Stranded in Paradise (Thomas Nelson, 2002), 370. 321 Bradley, 189. 322 Lecture by Rick Warren, SuperConference, October 2003, at Liberty University. See https://www.scionofzion.com/pdl.html.

Tim Keller addresses the question of contextualization of music in the church as it relates to culture. He defines culture and explains its dynamic relationship to music:

Culture is the shared beliefs and values – the shared conventions and social practices of a sub group or entire society, in which we are taking all the raw material – everything in life, and re-arranging it in order to express meaning, in order to express what we think is the good, the true, the real, and the important. So, what’s music? [my emphasis] Music is taking the raw material of sound and putting it together in such a way that it not only strikes the emotions, but it actually also becomes the glue for certain societies. In other words, music is taking the material of noise as it were – a sound, and turning it into something – not leaving it as it is, but cultivating it.323

Keller’s point about "raw material" of sound is significant. It is vital to note that certain sounds may move one group spiritually and emotionally differently from that of another.

The worship leader, therefore, needs to craft music with the culture of the people in mind.

Constance Cherry calls the worship leader “a pastoral musician [who] is a spiritual leader with developed skill and God-given responsibility for selecting, employing, and/or leading music in worship in ways that serve the actions of the liturgy, engage worshipers as full participants, and reflect upon biblical, theological, and contextual [my emphasis] implications, all for the ultimate purpose of glorifying God.”324 Consequently, worship with music could become more meaningful and significant when music is appropriated with distinct culture groups. Inevitably, one may expect controversy on what is deemed

“appropriate” music.

323 “Why Culture Matters,” Lecture given by Tim Keller, on Q Talks, Summer 2017. See video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWynJbvcZfs&t=980s, accessed on March 28, 2018. 324 Constance M. Cherry, The Worship Architect, 180.

Controversies on Styles of Music

Controversies about music in the church are not new. Over the centuries

Christians have debated whether music is necessary, and if so what kind of music is truly

“sacred.” An excellent book on some of the modern controversies in the church is

Perimeters of Light: Biblical Boundaries for the Emerging Church, written by Ed Stetzer and David Putman.325 The authors discuss controversies about music in Chapter 6, and listed some of the polemics over the last few hundreds of years. Stetzer and Putman have summarized the controversies about music well as they write:

It seems every generation has battled with the boundaries issue. Most boundary debates involved doctrinal issues, but not all. Some were boundary issues of methodology, or “how to express Christianity.” Martin Luther rejected the enthusiasts. John Wesley was ridiculed for his new “methods” and was sarcastically labelled “Methodist.” Jonathan Edwards struggled with emotional expressions of revivalism in the First Great Awakening, and Charles Finney was criticized for embracing “the right use of appropriate means” in the Second Great Awakening. With each new outreach of the gospel, new methods have emerged. Reactions to the new methods are usually negative.326

Controversies about music continue today as Christians debate about what style of music is best for worship and evangelism. The name which is often mentioned in these conversations is Martin Luther, the German Reformer who made his mark in church history five hundred years ago. Copeland observes that Luther and other Reformers used art in creative ways “to give glory to God and to reflect the goodness and beauty of His creation.”327 The Dutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn, for example, used his painting as a reminder of what Christ did on the cross for his sins.328

325 Elmer L. Towns and Ed Stetzer, Perimeters of Light: Biblical Boundaries for the Emerging Church, (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2004). 326 Ibid., 24-25. 327 Lori Copeland, Stranded in Paradise (Thomas Nelson, 2002), 299-300. 328 Ibid., 300.

Luther was an excellent singer who understood the value of music and considered music “the noblest of the arts.”329 Recently there has been an increasing number of conversations through articles and blogs on whether Luther used "bar tunes" in his music.

Brian A. Wren claims Luther did not borrow tavern tunes.330 However, Wren recognizes that the Reformer employed secular tunes in this music. He writes:

At the Reformation, Martin Luther's commitment to popular church music went hand in hand with a desire for more challenging forms… For the singing of metrical psalms in Geneva, Louis Bourgeois adapted some tunes from French and German secular songs and some from Gregorian chant… His metrical psalm tunes were radically different from traditional liturgical music."

Luther, as well as other Reformers, acknowledged the need to relate their music to the masses. In the mid 16th Century, the Reform theologians in Europe largely followed

Calvin’s dictum to sing (and pray) the Psalms.331 In 1562, a Psalter was produced, known as the Sternhold and Hopkins Psalter. Though the Psalter found favour among most

Reformers, Queen Elizabeth renounce them as “Geneva jigs” as they did not have the

“artistic finesse of monastic psalmody.”332

Craig Keener shares that he and others in the church experienced agony as a result of controversy in his church when some opposed the use of drums. 333 He points out, however, that the music in David’s time was similar to that of pagan culture as the same instruments mentioned in Psalm 150 were also used by pagans.334 Christians, therefore,

329 Ibid. 330 Brian Wren, Praying Twice: The Music and Words of Congregational Song (Westminster John Knox Press, 2000), 138. The author also claims that Handel “frequently used the same [type of] music for his religious and “profane” texts.” He also observes that “Brahms wrote beer-drinking songs as well as sophisticated symphonic works.” (also taken from page 138). 331 Hughes Oliphant Old, Worship: Reformed According to Scripture (Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 46. 332 Ibid. 333 Craig S. Keener, Revelation (Zondervan, 2009), 196. See discussion of Joel M. Lemon’s “Ancient Ear Eastern Iconography and the Psalms,” in William P. Brown (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Psalms (OUP USA, 2014), 377. 334 Ibid.

should be more concerned about our worship of God, rather than the instruments we use in the church.335

I concur with Warren as he makes his outrageous statement, “Today, Luther would probably be borrowing tunes from the local karaoke bar!”336

Dangers of Contextualization

Though most missiologists agree that contextualization is necessary in the 21st

Century, they also acknowledge its potential dangers. How far does one venture to contextualize the gospel completely? In one’s attempt to accommodate the culture of a people, it is easy to fall into the trap of syncretism where the gospel becomes muddied with non-biblical beliefs. Unbridled attempts at contextualization could lead to syncretism where it becomes difficult to distinguish the Christian faith from pagan beliefs. Consequently, some Christians dismiss the need contextualization because of fears that hinge on syncretism.337

Towns and Stetzer acknowledge the dangers of contextualization and make the following observations:

Some will go too far in an attempt to take the light into the darkness. They will adopt too many of the values of the world around them, and they will compromise and dilute the gospel. This is technically called syncretism—when the values of the world are mixed with the true faith. Some will not go far enough. They will wear their robes, beards, and crosses while the world considers them quaint but irrelevant. They cause the world to confuse the true faith with rules (robes, beards, political party, length of hair, etc.). This is technically called obscurantism—when

335 Bradley, 99. 336 Warren, The Purpose Driven Church, 282. 337 See eminent Pastor John Piper’s views on contextualization at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVjPhSTSNYM&t=49s; see also some Wesleyan pastors’ hesitation at http://www.efm-missions.org/MissionSpeak?id=27

rules and traditions obscure the true faith and confuse the world. The ultimate challenge is for the church to be biblically faithful and yet be contextual.338

Missionaries, pastors, and others will continue to struggle in deciphering how much contextualization is “too much” before it ventures over the danger border.

One issue that has come to the forefront since the beginning of the 21st Century is the phenomenon of the Insider Movement (IM). The IM is a movement by those who feel that it is important for those converts from a non-Christian religion to remain in their social and religious culture.339 An “insider” may be described as “a person from a non-

Christian background who has accepted Jesus as Lord and Savior but retained the socio- religious identity of his or her birth.”340 The IM has a “Christ-centred community” scale which could be summarized as follows:

C1 – Traditional church using non-indigenous language; essentially a foreign church within the culture.

C2 – Traditional church using indigenous language; cultural forms still mostly foreign.

C3 – Contextualized Christ-centered communities using indigenous language and non-religious aspects of the culture; believers typically meet in a church and call themselves Christians.

C4 – Contextualized Christ-centered communities using indigenous language and biblically permissible cultural and religious forms; believers call themselves followers of Isa Al-Masih (Jesus the Messiah) and are typically rejected by the Muslim community.

C5 – Christ-centered communities of Muslim followers of Christ that remain within the Muslim community and are often still active in the mosque.

338 Elmer L. Towns and Ed Stetzer, Perimeters of Light, 34. 339 For more information on the Insider Movement, see http://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/24_1_PDFs/Higgins.pdf, accessed on March 28, 2018. 340 Travis Talman, Understanding Insider Movements: Disciples of Jesus within Diverse Religious Communities (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2015), 8.

C6 – Christ-centered communities of secret/underground believers.341

Missionaries, missiologists, theologians, and other evangelical Christians debate over which rubric in such a scale is best for evangelism and Christian growth among peoples of non-Christian backgrounds. J. Dudley Woodberry, a strong advocate for the IM, asks poignantly, “If Paul were retracing his missionary journeys today… would he and the

Jerusalem Council endorse Muslims being free to follow Jesus while retaining, to the extent that this commitment allows, Muslim identity and practices…?”342

Though an increasing number of missiologists, pastors and other church leaders have recognized the importance of contextualization, some theologians and pastors such as John Piper343 are apprehensive and cautious about the IM and contextualization in general.344 Piper essentially says that a dependence on the IM is tantamount to losing faith in the power of God’s Word to change lives.345 Former associate editor of the

Evangelical Missions Quarterly Journal and missiologist Gary Corwin has also expressed concerns about the IM and argues that the Gentile believers in Paul’s time “hardly represented an Insider Movement within a competing faith system.” 346 He is alarmed that the advocates of the Insider Movement such as Charles Kraft are suggesting that

Christian converts from other religions in many parts of the world could keep their religious culture because they fear that their Christian faith would be adulterated with

341 Adapted from John Travis, “The C1 – C6 Spectrum,” in Keith E. Swartley (ed.), Encountering the World of Islam. (InterVarsity Press, 2005), 377-379; see https://www.lausanne.org/lgc-transfer/highly- contextualized-missions-surveying-the-global-conversation, accessed on March 28, 2018. 342 J. Dudley Woodberry, "To the Muslim I became a Muslim." International Journal of Frontier Missiology 24 (2007): 23-28. 343 John Piper served as Pastor for Preaching and Vision of Bethlehem Baptist Church in Minneapolis, Minnesota, for 33 years and is the author of several books. 344 John Piper, "Minimizing the Bible? Seeker-Driven Pastors and Radical Contextualization in Missions." Missions Frontiers 28 (2006): 16-17. 345 Ibid. 346 Gary Corwin and Ralph Winter, "Reviewing the September-October Mission Frontiers." Mission Frontiers (2006): 17-20.

pagan beliefs. William Willimon, Professor of the Practice of Christian Ministry at Duke

Divinity School feels that contextual practices distort the truths of God’s Word and water down the gospel. He is ambivalent about modifying the message to a particular audience and claims that those who hear the message are unable to understand the full truth because their ears are tuned to something other than God’s Word.347 He reckons that preachers “desiring too desperately to communicate, at any cost, can lead us into apostasy with the gospel” and lead to a slippery slope.348

Though these theologians and preachers are correct about depending too much on human-made techniques and not relying on the power of the Holy Spirit, my own view is that the Insider Movement is an important new voice in sensitizing the church of the need for contextualization. It is crucial to consider Andrew Walls’ observation as he declares that the gospel functions both as a “prisoner and liberator of culture” where there are two principles in tension with one another.349 The "indigenizing principle" denotes that the gospel can be "at home" in any cultural context. However, this principle is held in tension with the "pilgrim principle" in which the gospel is never completely "at home" in any context; it will always challenge and speak prophetically as it requires continual personal and societal transformation.350

In the IM list of rubrics, I feel most comfortable with C4 category. In the

Hindustani context, I hold that followers of Jesus Christ could use the respected Sanskrit language to chant the name of Jesus Christ. However, I feel that C5 in the IM category is

347 William H. Willimon, The Intrusive Word: Preaching to the Unbaptized (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994), 18. 348 Ibid. 349 Andrew Walls, "The gospel as prisoner and liberator of culture," in New Directions in Mission and Evangelization 3: Faith and Cultural. Vol. 3, eds. Stephen B. Bevans and James A. Scherer (Orbis Books, 2015), 17. 350 Ibid.

going too far since it could become difficult to distinguish whether the Bible and other religious texts are viewed equally as “God’s Word.”

H.L. Richard351 formulated a similar rubric for the Hindu context which he has called the H Scale. The H Scale is summarized as follows:

H1: Traditional Christians separate themselves from everything "Hindu" [and identifies with Western culture].

H2: Traditional Christians renounce Hinduism but still accept some non-religious Hindu cultural practices.

H3: Hindu Christians renounce Hindu religion for Christianity, but adapt Hindu religious and cultural practices.

H4: Hindu disciples of Christ do not develop contextual expressions of discipleship.

H5: Hindu disciples of Christ seek to develop contextual expressions of discipleship.

H6: Hindu disciples of Christ recognized as such by other Hindus but remain unassociated with other disciples of Christ.

H7: Hindu disciples of Christ keep faith completely private.352

I am most comfortable with the H5 rubric as I feel that going beyond this periphery would not allow me to verbalize my faith with others. Also, it is important to fellowship with other Christians and not to isolate oneself from the catholic church.

Other problems with contextualization could emerge. Apart from adulterating the truths of the gospel, the local church could have its priorities skewed by having too much focus on contextualization and not enough attention being spent on the truths of

Scripture.353 Those who push for contextualization could become overzealous and cause

351 H.L. Richard has written several books and articles related to Hinduism. 352 Taken from https://missionexus.org/h-scale-for-hindu-contextualization/, accessed on March 28, 2018. This summary is compiled by taking the title of each rubric listed. 353 Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen, and Douglas McConnell, The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues and Trends (Baker Academic, 2005), 329-330.

tremendous hurt for a church with long-time traditions.354 A proper balance in one’s contextual pursuits is therefore essential.355

How does one guard against syncretism while contextualizing music? Marva

Dawn cautions contextualizers as she emphasizes, “We make use of the cultural forms, new and old, but we dare never let up in the struggle to make sure they are consistent with the ultimate eternal world to which we belong.”356 Not all would agree with the dualistic overtones of this statement, but her concerns about reductionism and syncretism are important. As missionaries and church leaders wrestle with the challenges of contextualization, we need to be mindful of Dawn’s question, “How can we best reach out to this society without “dumbing down” that essential character formation?”357

Mistakes of Missionaries

Missiologists have noted the insensitivity of missionaries who ventured to many parts of the world and brought their cultural baggage as they shared the gospel. Paul

Hiebert, who was born in India and spent much of his life in that country decries the "Era of Noncontextualization" (1800 to 1950) when there was the blatant disregard for local cultures and a superior attitude of missionaries who went into foreign lands.358 Hiebert observes that before 1915, anthropologists spoke not of “cultures” but of one (Western)

354 Ibid., 330. 355 For an excellent discussion on the dangers of contextualization, see Charles Kraft’s Lausanne Movement submission, “Contextualization and Spiritual Power,” at http://www.lausanne.org/content/contextualization-and-spiritual-power, accessed March 23, 2018. 356 Dawn, Marva, Reaching Out Without Dumbing Down: A Theology of Worship for This Urgent Time (Grand Rapids, Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans, 1995), 10. 357 Ibid., 4. 358 See Elmer L. Towns and Ed Stetzer, Perimeters of Light: Biblical Boundaries for the Emerging Church, New Edition edition (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2004). After arguing the case for Western “noncontextualization,” Hiebert posits the urgent need for contextualization – referencing India as a case in point.

culture; all other cultures were regarded as “primitive,” “animistic,” and “uncivilized.”359

(In the British colonies, the colonialists in the 19th Century derogatively referred to anyone with unfamiliar cultural traits as “pagans” – especially the Hindus).360

Missionaries in many parts of the world had transferred their “Western-shaped church practices, including such things as programs, music, organization, and architecture.”361 Wright observes that there still exists “the arrogant ethnocentricity of the

West” by assuming that the theologies of the West are “the real thing, the objective, contextless theology.”362 Darrell Whiteman underscores this point when he tells of the episode in his class as he taught on the subject of “Contextualization”. After one class, one of his students declared, “Now that I have been studying contextualization and have discovered how the Gospel relates to culture, I am realizing that I can be both Christian and Thai.”363 This superior mentality that was prevalent led to two consequences in places like India: first, the Christian faith was perceived as a foreign (Western) religion, and second, the converts were expected to reject their native culture and follow that of the missionaries.364 This is still true today, as is attested by my observation in 2006 when my wife and I joined a team to visit the Central Jail in Varanasi, North India. A talented prisoner volunteered to paint murals that depicted the "main" religions of the country. For the Hindu religion, the artist painted a Hindu deity; for Islam, he drew the crescent and

359 Ibid., 105. 360 Anand Mulloo, Voices of the Indian Diaspora (Motilal Banarsidass Publisher, 2007), 274. 361 Craig Van Gelder and Dwight J. Zscheile, The Missional Church in Perspective (The Missional Network): Mapping Trends and Shaping the Conversation (Baker Academic, 2011), 23. 362 Christopher J. H. Wright, The Mission of God, 42. 363 Darrell L. Whiteman, “Contextualization: The Theory, the Gap, the Challenge,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 21, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 2, https://doi.org/10.1177/239693939702100101. 364 Paul G. Hiebert, “Critical Contextualization,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 11, no. 3 (July 1, 1987): 106. https://doi.org/10.1177/239693938701100302.

the star, and for the Christianity, he accentuated a European-looking (blonde hair, blue- eyed, “white”-skinned man) to represent Jesus Christ. Like most Indians, these prisoners perceive the Christian faith as “a white man’s” religion imposed on the Indian people by foreigners – and therefore gives fuel to the fire in spurring the wrath of Hindu nationalists.

Importance of Local Cultural Expressions among Hindus

Missionaries often misjudge cultures and traditions of people because they do so by making a judgement from their own cultural perspective. However, if the gospel is to make inroads with different cultures, it must “challenge the presuppositions of the missionary’s culture if it has any hope of speaking prophetically to the new culture in which it is being contextualized.”365 For example, while North Americans acknowledge

“Mother’s Day’” and “Father’s Day”, in India they celebrate Raksha Bandhan – the brother/sister day, where the sister ties a raakhee366 on her brother's wrist as the symbol that the brother shall protect his sister. This act of sibling affection and devotion is not practiced in the Christian community in India because the earlier missionaries felt this was a Hindu religious act that Christians should avoid. Therefore, Flemming is right in pointing out:

We [ministers of the gospel] must critique our own culture without rejecting it and transcend it while remaining within it. Likewise, we must identify with another’s culture without uncritically accommodating to it; we must allow the gospel to transform that culture without imposing a foreign culture upon it. This is the call of the missional church in every place and every generation.367

365 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 140. 366 A raakhee is a coloured thread that a sister ties on the right wrist of her brother. 367 Ibid., 151.

Those who share the gospel need to examine their own cultural premises while at the same time seek to learn the Hindustani codes, meanings and symbols of the local culture.

One may be inclined to judge a tradition or custom as heretical or pagan by judging it from one’s own background.

In 2008 I was invited to attend a Christian wedding in South India. My hosts

(parents of the bridegroom) were aghast that I was wearing a raakhee as they felt this was going too far in contextualization. However, the cultural rituals and traditions bestowed on the bridegroom such as applying turmeric paste on his body and pouring flowers on his head appeared to me as paganistic, as I had never seen a Christian bridegroom undergoing such elaborate rituals. After getting over the initial shock, I learned that these customs were local expressions at Christian (and Hindu) weddings and had no religious connotations. One, therefore, needs to be mindful of the local mores and be cautious to allow popular or globalized paradigms to interpret indigenous meanings and significance.

Globalization and Contextualization

Theologians and missiologists are paying greater attention to the phenomenon of globalization as they recognize its impact on the world economically, politically, socially, environmentally and spiritually.368 Perhaps one of the first evangelical voices that spoke on this issue was I-to Loh who decried the negative influence that globalization has on local theologies.369 Craig Ott observes that the conversation on contextualization in the last few decades must take note at new paradigms and trends. He underscores the

368 See Joerg Rieger, Globalization and Theology (Abingdon Press, 2010). Rieger gives an excellent overview of Globalization with examples from a biblical perspective. 369 “Contextualization versus Globalization: A Glimpse of Sounds and Symbols in Asian Worship,” a paper presented to the Institute of Sacred Music, Yale University, Autumn 2005, 1.

phenomenon of globalization and brings attention to two factors affecting the contextualization of the church – the “McDonaldization of ministry” and the hybridization of culture.370 Ott argues that the McDonaldization of ministry [his emphasis] (referring to churches and parachurch organizations that “propagate particular ministry tools, models, and programs as keys to effectiveness”) may not always be beneficial to the local churches in other countries.371 I feel Ott is absolutely right after my observation of my church experience in India in 2007. One pastor from England was visiting a church in North India and commented that the service at his church in England was virtually the same as the one he visited in India except that in England the medium of communication was in English whereas in India it was in both Hindi and in English. That church in India sang the same songs, used the same musical instruments, sat on chairs the same way, and followed the same order of service as a typical church in the West does. I agree with Ott that churches in the Majority World372 need to process, evaluate, reject and assimilate global influences that are helpful for the local church.

The second development that Ott addresses is the “hybridization of culture,” which he defines as “the process whereby the local is fused with the global.”373 The challenge for contextualizers is how to retain the essential local culture while making way for the inevitable influences that come with globalization.

370 Craig Ott, “Globalization and Contextualization: Reframing the Task of Contextualization in the Twenty-First Century,” Missiology 43, no. 1 (September 24, 2014): 44, https://doi.org/10.1177/0091829614552026. 371 Ibid., 45. 372 See explanation of the term ‘Majority World’, in Elijah J. F. Kim, The Rise of the Global South: The Decline of Western Christendom and the Rise of Majority World Christianity. (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012, xv. The author explains that ‘Majority Word’ is the preferred term used to describe poor countries rather than ‘Developing countries’ or ‘Third World countries’. ‘Majority World’ highlights what these countries are, instead of what they lack. 373 Craig Ott, “Globalization and Contextualization,” 48.

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Music and Mission

Music is an integral expression of one’s culture and that should blossom and not be inhibited by external forces. The significance of music of a culture is important for a group to inculcate a sense of respect. Ethnomusicologist Robert Garfias argues this point:

Music adds to the culture and is an important form and avenue for personal and group expression in it. It is also very much a product of that culture and of all the influences, historical, political, economic as well as aesthetic which has played upon it. At the same time music has a place, a role, a function, in each culture. That is to say that in addition to being an outgrowth of the culture as well as a reflection of it, music has a status and function in each culture. There is a way that people use it, practice it, continue it and think about it which is unique to each culture.374

Music plays a large part in the identification and dignity of a group. Unfortunately, in many countries, Christians have felt that they needed to use Western music and Western instruments to please God in their worship. I-to Loh’s statement about Chinese churches are true for many churches world-wide. He indicated Chinese churches

• were banana churches, because they looked yellow in their skin, but deep in their heart and mind they wanted to be as white as Caucasians;

• translated and borrowed theologies, having no theologies of their own;

• copied music—they copied Western styles of composition, and also illegally copied Western published anthems;

• used liturgies that were all second-hand liturgies introduced and used by missionaries over a century ago.375

The description of the church which Loh gives could be applied in many ways to India.376

374 Robert Garfias, Music: the cultural context. National Museum of Ethnology, 2004, 6. 375 “Contextualization versus Globalization: A Glimpse of Sounds and Symbols in Asian Worship,” a paper presented to the Institute of Sacred Music, Yale University, Autumn 2005. 376 C. Dicran Hale, "Hindi Christian bhajans: A Survey of their US by Christians and a Critique by Hindu Professionals in the Music" (Masters Thesis, Briercrest Bible Seminary, 2000), 5. Hale laments the prevalent use of Western songs at the expense of the indigenous music.

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Roberta King, an American missionary shared a story how she was asked to play a piano solo at a church in Nairobi. She chose to play a traditional African instrument, the balafon instead. After the rendition, one of the leaders inquired how she could obtain the instrument and declared, “I never knew we could play one of our own African instruments in church. We were taught that it could only play the piano.”377

Discovering new ways in an old environment is a truth reflected in God’s Word

(Isaiah 43:19, Psalm 96:1 and Psalm 98:1). Debra and Ron Rienstra hold that these Bible precepts are “an exciting permission for us. The gospel is not limited to any generation, to any tribe or nation or tongue. In every age, in every place, the Spirit of Christ comes to offer salvation.”378 They observed that missionaries going to places like Africa must respect the local music which has developed and taken local shape.379 They point out that

Christians “from all parts of the world are seeking and finding ways that Christ might transform the treasures of their own culture—language, music, art, dance—to enrich their own worship and in turn the devotion of the worldwide church.” 380

Van Opstal points out some of the differences between the musical culture of the West and that of Africa:

European American culture is more linear and cognitive, which shows up in our love for teaching theology through hymns, or singing while standing still. African culture, on the other hand, is more affective and holistic, involving the mind, emotions, and body. When we have a reference for our cultural norms, we can be genuinely open to new expressions of worship. We need to know where we are coming from before we can enter into forms of worship that are culturally relevant to others.381

377 Roberta King et al, Music in the Life of the African Church (Waco, Tex: Baylor Univ Pr, 2008), 18. 378 Debra Rienstra and Ron Rienstra, Worship Words: Discipling Language for Faithful Ministry (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Publishing, 2009), 190. 379 Ibid, 203. 380 Ibid. 381 Sandra Maria Van Opstal, The Mission of Worship (Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Books, 2012), 16.

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Africans generally like to dance when they worship, and some find it confusing why

Westerners do not move their bodies during times of worship, causing them to ask in such a situation, “Why don’t the others worship with us? Do they have sin in their lives?”382 Understanding cultural expressions, therefore, is vital in cross-cultural ministry.

One should also attempt to decipher other nuances in cultural music and the difficulties this could cause in the musical expression in worship. Kraft argues:

In many societies of the world that speak tone languages (over 50%) and the many more whose music employs a five note scale rather a Western seven note scale, the use of Western music does great injustice to the cause of Christ. For both unconsciously and consciously, the message of foreignness is driven home through music with great force, perhaps more than through any other vehicle.383

Kraft’s point becomes manifest when one listens to songs in a typical church in India that has been influenced by Western patterns. When North Indians sing songs in the indigenous Hindi style, they seem to sing from the heart and the sounds are melodious.

However, when they sing a song such as “How Great Thou Art” the melody that is normally present in the indigenous style is lost, and it sounds unnatural and almost jarring as they strain to follow the Western tune of the hymn – even though it is in the Hindi language.

There are other reasons for assigning music a prominent role in sharing the gospel in unfriendly circumstances. I agree with Michael Wilder, Dean of Wheaton's

Conservatory, who holds that “Music serves as one of the most powerful tools for reaching out to others . . . with a nearly immediate window and opportunity for love,

382 Roberta King, “Do They Have Sin?,” in Worship and Mission for the Global Church (Kindle Locations 5531-5533) William Carey Library. Kindle Edition. 383 Charles H. Kraft, ed., Appropriate Christianity (Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2005), 269.

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ministry, and outreach.”384 This observation is held not only by scholars but also by those who have worked and studied music as it relates to the cultures of people. In many parts of the world it is becoming increasingly difficult to share the faith through personal witness. Often, as has been the case in Indonesia,385 as well as in other countries where I have worked to share the Good News, music can pave the way to the message and serve as a bridge for the Christian faith. Those who oppose Christians are more likely to soften their stance when they observe indigenous music is respected and used by the local people.

The Roman Catholic Church and Its Response to Local Music

The Roman Catholic Church in many parts of the world is increasingly recognizing the need to contextualize their faith in people’s local culture – with special attention to utilize local music. Jan Michael Joncas, priest, liturgical theologian, and composer of contemporary Catholic music emphasizes the need to be more inclusive. He cites parts of the Milwaukee Report which states:

Different cultures, language groups, and ethnic communities provide different contexts and raise particular questions when rendering the musical-liturgical- pastoral judgment about worship music. It is important to respect each culture that provides the context for the musical-liturgical pastoral judgment. This entails consciously avoiding the ethnocentrism that judges the music of one particular culture and era as superior and the model for all other Christian ritual music. To avoid this hazard, it is indispensable that appropriate representatives of those cultures providing the context for worship be central to the decision-making process. In particular, it is important to engage competent musicians, versed in the music of the cultures providing the context for worship. They will be key in

384 See http://www.wheaton.edu/Media-Center/Wheaton-Magazine/Spring-2015/Feature- Articles/A-New-Song, accessed March 26, 2018. 385 Marzanna Poplawska, “New Christian Music in Indonesia,” in Jeffers Engelhardt and Philip V. Bohlman, eds., Resounding Transcendence: Transitions in Music, Religion, and Ritual (Oxford University Press, 2016), 111.

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helping their colleagues especially in the musical facet of the musical-liturgical- pastoral judgment.386

This guideline has been put into practice in India. Most of the Christian music expressed in traditional Hindustani bhajan style in that country emerges from the Roman Catholic

Church. Except for the content (lyrics and religious symbols), the style of music looks identical to that sung by Hindus.387

Contextualizing the Gospel to Hindus

Like Hindus in many parts of the world, the entity of Indian culture is an integral part of the Hindu psyche in Guyana and the rest of the Caribbean.388 It is therefore essential to be mindful of the culture of the Hindus when one considers mission to this people group.

Missionaries (foreign and local) as well as converts have emphasized the need to adapt the bhakti form of Hindustani devotion when sharing the gospel with Hindus.

Bhakti – An Essential Approach with Hindus

Bhakti refers to devotion, trust, worship and adoration in the Hindustani tradition and style.389 Hindustani devotional music such as bhajans is an intricate part of bhakti

386 Jan Michael Joncas, From Sacred Song to Ritual Music: Twentieth-Century Understandings of Roman Catholic Worship Music (Liturgical Press, 1997), 65. See The Milwaukee Symposia for Church Composers: A Ten Year Report is Copyright © 1992, Archdiocese of Milwaukee, at https://www.archmil.org/ArchMil/Resources/TheMilwaukeeStatement.pdf, accessed on March 29, 2018. 387 An example of a Christian song that is sung in traditional Hindustani style (bhajans) is found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4irudV5Bi8E&list=RDMM4irudV5Bi8E (accessed on March 29, 2018). 388 Peter van der Veer and Steven Vertovec, “Brahmanism Abroad: On Caribbean Hinduism as an Ethnic Religion,” Ethnology 30, no. 2 (1991): 160., https://doi.org/10.2307/3773407. 389 Karel Werner, Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism (Psychology Press, 1993), 168.

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expression. The two terms, bhakti and bhajan are often used interchangeably when referring to the traditional Hindustani concept of devotion to God.390 However, this

Indian expression of devotion to the divine is different from the Western sense of devotion to God in that the former may be more appropriately labelled “emotional devotionalism.”391 Chanting the name of God through the medium of bhajans is a common feature of the bhakti religious expression.392 For Hindus, bhakti is an essential entity without which worship would be virtually meaningless.393 Bhakti is important to many Hindustani people because it is “the quintessence of Hindu faith, and at the same time to provide insights into the rich variety of musical traditions … related in some way or other to the Hindu religion.”394

The bhakti expression of worship incorporates a combination of Indian traditions which include the donning of appropriate clothing such as a sari for women and kurta for men, religious terminology, method of greeting, sitting on the floor rather than on pews or chairs, and most noteworthy - music. (An excellent scholarly book which addresses the issues of Hindustani cultural expressions such as bhakti, bhakta, bhajans and so on is

Ecclesial Identities in a Multi-Faith Context: Jesus Truth-Gatherings by Darren Todd

Duerksen). The author emphasizes the importance of using the bhakti concept for those

390 Hale, 46. 391 H.T. Bakker, “An Indian Image of Man: An Inquiry into a Change of Perspective in the Hindu Worldview,” in Hans G. Kippenberg, Yme B. Kuiper, and Andy F. Sanders, Concepts of Person in Religion and Thought (Walter de Gruyter, 2012), 295. 392 Hale, 48. Hale points out that in some Hindu quarters this chanting continues unabated, and devotees take turns to sustain the chanting. 393 Selina Thielemann, Singing the Praises Divine: Music in the Hindu Tradition (APH Publishing, 2000), 17. Thielemann explains: “The term bhakti' is derived from a Sanskrit verbal root bhaj -, 'to share' or 'to partake of, furthermore 'to serve' and 'to love'. Bhakti thus means loving devotion, love for God, and, on a broader level. being related to God. chief tenet of bhakti is a personal, an emotional relationship between man and God, a relationship that exists not only on an abstract, transcendental plane, but one which can be experienced by the human senses as a concrete reality.” 394 Selina Thielemann, 17.

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who wish to contextualize the Good News in order to share it with Hindus – especially through (Yeshu) Satsanghs.395

The Hindustani concept of bhakti is not confined to the traditional sense of

Hinduism. Practitioners of other religions also adopt the Hindustani devotional concept.396 Converts to the Christian faith as well as missionaries, therefore, underscore the necessity of giving the water of life (John 4:14) to the Indians in an Indian vessel.

Water of Life Given in an Indian Cup

Sadhu Sundar Singh was the son of a rich Sikh priest who became a follower of

Christ at an early age in the early 1900s.397 He is probably the most talked about Indian

Christian because of his passion to see people come to know and follow Christ. His name emerges in the contextualization conversation as it relates to India because of an illustration about the importance of an “Indian Cup.”398

Singh spoke of an episode where a Brahmin man was panting at a railway station because he desperately needed some water. The Anglo-Indian station master reached out to him to give him some water in a glass which he refused. Someone informed the station master that he should instead give the dying man water in a lota (Indian copper cup), which the Brahmin gladly accepted. Singh used this story to proclaim that Indians have an immense spiritual thirst and they need the Living Water that only Jesus Christ offers.

395 See Darren Todd Duerksen, Ecclesial Identities in a Multi-Faith Context: Jesus Truth- Gatherings (Yeshu Satsangs) among Hindus and Sikhs in Northwest India (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015), 28-29. The term, Satsangh, basically refers to a corporate Hindu-style worship of which music is a predominant feature. This form of Christian worship is discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. 396 Selina Thielemann,18. 397 See story of Sadhu Sundar Singh’s background and conversion: Mrs Arthur Parker, Sadhu Sundar Singh, Called of God (Trumpet Press, 2013), 25-27. 398 Historians cannot verify if this was merely an illustration or if this event actually happened. One version of the story is found in Todd M. Johnson, "Contextualization: A New-Old Idea Illustrations from the Life of an Italian Jesuit in 17th-Century India." International Journal of Frontier Missions 4 (1987): 18.

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However, they will not accept this Water when it is given in a foreign vessel; those who give it need to do so in an Indian cup.

Dayanand Bharati, author of Living Water and Indian Bowl: An Analysis of

Christian Failings in Communicating Christ to Hindus, with Suggestions Toward

Improvements bemoans that the church in India has not responded to Singh’s cry for contextualization since the early 1900s. He argues:

“Give the living water in an Indian bowl” has been a long-time cry borrowed from Sadhu Sundar Singh. Though it has been raised time and again, very little seems to change. But surely the time has now come to seriously think and act in this direction. We have failed to communicate in our general presentation, in our worship, in our language and terminology, in our theology, and in relation to Hindu scriptures and the Indian nation.399

Though the gospel has been Westernized in much of India, other missionaries from the

West have spoken of the need to indigenize the church in the mid-20th Century. Alfred

Hogg, for example, advocated for the need to demonstrate how the gospel is understood better by Hindus when familiar images and expressions are employed.400 Similarly,

Bishop Stephen Neill, a Scottish Anglican missionary who spent much of his life in India, looked for ways to relate his Christian faith to Hindus.401 Neill wrote several books and articles on the Christian and Hindu faiths and highlighted the common concepts between the two. Richard Mouw quoted Bishop Stephen Neill regarding what is required of the missionary in sharing their faith to Hindus:

He must be prepared to face the possibility that the greater part of his work must be from within Hinduism, in putting questions to the Hindu and helping him to understand himself better. All the time he will be attempting to help the Hindu to see the radical unsatisfactoriness of all the answers that have been given to his

399 Dayanand Bharati, Living Water and Indian Bowl: An Analysis of Christian Failings in Communicating Christ to Hindus, with Suggestions Toward Improvements (William Carey Library, 2004), 68. 400 Michael W. Goheen, "Is Lesslie Newbigin's Model of Contextualization Anticultural?" Mission Studies 19, no. 1 (2002): 147. 401 See Stephen Neill, Bhakti, Hindu and Christian (Christian Literature Society, 1974).

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questions, and so to point him to the One in Whom those questions can receive their all-sufficient answer, the Lord Jesus Christ.402

Neill emphasized the need for conversations with Hindus and used local symbols and terminologies to point them to Christ.

PrabhuSingh Vedhamanickam, an Indian missiologist calls for an urgent need for

Christians to engage in cultural issues in the 21st Century as they confront political, religious, social and intellectual arguments.403 He laments the lack of contextualization as he writes:

Christians are often portrayed as subversive western agents involved in destroying Indic religions, desecrating Indian culture and destabilizing the nation. Added to that, the cultural insensitive approach of some mission agencies, both Indian and western - due to a combination of ignorance and arrogance - also give fodder to the anti-Christian rhetoric, resulting in an almost "perfect minus ten" situation for Indian Christians to meaningfully share the gospel in contemporary India.404

Like Vedhamanickam, Bharati advocates for the Indian church to have a Hindustani look and feel instead of mirroring the church in the West. He shares his experience as an

Indian follower of Christ: “I often dreamed in this way—remove all the Western musical instruments, and also even the pulpit; spread a dari (thick carpet) on the stage, have one bhajan team lead in singing beautiful bhajans (traditional, Indian devotional songs)”405

These Hindustani traditions that Bharati longed for the church reflect the apostle Paul’s longing to do whatever he could to win others into the Kingdom of God (1 Cor 9:19-22).

402 Richard F. Mouw, “Understanding The North American Context as Mission Field,” in Craig Van Gelder, ed., Confident Witness, Changing World: Rediscovering the Gospel in North America (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999), 8. Mouw quoted, Stephen Neill, Christian Faith and Other Faiths (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), 98. 403 PrabhuSingh Vedhamanickam, “Living Water in Indian Cups: A Call for Cultural Relevance in Contemporary Indian Missions,” The Asbury Journal 66, no. 2 (January 1, 2011), 59. 404 Ibid., 58. 405 Dayanand Bharati, Living Water, 74.

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Being a Hindu to the Hindus

The first missionary known for his contextualization exploits in India was

Roberto de Nobili, the Italian Jesuit who arrived in Southern India in the early 17th

Century. After he moved to Madurai, he observed that almost all of the converts to the

Christian faith were fishermen – coming from the Parangi (of a “low” caste) group.406

Nobili cared for the Brahmins as well but noticed that Christians found it virtually impossible to penetrate their cultural and religious barriers. He, therefore, used his

“noble” background (he was from a wealthy family in Italy) to live like a Brahmin407 so that he could have a window of their worldview in order to win them for Christ (1 Cor

9:19-22).

Nobili spoke fluent Tamil and learned the Sanskrit, the revered religious language of the Hindus. He also adopted most of the Brahmin customs. He used common terms to connect with Hindus such as substituting the word Veda for the Bible and looking for commonalities between the Hindu and Christian faiths.408 He was motivated by the principle that in working with those who are not yet of the faith, it is important to “learn and tolerate their human ways of acting in society, so that in turn we may teach and strengthen in them the ways of God.”409

406 Todd M. Johnson, "Contextualization: A New-Old Idea Illustrations from the Life of an Italian Jesuit in 17th-Century India." International Journal of Frontier Missions 4 (1987): 11. 407 A Brahmin is a high-caste Hindu. 408 Jeffrey Muller, “The Jesuit Strategy of Accommodation,” in Wietse de Boer, Karl A. E. Enenkel, and Walter Melion, eds. Jesuit Image Theory (BRILL, 2016), 463. 409 Ibid.

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Nobili lived like a typical Brahmin sanyasi410 (monk) and adopted their (saffron) clothing, wore wooden slippers and applied sandalwood paste on his forehead.411 He allowed converts to continue their Brahmin culture and tried to convince his European cohorts that the Brahmin clothing, shoes, paste on his forehead, etc. were more cultural than religious.412 For the sake of the gospel, he lived like a (high caste) Hindu and referred to himself as such so as to identify with the people he worked with.413

Follower of the Christian Faith Referred to as “Hindus”

There is a practical and intellectual need to refer to followers of Jesus Christ as

“Hindus” in certain circumstances, as Nobili discovered.

Those who followed Christ were referred to as followers of “The Way” (Acts

9:2). They were later referred to as Christians in Antioch (Acts 11:25). The word

“Christian” has a negative connotation to many Hindus as they feel that Christians are followers of a foreign religion that is known for eating beef and pork (a despicable notion to Hindus) who have little respect for Indian values and culture. Bharati agrees with this stance and he normally refers to himself as a “Hindu” (a bhakta of Christ).414 Like

Bharati, whenever I meet Hindus for the first time and they inquire about my faith, I do not say that I am a “Christian”; I declare that I am a follower of Jesus Christ - (In Hindi,

मै यीशु का भक हं mai Yeshu ka bhakt hu).

410 There is a variation of spelling of this word. It is also spelled sanyassin in India (with the last ‘n’ representing a nasal ‘ie’. 411 Johnson, 14. 412 Ibid. 413 Ibid. 414 See Bharati’s discussion on the use of the terms ‘Christian’, ‘Hindu’ and ‘Bhakta of Christ’ in Dayanand Bharati, Living Water and Indian Bowl, 153-163. The word bhakta in Hindi means ‘follower’, or disciple. I met Bharati several times in 1999; he preferred to be called a ‘Hindu’ instead of ‘Christian’.

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The word “Hindu” originally referred to a culture or ethnicity rather than religion.415 It is difficult to define the term but it historically refers to one adhering to traditions common to India.416 After speaking with scholars and Hindu priests in India, after examining these descriptions of the term, Hindu, I feel that a follower of Jesus

Christ who adheres to “traditions common to India” could be legitimately labelled Hindu.

The followers of Christ who identify with bhakti normally refer to themselves as Yeshu

Bhaktas (“Yeshu” refers to Jesus, and bhakta means a follower or disciple).417

Understanding the need to adopt certain cultural forms and expressions arise out of sensitivity which could materialize from listening to and learning from the local people.

Listening and Learning – lessons from Lesslie Newbigin

Missionaries would do well as they heed the biblical commandment to “be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry” (James 1:19). In his book, Preacher,

Can You Hear Us Listening? Van Harn makes an essential point that we need to be conscious of our own culture when we read the Bible or listen to sermons since our understanding is shaped by the culture in which we were reared. With diligent listening, we are able to able to see our culture in God’s light and thereby helping us to reach out to other cultures.418

415 Gavin Flood, ed., The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), 3. See discussion on pages 5-6. See also Jeffery D. Long, A Vision for Hinduism: Beyond Hindu Nationalism (London: I.B.Tauris, 2007), 36-37. 416 Gyanendra Pandey, Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today (Viking, 1993), 245-246. 417 Dayanand Bharati, Living Water, 153-163. 418 Roger E. Van Harn, Preacher, Can You Hear Us Listening? (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005), 94.

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E. Stanley Jones, an ardent contextualizer419 in India in the mid-20th century acknowledged the need for continual learning.420 Francis A. Schaeffer, noted lecturer and author from L'Abri Fellowship in Switzerland, opined that if he had an hour to share the

Good News, he would spend 55 minutes listening to the other person and 5 minutes presenting the gospel message.421 John Stott emphasizes the need for “double listening” when the missionary attempts to contextualize the gospel. About “double listening,” he writes: “the faculty of listening to two voices at the same time, the voice of God through

Scripture and the voices of men and women around us. These voices will often contradict one another, but our purpose in listening to them both is to discover how they relate to each other. Double listening is indispensable to Christian discipleship and Christian mission.”422 Missiologists and missionaries are increasingly emphasizing the need to listen to the local community to understand them better and generate a meaningful relation in ministering to each other.

Newbigin echoes the sentiment expressed by Stott as he holds that “the only way in which the gospel can challenge our culturally conditioned interpretations of it is through the witness of those who read the Bible with minds shaped by other cultures. We have to listen to others. This mutual correction is sometimes unwelcome, but it is necessary and it is fruitful.”423 This is exactly what Newbigin did in India – after arriving in a country with a strange language, culture, and music. This eminent missionary is

419 See E. Stanley Jones Foundation, Christ Of The Indian Road, 1st edition (PRINT ON DEMAND, 1925). 420 Dayanand Bharati, Living Water, 63. 421 Gavin Ortlund, “Conversion in C.S. Lewis’s That Hideous Strength,” in D. A. Carson, ed., Themelios, Volume 41, Issue 1 (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2016), 18. 422 John Stott, The Contemporary Christian: Applying God’s Word to Today’s World, IVP/UK Edition edition (Downers Grove: IVP Books, 1995), 29. 423 Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Geneva SZ: Eerdmans, 1989), 197.

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considered the “grandfather” of contextualization by many because of his work and writings on the subject.424 His life as a missionary is exemplary, and the student in contextualization may learn much from his experiences. In many ways, he may be considered a model missionary for those desiring to share the Good News with different cultures even though he first arrived in India almost a century ago.

Newbigin earned the right to be heard. He used to have a weekly study session the

Ramakrishna Mission where he befriended the Hindu priests and scholars and studied the

Svetasvara Upanishad and St. John’s Gospel at the Hindu monastery.425 He conformed to the culture of the monastery and respected the culture of those with whom he studied. He explained the way he interacted with the scholars: "We sat, Indian fashion, cross-legged on the floor and the leader in each case read the Scripture in the original language –

Sanskrit or Greek – and expounded it, after which there would be an hour or more of questioning and discussion." 426 Though no converts resulted from this study time, it gave

Newbigin the opportunity to see deeply and widely into the Hindu worldview – and strengthened the mutual respect and friendship with the Hindu priests and scholars.427

Newbigin used terminologies and concepts that were familiar to the local community with whom he interacted. However, this was a complicated task as he wanted to make sure that the words, phrases, and terminologies used did convey the meanings he meant it to be.428 Should he use refer to Jesus as Swami (Lord/teacher), giving the Hindus

424 Scott Aniol, By the Waters of Babylon: Worship in a Post-Christian Culture (Kregel Publications, 2015), 40. 425 Lesslie Newbigin, Unfinished Agenda: An Updated Autobiography (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2009), 53-55. 426 Ibid., 55. 427 Ibid., 55. 428 Lesslie Newbigin, “Christ and the Cultures *,” SJT 31, no. 1 (1978): 2, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0036930600013041.

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the wrong impression that Jesus is one of many lords or respected teachers who have lived on earth?429

Newbigin's humility comes to the fore as he acknowledges the need for ecumenical dialogue. He feels that there is a need to learn from each other – especially from one's cultural perspective – even though he acknowledges that the dialogue normally takes place in the context of the church in the West.430

Newbigin developed excellent personal relationships with Hindus but also got along well with fellow missionaries. He expressed delight to use a booklet produced by an experienced missionary, Raymond Dudley, titled the Madurai Moonlight Kummies.431

He observed that the people in Madurai enjoyed stories in dance form so related gospel stories in local folk dances (Kummi and Kolattam), and was able to use this form in teaching as well as in evangelism when teaching the village folk.432

In addition to dance, Newbigin encouraged the use of local music in the church and suggested that “all the sung part of the service may be set to suitable Indian music.”433 This missionary was sensitive to the culture of the local people perceived that that music was a vital aspect of their culture and sense of worship and wanted to utilize their genre of music to draw them closer to Christ.

429 Ibid. 430 Lesslie Newbigin, The Open Secret: An Introduction to the Theology of Mission, Revised ed. edition (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1995), 151. 431 Lesslie Newbigin, Unfinished Agenda: An Updated Autobiography (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2009), 64. 432 Ibid. 433 Geoffrey Wainwright, Lesslie Newbigin: A Theological Life (Oxford University Press, 2000), 275.

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Importance of Hindustani Music to Hindustanis

For Hindus, music is a vital part of worship. Without chanting and singing it would be extremely difficult for Hindus to contemplate worship that is meaningful.434

However, not just any music would suffice. Hazrat Inayat Khan correctly observes, “To an Indian, music is not an amusement or only for entertainment. It is something more than that. Music, for the Indian, is the food of his soul. It answers the deepest demand of his soul… It unites souls, because even words are not necessary. Music stands beyond words.”435 For many Hindustani musicians, taking time to tune an instrument is not merely a physical act because as musicians tunes their instruments they contemplate on spiritual things.436 Ravi Shanker, perhaps the world’s most famous sitar player claims that as he plays his sitar, “there is a soothing, peaceful experience … [which] has devotional aspect in the rendition of the music.”437

The Sanskrit derivative of the word for music is sangita, which is a combination of two root words – sangh (meaning a meeting of elements) and geet which refers to singing or music. Khan surmises that there are three aspects that relate to sangita – singing, playing (an instrument) and dancing.438 These three interrelated elements are essential for Hindustanis when they contemplate worship.

434 See discussion on the importance of music and devotion in Selina Thielemann, Singing the Praises Divine, 1-2. 435 Hazrat Inayat Khan, The Mysticism of Sound and Music: The Sufi Teaching of Hazrat Inayat Khan, Revised edition (Boston: New York: Shambhala, 1996), 62-63. 436 Ibid., 63. 437 Peter Lavezzoli, The Dawn of Indian Music in the West (A&C Black, 2006), 433. 438 Hazrat Inayat Khan, 66.

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Employing the bhakti tradition to follow Jesus, the use of bhajans is crucial, as it translates the Christian faith into the Hindu cultural form.439 Bhajans are normally sung or chanted in Satsanghs as an expression of bhakti worship.

Satsanghs and Christian Worship

Satsanghs440 are a splendid way of expressing bhakti devotion and worship of

Christ in the Hindustani context. The word satsangh is a combination of two root words from Sanskrit: sat - meaning “truth”, and sangh – meaning “a meeting of entities”. The term may be translated literally as “truth gathering.” Duerksen’s book (mentioned above) focuses on Yeshu Satsangs – (“Jesus Truth-gatherings”) within the Hindu and Sikh communities in North West India.441 Satsanghs have also been taking place in cities outside of India by those wishing to reach out to Hindustanis in Europe and North

America.442

A predominant feature of satsanghs is music – mainly through the use of bhajans, though occasionally there may be other forms of music such as kirthans or geet.443 The

“truth-telling” is rendered through the lyrics of the songs but also my prawachans

(sermonettes) during the satsangh. Indian musical instruments are generally used for music in in the satsanghs – especially the harmonium, the dholak and the tabla. The

439 Jonas Adelin Jørgensen, Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Two Case Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in Global Christianity (Peter Lang, 2008), 367. 440 There is a variation in the spelling of the word. Some spell it as satsang. In this paper, the second variation of spelling will be used when quoting or referring to another’s writing or work. (I have conducted Satsanghs in India, Guyana and in Canada. This is an excellent medium to attract Hindus and Sikhs to a Christian gathering. The type of music played in a Satsangh and the Hindustani flavour of the gathering helps to draw people from South Asian backgrounds to the worship service. 441 See Duerksen’s ‘Introduction’ to the concept of Yeshu Satsang in See Darren Todd Duerksen, Ecclesial Identities, xix-xxi. 442 See http://southasianconcern.org/christian-satsang/ and https://yeshusatsangtoronto.bandcamp.com/album/bhakti-geet-volume-two, accessed on April 1, 2018. 443 See C. Dicran Hale, "Hindi Christian bhajans,” 96-98.

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harmonium is especially important for Hindus as its sounds rings out a magical note that signals to the Hindu that their music is present. Indian musical instruments add flesh to the bones in a satsangh setting.

Use of Bhajans

H.A. Popley, the British missionary who was known for his literary work as a translator of the “Kural” and his skill in rendering Tamil Christian music in the Carnatic style in India in the 1950s recognized the need to utilize traditional Indian music, such as bhajans. He observed, “It is well known that in order to appeal to Hindus it is of no value to use Western hymns and Western musical instruments. They can only be attracted and won to attention by means of good Indian music; since this is well known to the churches it is strange that they should continue to give so large a place in their worship services to

Western music.444 The long-time missionary felt that in addition to the evangelistic motive, “the majority of the congregations will be able to worship more reverently and more intelligently.”445 Narayan Viman Tilak came to faith in Christ in the late 19th

Century. He believed that his new-found faith was the answer to the caste problem of

India, and sought to indigenize his faith with the use of bhajans so as to meet the needs and emotions of the people with whom he worked.446 Bhajans are a significant aspect of

Satsanghs for it brings “spiritual cleansing.”447 The singing of this bhajans emits an

444 H.A. Popley, "The Use of Indian Music in Christian Worship," Indian Journal of Theology 6.3 (July-Sept. 1957): 83, found at https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ijt/06-3_080.pdf, accessed on Mar. 10, 2018, 83. 445 Ibid., 88. 446 Gavin Flood, “Introduction: Establishing the Boundaries” in Gavin Flood, ed., The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003), 38. 447 Richard K. Singh, Swami’s Divinely Inspired Discourses: Universal Message for Mankind (Xlibris Corporation, 2013), 117-118.

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emotional and electric feeling among Hindus as they worship the divine with this genre of music.448

C. Dicran Hale is the son of a missionary who spent a significant time of his life in India and Nepal and is intimately familiar with the music of those countries. He feels that the use of bhajans is a vital aspect of worship in India, and should be a regular feature of the worship service in the church.449 The simple, repetitive feature of bhajans brings to mind Constance’s observation about music as she holds: “Much Global music in non-Western cultures, and praise and worship music in Western countries, typifies cyclic music … Singers and musicians embellish the song as it recurs, investing in the layers of sound. Meaning is understood through the repetition.”450

Bharati relishes the fact that bhajans are sung by Hindus from the heart – without the use of a book.451 Hindus find the singing of bhajans has a soothing effect on their minds and bodies.

When Hindus listen to any type of bhajan (Hindu, Christian, Sikh, Jain, Sai Baba, etc.), their ears are eager to listen. However, if other types of music are played (even though it is in the Hindi language), they tend to tune out the music and musician. Hale points out that Christians who wanted to be a witness to Christ on the “holy” banks of the

Ganges River, they would sing bhajans and would always have a positive response.452

448 Shakuntala Balu, Living Divinity (Sai Towers Publishing, 2005), 120. 449 Hale has explored the use of bhajans in India. See C. Dicran Hale, "Hindi Christian bhajans: A Survey of their US by Christians and a Critique by Hindu Professionals in the Music" (Masters Thesis, Briercrest Bible Seminary, 2000). 450 Constance M. Cherry, The Worship Architect: A Blueprint for Designing Culturally Relevant and Biblically Faithful Services (Baker Academic, 2010), 200. 451 Bharati, 78. 452 Hale, 31.

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Bhajan-singing provides a natural way for sharing religious thoughts in the middle of the music.453

The singing of bhajans is a dependable bridge in reaching Hindus. Hale shared how he was able to able sing in a Hindu temple in a “holy” city in India because he was willing to sing (Christian) bhajans in the bhakti mode.454 This is a bold step as Hindus do not normally allow non-Hindus to sing in their temples. I have had similar experiences in

Guyana where I was able to sing in several Hindu temples about Jesus Christ because I informed the leaders of the temple that I would like to sing bhajans and respect the culture of the Hindustani people. Hindus in Guyana welcome bhajans irrespective of the religious faith. In the late 1990s I had met the father of a famous Indian cricketer who happened to be an ardent Hindu. I invited him to a gathering and informed him that I was a follower of Jesus Christ. He immediately rejected my invitation since he was not interested in any other religious faith. However, when I told him that I would be singing bhajans, he was willing to attend the gathering.

Church Music in Guyana

In Guyana, almost all the music in the church emanated from sources in England and the U.S.A. before the 1970s. After that time, the music took on a distinct “Caribbean” flavor, based on the (Jamaican-styled) reggae and calypso. Popular American Christian music is still widely used, alongside the Caribbean rhythm and creole-style music in the church. However, Hindustani (Indian) music is totally absent from a regular service in

453 Ibid., 32. 454 C. Dicran Hale, “Where Hindu and Christian Worlds Meet: Through the Yeshu Bhakti Music of Aradhna,” in James Krabill et al., eds., Worship and Mission for the Global Church (William Carey Library, 2013), Kindle Locations 7880-7885.

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the church. Occasionally, there might be a bhajans or a geet but this normally only takes place on more informal occasions such as camps, birthday parties or funerals.

The lack of the Hindustani musical genre is a cultural obstacle for Hindus. It is quite difficult for the ordinary Hindu to listen to the gospel, as they feel that their culture and music are ignored and virtually despised by the church.

If Indian music is played in the church, I believe it would certainly gain the respect of the Hindus (and other Indians) in Guyana. More specifically, if Hindustani religious-sounding music is played in a Christian setting, it could have a powerful effect in drawing Hindus to consider the faith. They would feel that Christians respect their music and culture, and may be more inclined to listen to the gospel.

Conclusion

Missiologists, ethnomusicologists, and endodoxologists as well as missionaries and converts have recognized the need to contextualize the gospel. The challenge is to present the gospel to various peoples in their culture but avoiding those aspects of the culture that dilute or obscure the truths of the Christian faith. Those who seek to bring the

Good News to Hindus should do so by considering all aspects of their culture – especially the entity of music.

Hindustani music is very important to Hindus. Using music such as bhajans in a bhakti mode could be a tremendous bridge in reaching out to Hindus.

The next chapter describes the research methodology that was applied for the study.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Overview of Methodology and Research Design

The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which contextualization of Hindustani (Indian) music might be necessary to serve as a bridge between Christians and Hindus to spread the gospel among Hindus and enrich the worship experience of the

Hindustani people. To achieve this objective this researcher employed qualitative research techniques with a sample of Hindus as well as pastors.455 The researcher feels that a better understanding of this music phenomenon would help church leaders such as pastors and missionaries to appropriate the role of music as they work with the

Hindustani people of the country who comprise approximately 40% of the population of the country.456 To explore this phenomenon, the study addresses the research question:

This chapter describes the methodology employed for executing the study and comprises the following: (a) rationale for the research approach, (b) the research sample,

(c) a summary of the information needed, (d) an overview of the research design, (e) methods of data collection, (f) analysis and synthesis of the data, (g) ethical considerations, (h) trustworthiness, and (i) limitations of the study.

455 A description of the sampling procedure and participants is found below under the heading ‘Research Sample’ below. 456 Source: http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/, as accessed on April 8, 2018.

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Rationale for the Research Approach

Over the last three decades researchers have increasingly recognized the relevance of the qualitative approach for study projects in the disciplines of sociology and psychology. Nancy Jean Vyhmeister and Terry Dwain Robertson opine that the qualitative approach enables the researcher to have the opportunity to have profound sense of knowing how participants feel about perceive an experience or phenomenon.457

For those participating in DMin projects, the qualitative approach is the preferred research methodology, according to Tim Sensing.458

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is essentially an investigative approach which “systematically seeks answers to questions by examining various social settings and the individuals who inhabit these settings.”459 John W. Creswell gives an appropriate summary description of qualitative research as he writes:

Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.460

457 Nancy Jean Vyhmeister and Terry Dwain Robertson, Quality Research Papers: For Students of Religion and Theology (Harper Collins, 2014), 41. 458 Tim Sensing, Qualitative Research: A Multi-Methods Approach to Projects for Doctor of Ministry Theses (Eugene, Or.: Wipf & Stock, 2011). Sensing is the Director of Academic Services and Professor of Homiletics at the Graduate School of Theology of Abilene Christian University. I have used this book to help guide me in writing this chapter and the next. DMin is the abbreviated form of “Doctor of Ministry.” 459 Ibid., 57. 460 John W. Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (SAGE, 2013), 4.

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Qualitative research requires the researcher to investigate a situation with participants in their normal environment. The researcher is able to ask questions from different angles to gather information on the phenomenon that he or she is researching. In this study which requires personal interaction with participants who are Hindus and pastors, the qualitative approach is appropriate. This approach allows the researcher meet the participants personally and ask questions by having a good sense of where they are in their natural settings. It is essential to be sensitive to participants and treat them respectfully so as to garner data for the study. As Cooper points out, the researcher could have a good understanding of the “lived out experience” of the studied participants and have a deep understanding of a human situation.461

The qualitative approach is ideal for this study as it allows for the researcher to undertake research from an inductive perspective. One is able to have a good sense of the participants’ attitudes, motives, feelings, fears and other emotions as the investigator probes into the question of music in the church in Guyana. By interacting directly with the participants, the researcher is able to chronicle a rich description of the participants and the context of the studied settings. This research approach allowed me (the investigator) to enter into the world of the Hindus and the pastors and have a sound understanding of their perceptions of the phenomenon. The rich data elicited from such a study is necessary for a trustworthy analysis of the data and presentation of the themes identified in the study.

461 Laura Finley and Robin Cooper, Peace and Conflict Studies Research: A Qualitative Perspective (IAP, 2014), 78. See also the discussion of the “lived experience” in John W. Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 4th ed. (SAGE, 2013), 15.

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Research Sample

There are several sampling strategies that the researcher can choose from in qualitative research.462 The strategy best suited for this study is “criterion sampling” since all participants are required to comment on the phenomenon of music in the church.

Phenomenologists typically have a sample of three to ten cases for their qualitative studies.463 However, this for this study, I interviewed twelve Hindus and twelve pastors. I feel that this more extensive number will give greater credence to the study.

The selection of the interviewees has followed a procedure intended to minimize the effects of bias. I requested four Hindu friends to contact three Hindu friends who in turn were required to contact one of their Hindu friends who was familiar with music in the church and would be willing to participate in the study; see Appendix 3.464 The pastors selected for the study were chosen similarly.465 I established this three-tier level contact so as to minimize the probability of bias resulting from familiarity.

Summary of Information Needed

The study focused on how 12 Hindu adults and 12 Christian pastors in Guyana perceive the evangelistic role of music in the church in attempting to answer the research question: How might the use of Indian music as an expression of Hindu culture serve as a

462 See a discussion on ‘sample size' and ‘sampling strategies' in Michael Quinn Patton, Qualitative Research, 242-244. 463 Timothy C. Guetterman, “Descriptions of Sampling Practices Within Five Approaches to Qualitative Research in Education and the Health Sciences,” Forum: Qualitative Social Research 16, no. 2 (2015). 464 Appendix 3 is the initial letter of request sent to persons of the Hindu faith. 465 See Appendix 4. This is similar to Appendix 3 except that it is the letter sent to Christians.

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bridge between Christians and Hindus to spread the gospel among Hindus and enrich the worship experience of Hindustani Christians in Guyana? Information is garnered about how Hindu individuals and Christian pastors perceive the phenomenon of music in the church - especially as it relates to Hindustani music and culture.

Overview of Research Design

The Research Ethics Board (REB) of Acadia University approved my Application for Ethical Review of Research Involving Humans in view of my proposed thesis. After this approval, I studied literature relating to qualitative research methodology before I proceeded to collect any data. I sent letters of invitation by email to four Hindu friends and four other friends who were pastors; (see Research Sample above for details). Those who agreed to participate in the study were sent an Informed Consent Form466 to clarify what would be required of them and how the research would be conducted. Semi- structured, in-depth interviews were then conducted with 12 Hindus and 12 pastors. I interviewed the participants in their homes or in the homes of friends – whichever was most convenient and amenable for the interviews.

The Use of Interviews to Gather Data

Interviewing is an excellent method of gathering information for the phenomenologist467 and it is the primary mode for collecting data in phenomenological research.468 Vyhmeister and Robertson agree that “Interviews permit a deeper and fuller

466 Appendix 5 is the ‘Informed Consent Form’ sent to those who agreed to participate in the research. 467 Mark T. Bevan, "A method of phenomenological interviewing." Qualitative health research 24, no. 1 (2014): 136. 468 John W. Creswell, Research Design, 14.

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understanding of the attitudes of a respondent.”469 However, Kvale and Brinkmann warn researchers who use the interview method that it “seems so simple to interview, but it is hard to do well.”470 They highlight the literal parts of the word inter views to emphasize the need to examine a phenomenon from all sides.471

It is important that the researcher prepares the interview questions by thinking of how the interviews are to be guided, analyzed and transcribed.472 The questions in an interview should be skillfully worded with the intention of accurately convey meaning to the respondents so that they, in turn, will be motivated to convey their attitudes and opinions.473 Woods agrees that questions should be carefully worded and underscores the need for clarity in interview questions.474

Bruce Berg and Howard Lune have emphasized the need for “effective communication” during an interview. They elucidate:

Perhaps the most serious problem with asking questions is how to be certain the intentions of the questions have been adequately communicated. Researchers must always be sure they have clearly communicated to the subjects what they want to know. The interviewers' language must be understandable to the subject; ideally, interviews must be conducted at the level or language of the respondents… one must not forget the part about educating oneself about the context, concerns, language use, slang, and histories of the groups that we recruit into our studies.475

469 Nancy Jean Vyhmeister and Terry Dwain Robertson, Quality Research Papers, 41. 470 Steinar Kvale and Svend Brinkmann, InterViews: Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing (SAGE, 2009), 1. 471 Ibid., 18. 472 Ibid., 190. 473 Norman K. Denzin, The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods (Routledge, 2017), 129. 474 C. Jeff Woods, Designing Religious Research Studies: From Passion to Procedures (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2016), 91-92. 475 Bruce L. Berg and Howard Lune, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 8 edition (Boston: Pearson, 2011), 123.

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The interviews were therefore conducted in the lingua-franca - patwa.476 Speaking in the local dialect helped to create a setting where the participants felt at ease, and they were able to express themselves without undue pressure.

I prepared for the interview process by taking into consideration Berg's and

Lune's helpful suggestions given in their Ten Commandments of Interviewing.477

Interviewing Participants About Music

I questioned the Hindu participants about the type of music they adhered to and the importance of Indian music in their devotional life. I then showed them four videos of

Indian “Christian” music and inquired how they perceived that music, and if that type of music could have a sway in their desire to take a greater interest in the Christian faith; see

Appendix 5.478 Videos were shown instead of listening to mere audio because the videos provided an excellent context for participants to sense how Indian Christian music could be expressed in a Christian setting. I showed four types of music videos to the participants: bhajans, geet, chatney and a “Bollywood” tune (with English lyrics). I selected these types of music because Hindustanis normally encounter this type of music in their homes, temples or other public places.

I asked pastors about their perception of music in the church and the place that

Indian music has, if any, in the church; see Appendix 6.479 The same videos that I had

476 Though the official language in Guyana is English, most Guyanese do not converse in standard English; they communicate in a “broken” form of English, normally referred to as patwa or creolese. 477' Bruce L. Berg and Howard Lune, Qualitative Research Methods, 150. The ‘commandments’ listed by the authors are: The ten commandments of interviewing include “never begin an interview cold, remember your purpose, present a natural front, demonstrate aware hearing, think about appearance, interview in a comfortable place, don’t be satisfied with monosyllabic answers, be respectful, practice, practice, and practice some more, and be cordial and appreciative.” 478 Appendix 6 lists the questions I asked the Hindus before and after they saw the music videos. 479 Appendix 7 lists the questions I asked the pastors before and after they saw the music videos.

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shown to the Hindus were also shown to the pastors. I then inquired about how they perceived that type of music and what impact, if any, it could have on the Hindustani community.

The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and secured on a password- protected computer. I analyzed the data by coding it for sub-themes and themes in preparation for findings presentation and interpretation.

Analysis and Synthesis of Data

It was necessary to make sense of a large amount of data received from the interviewing process. The literature on qualitative research has been helpful as I heeded Creswell’s suggestion to write memos while the interviews process was taking place.480 I also formulated “thick descriptions” 481 of the interviews in my notes by observing the circumstances, meanings, intentions, and emotions that emerged from the interview.

These “thick descriptions” have helped me to remember more accurately the circumstances, settings, and tone during the interviews, and thereby enable me to analyze the data more accurately.

I circled such statements with special coloured markers. I was attentive to the presence of any “essence” description given by the participants to have a good feel of the information that the participants wanted to postulate. 482

480 John W. Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 4th ed. (SAGE, 2013), 195. 481 Though “thick description” is normally associated with the ethnographic approach in qualitative research, it may also be applied to other disciplines such as phenomenology; see Joseph G. Ponterotto, "Brief note on the origins, evolution, and meaning of the qualitative research concept thick description." The Qualitative Report 11, no. 3 (2006): 540. See also Patricia Bazeley, Qualitative Data Analysis: Practical Strategies (SAGE, 2013), 376. 482 Ibid. Creswell underscores the importance of giving attention to the “essence” description to make sense of the data.

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I designated numerous codes from the data. Kvale and Brinkmann express that the researcher needs to decipher the meanings in the interview text which could be accomplished by coding and condensation of the data.483 I, therefore, perused the data for significant words and made notes about emotions that accompanied certain words or phrases as I hand-coded the data. I took into consideration Kvale’s view on coding as he states that “Coding involves attaching one or more keywords to a text segment in order to permit later identification of a statement.”484 Some of these codes were then grouped into other codes and then classified which in turn formed the basis of sub-themes of the study.

I then attempted to identify patterns from these sub-themes. This is a process that required “constant winnowing,” 485 resulting occasionally in the formation of new sub- themes. The distinguished patterns of these sub-themes were used as a basis to determine the themes of the study.

While analyzing the results, it was important that I constantly kept the research question and key issues in focus.486 I also needed to be conscious in setting aside my prejudices for it is important that “the researcher brackets or sets aside his or her own experiences in order to understand those of the participants in the study.”487

Before cutting and pasting similar sub-themes on flip charts, I consulted with an

MDiv graduate of a seminary who is familiar with the patwa dialect to verify that a

483 Kvale and Brinkmann, 201. 484 Steinar Kvale, Doing Interviews (SAGE, 2008), 105. 485 Robert E. Stake, The Art of Case Study Research (SAGE, 1995), 84. 486 Ibid., 84-85. 487 Baran L. Mette, “It is all in the Design: Creating the Foundations of a Mixed Methods Research Study,” in Baran L Mette, ed., Mixed Methods Research for Improved Scientific Study (IGI Global, 2016), 71. Patton also emphasizes this point in stating: “The researcher “brackets out” the world and presuppositions to identify the data in pure form, uncontaminated by extraneous intrusions,” in Michael Quinn Patton, Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (SAGE, 2002), 485.

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sample of my interpretations of the data was correct. He confirmed that my interpretations were indeed accurate.

The themes of the study are used as the basis to present the findings and formulate conclusions regarding the use of Hindustani music in the church in Guyana.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are vital in a research study as the participants in the study must be respected and protected.488 The study project was approved by Research Ethics

Board of Acadia University.

Participants were aware that they could withdraw from the study at any time without fear. Incidentally, one of the Hindu participants decided to stop the interview after 15 minutes; I treated her with respect and courtesy and expressed gratefulness for the time she had given to the study.

All the participants were guaranteed privacy, and they knew that their identity would remain confidential. Caution was taken to store data in a secure, password- required computer.

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness is a very important factor in qualitative research. One needs to know that one’s work is credible.

488 Clifford J. Drew, Michael L. Hardman, and John L. Hosp, Designing and Conducting Research in Education (SAGE, 2008), 56.

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Though I am passionate about the need for contextualization of the gospel with

Hindus, I was vigilant not to let this bias get in the way of the study. I “bracketed” this bias so that I could have objective feedback from the interviewers. Therefore, I tried to take care not to bring my personal bias regarding culture into the research process. This is important so as not to compromise the integrity of the study.489

The interpretation of a sample of the data has been verified by a peer who is familiar with the language, music, and culture of Guyana. The study may be deemed

“transferable” to similar situation because of the “thick, rich description” that I have given to the interview context.

Limitations of the Study

Although I have taken care to be objective in the study, I remain aware that my bias towards contextualization might have affected the way I interpreted the responses given by the participants.

The sample size might be another point of concern. Though some scholars feel that three to ten participants for a study such as this may be sufficient, I have gone beyond that limit to garner in-depth interviews with twelve participants from each group.

However, this is still a small sample size to make generalizations about Hindustani music in the church in Guyana.

489 John W. Creswell, CUSTOM: CEC Edition Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design 3e (SAGE Publications, 2017), 15.

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CHAPTER 4:

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which contextualization of Indian music might be helpful or even necessary in serving as a bridge between

Hindus and Christians to spread the gospel among Hindus and enrich the worship experience of the Hindustani people in Guyana. The researcher believed that a better understanding of this music phenomenon would help church leaders such as pastors and missionaries appropriate the role of music as they work with the Hindustani people of the country.

I administered the study in Guyana by interviewing a sample of 12 Hindus and 12 pastors and attempted to have in-depth discussions with these participants. The findings in this chapter reflect the interviews I had with the 12 Hindus but only with 11 of the 12 pastors; one of the pastors informed me that only Africans attended her church because only Africans lived in that neighbourhood and therefore did not want to be interviewed for the study.

I conducted the interviews in standard English as well as in patwa (the local dialect that most Guyanese speak in casual conversations).

Major Findings with Hindu Participants

There are six major findings that emerged from the interviews with Hindus:

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1. All the Hindu participants were passionate about or had a great affinity with

Indian music.

2. Bhajans were very important to all the Hindu participants and were a significant

musical expression when they contemplated about devotion to God.

3. Indian instruments (especially the harmonium and the dholak) were essential to

all the participants when meeting with others to express worship to God.

4. A majority of the Hindu participants felt that a measure of Hindi lyrics was

important to appreciate their spiritual/cultural experience.

5. An overwhelming majority of Hindu participants indicated that they would be

willing to attend a Christian gathering or place of worship if they knew the church

would play Indian instruments or have other expressions of Indian music.

6. Some of the Hindu participants felt that Christians expressed disrespect or hatred

towards Hindustani culture.

Below is a thick description490 of the interview experience with the Hindus and pastors. I communicated with all the participants in patwa except for three pastors; I spoke in standard English with these individuals since they did not entertain any patwa in their conversations. Whenever a speaker is quoted verbatim in patwa, I give an explanation in the description. (I included the patwa in the descriptions in an attempt to give the reader a feel for the manner in which the conversation transpired. Some readers may be able to comprehend some of patwa since it consists mainly of English words).

490 A ‘thick description’ may include details on context, emotions, voices, feelings, actions, and meanings of the individuals involved in the interviews. See Norman K. Denzin, Interpretive Interactionism, 100.

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Finding #1: All the Hindu participants were passionate about, or had a great affinity with Indian music.

All the Hindu participants (100%) indicated that they had a great affinity with

Indian music. There was a nuanced description that ranged from “Indian music means a lot to me” to “Indian music is my life – my passion.”

Each Hindu expressed their love for Indian music with a smile and pride in their voice. They exuded joy in declaring their predilection for this type of music. A recurring theme that surfaced was their description of experiencing “peace and contentment” as they listened to Indian music. Aditya, for example, spoke enthusiastically and glowingly as he shared (in patwa):

Me listen to Indian music all de time. I love de sitar mo. De chankaar. Help you to relax. Help you to meditate. Mek you mind change to peace. Like when you light a candle. When you light a candle in a room and breeze can’t get it, it straight up, without wavering. So music makes the mind become like that. It give you peace of mind. When you play de music it give you peace. Well, me fada and me moda bring me up soh… Any religious song. But more to Indian one. Although I may understand only a little bit but the love in me, when me hear Indian music, me like it. Me grandson also loves to watch Indian music.

Aditya explained that he listened to Indian music all the time and compared it to an unflickering light that elicits peace of mind and calmness – especially as he listened to the sounds of the Indian instruments such as the sitar. He was pleased to inform me that his parents brought him up Indian music which he treasured, and he continued this Indian tradition so much that his grandson also loved to watch Indian movies and absorb the

Indian music that is part of the movie experience.

Almost all the Hindus spoke of the exuberance they experienced as they grew up with Indian music. Indra, for example, declared, “I love Indian music, I love Indian music! As a child I really enjoyed it. I love the dances too.” Indra beamed as she explained her love for Indian music and Indian culture, and articulated, “Once you are a

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Hindu and you always listen to this type of music to get attached to it. I’m just got to love it more and more. And I love the Hindi language; it is a beautiful language.”

Adesh explained that he was brought up in the Lutheran church as a small boy, but he and his family returned to their Hindu faith. He elucidated (in patwa), “I was a

Luteran at 6 years of age. I baptize; I take communion. A white man called Bowen was de pastor. But I went to de Hindu chuch because me modah and me fadah like de Indian music. An me also like it!” As a teenager, Adesh left the Christian faith because his parents returned to Hindu temple to enjoy the Indian music they had lost when they frequented the Lutheran Church. Adesh informed me that he was now the President of the local Hindu temple. How much does Indian music mean to him? He explained, “That is my life! Right now, I am 73 years. I find happiness in no other thing. No game, no other sport. No other nothing but music – and singing!”

Other Hindus commented proudly about their love for Indian music. Padmini claimed, “Me like Indian music; only Indian music.” Rekha also similarly shared, “Indian music puts you in a relaxing mood, and I love it.” For Padmini, Indian music is a substantive entity in her life as she appreciated only that type of music.

Finding #2: Bhajans were very important to all the Hindu participants and were a significant musical expression when they contemplated about devotion to God.

All the Hindu participants (100%) stated that bhajans were essential to putting them into a mood and mode to think of God. They claimed that bhajans soothed their souls, their inward beings, and that form of music was an absolute necessity to worship

God. When asked what type of music made him think about God, Dinesh shared,

“Bhajan! Bhajan most! When it comes to bhajan, me imagine God in front of me.” For

Dinesh, it was as if God appeared before him as he sang or listened to bhajans.

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When I asked Saki about the significance of bhajans in her life she immediately burst forth singing a bhajan and then related how much this religious form of music meant to her:

Long ago my mother used to sing bhajans. The old bhajans - Hari Om Sharan491 bhajans. And I loved it since [then]. Dese mean a lot to me. I love to sing and hear dese bhajans. They are beautiful and I can listen to dem whole day… I just love it. I just get sucked into it. I feel it is more soothing to the soul.

For Saki, bhajans were an essential part of her spiritual devoutness. The form of music touched her inward being, and she felt that a periodic dosage of this musical genre was critical for her spirituality.

Idi had a similar response when asked about bhajans. She responded without hesitation, “You nah mus like you own? Yuh own kinda music, you own kinda bhajan.”

She construed that bhajans are her ethnic type of music and is therefore central to her culture and religious background. Deepak also expounded why bhajans were significant to him by exclaiming, “Yes, yes - like me baan wi da ting.” In other words, the reason bhajans are part of his emotional and cultural constitution it because it is in his DNA.

Rekha claimed that when she listened to bhajans, “you feel comfort and [then you are able to] do your work.” Rekha claimed that she was able to find comfort and strength to do the day’s chore because of the blessed qualities of the bhajan music.

Finding #3: Indian instruments (especially the harmonium and the dholak) were essential to all the participants when meeting with others to express worship to God.

All of the Hindu participants (100%) felt that Indian instruments were essential for them to enjoy a religious gathering. An overwhelming majority (11 of 12 [92 %]) felt

491 Hari Om Sharan was a Pakistani-born bhajan singer who went to Guyana in the 1970’s during his singing career. He was a popular bhajan singer because of “simplicity” of the bhajans.

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that the harmonium and dholak were especially vital, as they perceived these instruments to be symbiotic with Indian culture and music.

Adesh’s comments were typical when he proclaimed, “Harmonium and drums - me like it! Not like dem boom boom music; it coordinate nice. The sitar: I can’t play de sitar. But when I hold the harmonium, and press a note, it help me to gain certain spirituality!” Adesh stated that he loved to have the harmonium and (Indian) drums to play at his Hindu gatherings. He felt ecstatic as he played those instruments but wished he could have played the sitar as well; he encountered a sense of spirituality as he played or listened to those instruments. Idi echoed that sentiment and explained that those instruments were a vital part of his culture and religion as he declared, “Yes, the harmonya, de drump and de music pan de religion aspec.” Dinesh was especially enthusiastic as he shared about the harmonium and dholak, “Me like dah baad but de only ting me kant play it. Dah dah if me play am, me gyam wan hole deh!” He wished he could play the dholak; if he could, he’d play it all day until it would not be able to take the constant play and would have to be repaired because of the ‘hole’ that would be formed from the constant playing.

Finding # 4: A majority of the Hindu participants felt that a measure of Hindi lyrics was important for them to appreciate their spiritual/cultural experience.

A majority of the Hindu participants (7 out of 11 [64%]) felt that a portion of

Hindi lyrics in the songs was important to situate them in a religious mode. Though most

Hindustani people do not speak Hindi, many have an affinity to the language. Deepak shared his thoughts about Hindi lyrics:

I do understand some Hindi, you know. If you watch television, you can see the meaning. I do understand Hindi a bit. Also, de culture - the language is very

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sweet, you know…It sweet - the sound in your ears, you know. You feel good when you hear it or when you sing it. Is part of de culture.

Though Deepak was not versed in the Hindi language, he explained that he was able to follow the storyline in movies shown on television because he grew up watching Hindi movies. Consequently, like many Hindustanis, he regarded Hindi as his ancestral “mother language.” To Deepak and others, Hindi is a sweet language, and without the presence of some Hindi lyrics, the Indian religious songs do not carry as much weight.

When I asked Saki about the importance of the Hindi lyrics, she immediately started to sing a bhajan in Hindi – with excellent pronunciation. She explained the benefits of knowing and using her “mother language” and her disappointment that

Christians do not appreciate the richness of the language and culture. However, other

Hindu participants did not feel so strongly about the use of Hindi lyrics. Indra, for example, conjectured that it was not necessary to have Hindi in a song even though she thinks it is a beautiful language. For her, the presence of the Indian music (using Indian musical instruments) was enough in helping her to get into the religious mood.

Finding #5: An overwhelming majority of Hindu participants indicated that they would be willing to attend a Christian gathering or place of worship if they knew the church would play Indian instruments or have other expressions of Indian music.

One of the surprising findings of the study is that an overwhelming majority of the Hindu participants (11 out of 12 [92%]) felt that they would consider attending a

Christian gathering or place of worship such as a church if the church would provide

Indian music and use instruments such as the harmonium and dholak. This is a surprise because many of the Hindus had denoted great pride and passion when they spoke of their religion. The Hindus were delighted to know that “their” type of music could be played in a church.

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Deepak has never attended a church. However, after seeing the videos of

Christians worshipping Jesus Christ in the Hindustani culture and with Hindustani music, he said that he would be willing to attend the Christian church if that type of worship were available in their services. Dinesh, who was reared as a Christian as a child but ventured back into his Hindu faith, expressed that he would be willing to attend a

Christian gathering again if he would be allowed to play his musical instruments to sing the Christian songs (including bhajans and geets). Saki, who had experienced hurt from the church because of comments about her bhajan-singing related that she would consider visiting a church again if Christians would permit bhajan-singing and play Indian musical instruments. Commenting on the Christian videos, she exclaimed,

Indian music is the best. All churches [religious groups] should have them - Hindu, Christian and Muslim. That's where it should be. Nice music. We all come from that. It was good to hear the Hindi words. The words were good. Its entertaining. It is good to listen to. Somebody can enjoy it when listening to it. It is not boring…It was lively and entertaining.

Saki was pleased to know that there were Christians who expressed their faith in the

Hindustani culture and music. She felt such a setting would make her feel at home to think about spiritual things and would give a listening ear to the goings-on in the church.

Badri, who considered himself a staunch Hindu and never ventured into a vicinity where Christians congregate, was willing to meet with Christians if the type of music he saw in the videos would be present in a church environment. He did not want to lose his culture; he was satisfied that the music he heard concurs with what is important to him culturally. Similarly, Deepak, who treasured Indian culture and music and decried the lack of Indian content in the church reacted with a significant statement, “… de music ketch you!” By that statement, Deepak indicated that the Indian music he witnessed in the videos was an irresistible force that would draw a Hindustani person to the church.

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Findings #6: Some of the Hindu participants felt that Christians expressed disrespect or hatred towards Hindustani culture.

Two of the Hindu participants (2 out 12 [17%]) experienced deep hurt from past experiences with the church. Padmini was comfortable speaking about Hindustani culture and music, but when the conversation broached music in the church, she clammed up immediately. Almost to the point of tears, she requested that I turn off the audio recording and then shared some of her bitter experiences with the church. She related that

Christians displayed scorn for the food she and her Hindu friends offered to them and made disparaging comments on their acts of kindness and generousity. She also narrated episodes about how Christians despised all Hindu festivals, mocked their Hindu culture and bad-mouthed their religion on television. This pain created a huge barrier for her to want to communicate with Christians.

Saki has had similar experiences. She related that though she was a Hindu, she used to visit a church in her community. Because they knew she was interested in the arts, they asked her to do a skit. During the skit, she sang a generic Hindi bhajan about

God (though not referring to Jesus). The church felt that such a song had no place in the church but in a Hindu temple and asked her to desist from repeating such an act. Saki felt that the church misunderstood the role language and culture could have in the community and became extremely hurt from this insensitivity. As a result, she decided not to visit any church service again.

Major Findings with Pastor Participants

Four findings emerged from interviews with pastors:

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1. Though a small number of pastors were keen regarding contextualization, a

considerable number of the ministers felt that the church has a known “Christian”

culture which should not be adulterated with Hindustani music or culture.

2. The pastors who experienced the use of Indian musical instruments in churches

were more likely to approve of their use.

3. The main concerns of pastors who were open to the use of Hindustani music were

(a) the need for translation of the Hindi lyrics, and (b) availability of musicians

who could play those instruments.

4. An overwhelming majority of pastors who disapproved of any form of Indian

music in the church changed their attitudes after seeing the videos.

Finding #1: Though a small number of pastors were keen regarding contextualization, a considerable number of the ministers felt that the church has a known “Christian” culture which should not be adulterated with Hindustani music or culture.

When I interviewed pastors on the topic of contextualization of music (before they saw the Christian videos), a variety of responses emerged regarding the role of

Hindustani music in the church. A considerable number of pastors (4 out of 11 [36%]) felt very passionately that there was absolutely no place for Hindustani music or any expression of Hindustani culture in the church. Almost half of the pastors (5 out of 11

[45%]) were open to the idea but some were hesitant for various reasons, and a small number (2 out 11 [18%]) felt strongly of the need to connect with the peoples of the country through their culture and music.

Pastor Morgan felt strongly that there is only one type of “Christian” culture and music in the church and those who attend the church should adhere and adapt only to those cultural expressions that are already present in the church. This is the way he put it:

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We don’t have all kinds of music in the church. Our music is geared to the worship of God in the church. It the kind of music that the Bible recommends. Spiritual songs – “hymns and the spiritual songs.” So, this is what has to happen: is that the people out there has [sic] to understand that there is a different culture when they come to the church. The church should not be adulterated with the music of world.

Morgan emphasized what some of the other pastors also mentioned – that the Bible speaks only of “hymns and spiritual songs” and therefore the church should only sing that genre of music. He explained that the (English and creole) songs in his church were

“hymns and spiritual songs” and he would not deviate from that. When I asked him if

Hindustani music has any role in the church, he responded firmly, “none whatsoever!”

He further elucidated, “The Hindus who are saved - when they come into the church, they understand that there is a difference [in the culture]. And even if the instruments are okay, they do not come with their instruments. They come with the understanding that there is a different culture – and they must adapt.” He insisted that the church should not engage with other types of “worldly” music but stick to that which is traditional.

Like Gordon, other pastors were adamant that there should be no vestige of

Hindustani culture in the church. The pastors who felt most passionately about the need to avoid Hindustani culture were of Hindustani background themselves. Girish, for example, declared:

The music in the church should reflect Christian culture, not the culture of the Hindus…[Hindustani music] does not have any place in the church. You see, the church is … separated from the world. And so the true Christian church does not include the culture of the world. They do not participate in the worldly music, such as chatney or any kind of such music. Yes, the Scripture teaches, “Come ye from among them and be separated.”

Girish wanted to be careful to make a distinction between the type of music in the church and what is found “in the world.” Gahan also stated that the church has its own type of

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“conservative music” and would not permit another genre of music even if they contained

Christian lyrics. He explained:

Bhajans and other Indian music do not have any impact on the church. It is like bringing in their Hindu culture. It [will] become like a [Hindu] temple - and this is dangerous (my emphasis). Let me tell you why…[That type of music] carries back people to their old tradition. It brings back memories to them – what they used to be… they coming out of that. So, you have to stay away from the appearance of evil. That is why we singing [sic] gospel hymns - like ‘How Great Thou Art”; we use all of the good hymns.

Girish did not want the Hindu converts in his (mixed) congregation to recall the type of music they enjoyed before they became Christians. He felt that music with Hindi lyrics or

Hindustani tunes will tempt the believers to return to their old ways of life and neglect their Christian faith.

Lachan, another pastor of Indian extraction was similarly vigilant as he resolutely expressed that he would never allow Hindustani music to be played in his church because of the likelihood of syncretism. He was passionate about this point as he explained the potential harm:

I believe it has a negative impact and effect when you play that Indian music. The cultural sounds, I believe, will have an effect on those who are weak in the faith in the church. It makes people think all religions are the same. People (Hindus) say, “all gods are the same.” Therefore, we will not entertain that idea.

This type of Hindu music will bring confusion to the minds of the people who are weak. They may not have too much of the Word of God in their lives. It takes a lot of work for them to be converted. I would not want them to swing back into that culture. Bringing back old music in the church might affect them - causing to go back to their old religion.

We sing and preach only in English. The Hindus, the Muslims and even the (new immigrant) Chinese – they all understand English. So, we keep things simple and straight forward and not bring confusion.

Lachan emphasized that he wanted the community to know that there was a distinct difference between the Christians and non-believers, and he did whatever was in his

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power to ensure that there was no unholy fusion. His way of maintaining this clarity was to conduct the music, preaching and other forms of communication only in the English language and Western/Caribbean culture.

Other pastors perceived the need for contextualization differently. Chand viewed the idea of contextualization positively but never did anything to promote the concept.

However, Madan, a local pastor who has had international exposure and travelled to India several times recognized the need to connect with Hindus culturally and bought a dholak

(Indian drum) to play in his church. He disclosed his utter disappointment and sadness at not having anyone who knows how to play the Indian instrument.

Faood is an educated Indian pastor coming from a Muslim background who feels passionately about the need for contextualization. He expressed his disappointment that there is virtually no contextualization practiced in Guyana. When I asked him about the role of Hindustani music in church, he described his displeasure of the church's perception of music and musical instruments:

The church that I am part of – there is zero place right now for that [type of contextualization] - because it has not happened. I don’t think it is right …in my view, music is neutral. But some folks have associated music with certain religions. I am a musician and believe that all musical instruments are neutral and can be used in the church.

Faood bemoaned the lack of contextualization on all fronts in the country. He felt that church leaders needed to recognize that the Christianity in Guyana is a Westernized expression of faith which needs to be changed. He lamented the situation:

I think that there is a great need for contextualization today – in terms of getting the gospel to these different groups that we have in our country. I don’t think we’ve done a good job in penetrating these groups. We only do things within our comfort zone. We have not gone into their [cultural] – their music and their language. I think that it is one of the reasons why pastors are not effective in evangelism as they could have been.

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Faood expressed the need for church leaders to be cognizant of those aspects of the

Hindustani culture which could be used by the church to express the Christian faith mainly for the purpose of evangelism.

Finding #2: The pastors who experienced the use of Indian musical instruments in churches were more likely to approve of their use.

All of the pastors who experienced the use of Indian instruments in a church approved of the idea of having such instruments in their churches. Pastors Greg, Girish, and Madan visited India and enjoyed listening to the harmonium and dholak, among other instruments played in the Indian churches. Greg and Girish had initially expressed opposition to contextualization of the music. However, as the interview progressed both pastors related how much they enjoyed the musical experience in India and softened towards its appropriation in the church in Guyana.

Gahan had expressed strong opposition to all forms of contextualization.

However, he eventually disclosed that he heard someone played the harmonium in a church in the U.S.A. That experience piqued his interest in the harmonium, and he indicated that he does not mind having the harmonium in his church - but not the dholak.

I queried him about this inconsistency and his approval of the harmonium. Here is a snippet of the conversation:

Gahan: I welcome the harmonium. I would not have a problem with that. It has a sweet sound.

Interviewer: It has a “sweet sound”?

Gahan: Yes. It has a sweet sound. Two men played it in this church. It was beautiful, and the people loved it! It connects you – it connects your soul.

Interviewer: What about the jhaal? Is that too “Hindu”? What about the dholak?

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Gahan: Yes, it is too “Hindu”. The harmonium is a serene and tranquil instrument. The drum could get you too excited. We do not encourage that “jump up ting” to satisfy de flesh. The harmonium is nice because he does not excite the body like the drum.

Gahan had a positive experience when he first heard the harmonium played in a church in America. He related the indisputable benefit of having the harmonium and claimed that “it connects your soul” but is wary of other Indian instruments such as the jhaal (tiny Indian brass cymbal) and the dholak (Indian drum).

Pastor Chand also enthusiastically supported the idea of having a harmonium in the church because he also experienced that instrument being played in a church in the

U.S.A. The only pastor who approved of the harmonium without seeing it played was

Faood (who had done some research on music and worship).

Finding #3: The main concerns of pastors who were open to the use of Hindustani music were (a) the need for translation of the Hindi lyrics, and (b) availability of musicians who could play those instruments.

Several of the pastors (5 out of 11 [45%]) had not considered contextualization of the Hindustani culture, but they were open to the idea. However, they had two major concerns: (a) the need for translation of the Hindi lyrics, and (b) availability of musicians who could play those instruments.

Pastor Chris wanted to know who will teach the songs and who will translate them. Pastor Jenny was quite open to having Indian music and instruments in her church but expressed concern for a simple, yet clear translation of the Hindi lyrics. Pastor Chand was also concerned that there would be no one to play the Indian instruments though he admitted that he did not try very hard to encourage his church members to learn to play such instruments. Pastor Rohit explained that he never thought of using Indian

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instruments to play in the church, but he was excited with the notion. However, like the pastors mentioned above, Rohit felt that it would be a challenge getting people to teach the music and play the instruments. These concerns expressed by these pastors reflect

Pastor Madan’s dilemma – where he bought a dholak but could not find anyone to play it in the church.

Finding #4: An overwhelming majority of pastors who disapproved of any form of Indian music in the church changed their attitudes after seeing the videos.

A majority of pastors (8 out of 11 [73%]) had expressed some form of opposition to the idea of any form of contextualization. However, after seeing videos of Christian

Indian music in the various genre (bhajans, geet, “Bollywood” and chatney), all of those pastors (except one) changed their negative attitudes and offered words of approval in varying degrees. Table 1 indicates the change in the attitude and tone of some of the pastors after seeing the videos.

The only pastor who was unmovable in his opposition to any form of contextualization was Pastor Lachan. He remained firm and declared, “I will never have that [type of music] in my church. That is dangerous.”

The pastors who had expressed approval of contextualization from the beginning were quite encouraged after seeing the videos. Faood expressed his encouragement: “This is wonderful. People will want to listen to your message when they hear their type of music.” Madan also affirmed, “Something like this will make a tremendous impact. The

Bollywood style is very relevant - it will make an impact!”

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Table 1: Pastors’ Attitudes Before and After Seeing Hindustani Christian Videos

PASTORS BEFORE SEEING VIDEOS AFTER SEEING VIDEOS

Girish “the true Christian church does “I don’t see anything wrong in the not … participate in the worldly type of instrument you use. music, such as chatney.” or any kind of such music. Yes, the I think that the Indian community Scripture teaches, “Come ye from would find it more acceptable.” among them and be separated.”

Morgan “[Hindus] understand that there is a “I don’t see anything wrong with it different culture when they come to [having Indian instruments in the the church. The church should not church] be adulterated with the music of world.” Greg “We sing only choruses and “The [Hindustani] music was very hymns.” “Bhajans are only for good. Very good. That is good if Hindus.” we have it in the church; we would not mind.” Chris “Only hymns and spiritual songs “That is something new for me. I are good to sing in the church. will be willing to give it a try.” Nothing else.” Jenny “There are problems [having “I think this [music] will really Indian instruments.] Who will play minister to them!” them? And who will translate them?” Gahan [That type of music] carries back “You can use the harmonium. It people to their old [religion]. So, has a sweet sound. It connects you; you have to stay away from the it connects your soul.” appearance of evil.”

Conclusion

This chapter presented six findings from the data derived from the Hindu participants and four findings from the data originating from the pastor participants. All the Hindu participants were passionate about or had a great affinity with Indian music.

Bhajans were very important to all the Hindu participants and were a significant musical expression when they contemplated about devotion to God. Indian instruments

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(especially the harmonium and the dholak) were essential to all the participants when meeting with others to express worship to God.

A majority of the Hindu participants felt that a measure of Hindi lyrics was important to demonstrate an appreciation for their spiritual/cultural experience. Nearly all of the Hindu participants indicated that they would be willing to attend a Christian gathering or place of worship if they knew the church would play Indian instruments or have other expressions of Indian music. Some of the Hindu participants felt that

Christians expressed disrespect or hatred towards Hindustani culture.

The findings also indicated that though a small number of pastors was supportive of the contextualization notion, a considerable number felt that the church has a known

“Christian” culture which should not be adulterated with Hindustani music or culture as this could lead to syncretism or it could be harmful to the spiritual lives of Christians of

Hindu religious background. The pastors who had experienced the use of Indian musical instruments in churches were more likely to approve of their use. The main concerns of pastors who were open to the use of Hindustani music were (a) the need for translation of the Hindi lyrics, and (b) availability of musicians who could play those instruments. An overwhelming majority of pastors who disapproved of any form of Indian music in the church changed their attitudes after seeing the videos, and those who spoke in favour of contextualization from the beginning seemed encouraged and affirmed after viewing the videos. It appears, therefore, that education about music could play a significant role in informing pastors to appropriate music to reach Hindus and others with the gospel.

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CHAPTER 5:

PRACTICAL PROJECT FOR MINISTRY

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to explore with 12 Hindus and 12 pastors their perceptions of music in the church. I anticipated that a better understanding of the

Hindus’ perception of Indian music would help pastors and missionaries to consider the

Hindustani music and culture in their quest to reach the Hindus with the gospel.

This chapter describes the practical project I have designed for my ministry that addresses the research question: How might the use of Indian music as an expression of

Hindu culture serve as a bridge between Christians and Hindus to spread the gospel among Hindus and enrich the worship experience of Hindustani Christians in Guyana?

The design of the project is premised on the findings of the study described in Chapter 4.

My Ministry and Responsibilities

My wife and I (former Hindus) work as full-time missionaries. One of my responsibilities is to encourage and guide pastors in their areas of need.

I developed an excellent rapport with one of the pastors with whom I had an in- depth interview in discussing the phenomenon of music in the church. I spent considerable time with Pastor Rohit after the interview. He was fascinated by my emphasis on the missional church and my passion and calling to see Hindus and others come to Christ. He was quite enthusiastic about the contextualization ideas and expressed that he would like to see his church become more creative in reaching not only Hindus

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but Muslims and others with the gospel. His main hesitation was the perceived lack of musicians who could play the Indian instruments. He requested assistance to get him started on this new paradigm to reach out to the Hindus. I have therefore designed a project to work with Rohit in his quest to reach the Hindus in his community.

Design of Project

It is necessary to consider the individual background and circumstances of the project in order to apply the design. The following describes Pastor Rohit and the context of his work:

• He is an Indian pastor in his 50’s, of Hindustani background.

• His church is located in a predominantly Indian village, and his church has a

mixed congregation of Indian and African members.

• Most of the music played in his church is reggae – a musical genre that originates

with African-Caribbeans and identified as creole.

• On special occasions such as funerals or birthday parties, his church members

may sing a Hindi bhajan but never in a regular service.

• Before I spoke with Rohit, he had never thought seriously about the missional

church and how the contextualization of music could be effective in reaching

Hindus with the gospel.

• He is not against the use of Indian instruments in the church; he simply never

considered the idea before.

• He pointed out that even if his church avails a harmonium or dholak, there may

not be anyone in the church to play these instruments.

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• Once a year he has a “cultural day” whereby members are encouraged to wear

their ethnic clothing.

• After seeing the videos, he was excited about the prospects of having those types

of music in the church. He felt that that genre of music could be very effective in

evangelism to the Hindus.

Fundamentally, Rohit is supportive of the concept of contextualization of the gospel, but he never thought of the concept seriously enough to put it into practice. Since he indicated that he would like to learn more and implement some of the ideas we discussed and what he observed from the videos, I would like to work with him to accomplish his desires to reach Hindus with the gospel with their cultural music.

Specifically, I would like to design a program with Rohit so that the music in his church could reflect the Hindustani culture and Hindus could feel comfortable in his church setting.

Working with Rohit will take time so that he can be convinced that the path to contextualization has a firm biblical and theological foundation. This process may take several weeks or months to accomplish.

Steps to Implement Hindustani Music in Rohit’s Church

I shall utilize the research in the biblical and theological foundations of the study as well as the findings of the survey and use these as a guide in implementing Hindustani music in Rohit’s church.

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Biblical Foundation for Contextualization

I shall point out to Rohit that there are solid biblical foundations – both in the Old and New Testaments – for contextualization. I may call attention to the following:

• God's covenant with Abraham had similarities to the Hittite covenants.

• The hymns used by David (the Psalms) were similar to Canaanite songs.

• The musical instruments used by David and other musicians were the same as

those used by the surrounding pagan societies.

• Jesus was the quintessence of contextualization by the way he dealt with

individuals and groups.

• Paul was sensitive to the audiences in the way he communicated with them.

• Acts 15, Acts 17:16-34 and 1 Cor 9:19-23 are significant passages that underscore

the importance of contextualization of the gospel.

Theological Foundations for Contextualization

I shall also discuss with Rohit some fundamental truths about the theological foundations for contextualization:

• Newbigin, Wright, and Stetzer have been emphasizing the importance of the

missional church.

• Newbigin took time to understand and appreciate the language, culture, and music

of the Indian people he worked with even though these were all foreign to him.

• Musical styles in the church have changed through the ages.

• Quoting Ed Stetzer, “there is no such thing as Christian music, only Christian

lyrics.”

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• Quoting Rick Warren, “You must match your music to the kind of people God

wants your church to reach.” Hindustanis may need to receive the Water of Life

in an “Indian cup.”

• Revitalization of an African church when they learned that they could use their

native musical instruments.

• Churches in many parts of the world use Indian instruments.

In addition, I shall also remind Rohit that Christians throughout history (such as Martin

Luther) have used the secular genre of music to express worship of Christ.

Important Information about Hindus in Guyana

I shall mention to Rohit the findings of the survey with Hindus. These include:

• All the Hindu participants were passionate about or had a great affinity with

Indian music.

• Bhajans were very important to all the Hindu participants and were a significant

musical expression when they contemplated about devotion to God.

• Indian instruments (especially the harmonium and the dholak) were essential to

all the participants when meeting with others to express worship to God.

• A majority of the Hindu participants felt that a measure of Hindi lyrics was

important to appreciate their spiritual/cultural experience.

• An overwhelming majority of Hindu participants indicated that they would be

willing to attend a Christian gathering or place of worship if they knew the church

would play Indian instruments or have other expressions of Indian music.

• Some of the Hindu participants felt that Christians expressed disrespect or hatred

towards Hindus and Hindustani culture.

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Addressing Practical Concerns

Rohit cited an important issue about the possibility of having Indian instruments in the church. He pointed a problem which Madan also mentioned – the difficulty in getting Christians to play the Indian instruments.

I feel that if Christians are encouraged in this direction, then they would learn to play these instruments. I would suggest to Rohit to study seriously 1 Cor 9:19-22, where the Apostle Paul was willing to go to any depth so as to win others for Christ. Therefore, it might be necessary for Christians to take time and resources to invest in this medium and learn the instruments so as to meet this need.

Another practical problem that Guyanese pastors would encounter if they wish to include Hindustani songs in the church is how to obtain and learn these songs. This is not an unsurmountable problem because many of the simple Christian bhajans are available on the internet. The bhajan and other Christian Hindustani music are often presented with the lyrics in both Hindi and Romanized English, as well as the meanings of the songs. I also have printed simple bhajans in booklets which pastors could use.

Assuring and Encouraging Pastor Rohit

Like many pastors around the world, pastors in Guyana are hesitant about implementing contextualization because of fears of syncretism. I shall point out examples of churches where local music was implemented in the church and difference it made in evangelism and worship in these churches.

I shall show Rohit other videos of Christians using musical instruments or singing

Hindustani songs in and out of the church. Judging from the findings with the use of

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videos, I feel that his approach would be a tremendous encouragement to him as he contemplates contextualization of music in his church.

I shall pray with and for Rohit, and support him as treads new waters in his quest to share the Good News with the Hindus in his village and country.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which contextualization of Indian music might be necessary for the church in Guyana to spread the gospel among

Hindus.

In this chapter, I designed a project to work with Pastor Rohit in response to his burning desire to learn to reach out to Hindus in new ways. I have reminded him that there are solid biblical and theological foundations for contextualization as he attempts to use Hindustani music in ministering to Hindus. I have also suggested some practical steps he could adopt to accomplish the objective of using Indian musical instruments and singing Hindustani songs in his church.

The next chapter gives a chapter-by-chapter summary and suggestions for future research.

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CONCLUSION

Summary of Chapters

This chapter gives a summary of each chapter of the study and links the parts of the paper as an integrated unit. Included in this chapter are the suggestions for future research.

Introductory Chapter

The introductory chapter establishes the purpose and context of the study. The context is described by depicting the social, cultural and religious setting of the

Hindustani people in Guyana. The chapter also contains the problem statement, the statement of purpose and research question, an overview of the methodology, the rationale and significance, role and background of the researcher of the study, and organization of the thesis.

The purpose of the study was to explore the extent which Indian music might serve as a bridge between Hindus and Christians for the church in Guyana to spread the gospel among the Hindustani people and enrich their worship experience. I explored this phenomenon of music with a sample of 12 Hindus and 12 pastors in Guyana by using qualitative research techniques.

I stated that though the Hindustani people comprise almost 40% of the population of Guyana (the largest ethnic group in the country), there is hardly any Hindustani music being played in a regular service in the church. I also underscored that the Hindustani music seems to be the glue that holds the Indian people together and that they use music

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as one method of asserting their culture and well-being in an atmosphere of racial tension.

There was a period of approximately 50 years when missionaries from several denominations reached out to the Hindustani people by communicating to them in the

Hindi language and used Indian music in their ministry. The music that they used was derived from India and were translated hymns from the West. The lyrics were in Hindi, but sometimes they were transliterated and translated. During this period the church saw an increase in conversions. It is not clear why the missionaries discontinued the use of

Indian music in the churches.

The Hindus continue to use the various genre of Hindustani music in their religious functions as well as in social occasions such as weddings, funerals, and celebrating festivals. They watch Indian movies and relish in the Indian culture. They also don Indian clothing for their special occasions and have become more culture conscious over the last few decades with the advent of television.

The church in Guyana faces a dilemma because the Hindus whom they wish to reach might find it difficult to consider the Christian faith since the culture of the church is largely creole. To shed light on the problem, the study addresses the research question:

How might the use of Indian music as an expression of Hindu culture serve as a bridge between Christians and Hindus to spread the gospel among Hindus and enrich the worship experience of Hindustani Christians in Guyana? I investigated this problem by conducting in-depth interviews with the participants (mentioned above) and recorded a rich description of the participants’ perceptions of the problem. These conversations were

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audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. I then colour-coded significant words or terms to eventually identify patterns and themes of the study.

The rationale for this study arises from my desire to see Hindus come to faith without any unnecessary burdens (Acts 15:10). It appears as if the music in the church could be a barrier that prevents Hindus from coming to faith in Christ.

This contextualization study evolved from my personal experience. I was born in a Hindu family in Guyana. Because of ethnic and cultural conflicts, I felt the need to become a prominent Hindu priest or leader. But God had other plans and saved my soul at the age of 13 through the witness of Indian Christians in the village where I lived.

Though I experienced God’s peace and joy, I found it extremely difficult to live the

Christian life because all components of my culture were stripped away from me after I started to attend the church. The Indian music was a significant loss because it was my heart music. Unfortunately, my church leaders felt that Christians needed to embrace

Western and creole culture, and the music in the church reflected that culture.

After encountering a Hindustani genre of Christian worship in South Asia in 1983, I became inspired and passionate about wanting to encourage Christians everywhere to be missional and to contextualize the gospel with whom they work.

Chapter 1: Biblical Foundations for the Contextualization of the Gospel

Chapter 1 makes a case for the biblical foundations for the contextualization of the gospel. I set out to argue that the Bible, though inspired by God, was written by humans who had a hand in determining how the contents of God’s Word was recorded.

There is evidence for contextualization in virtually every book in the Bible.

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In the Old Testament, the creation and flood stories were similar to the Ancient

Near East stories. God’s covenant with Abraham was similar to covenants present in the

Hittite society. There are also remarkable similarities between the Psalms and Babylonian literature. Also, all the musical instruments mentioned in the Psalms were also found in the pagan societies.

Like the Old Testament, the New Testament contains much evidence for contextualization. The writers in the NT chronicled their writings in diverse genre to reflect their backgrounds as well as the context of their settings. The Lord Jesus Christ was the quintessence of contextualization in the way in dealt with individuals and groups.

The Apostle Paul was also a master contextualizer. Like Jesus, he was sensitive to the groups he met and communicated with them according to their backgrounds and culture.

Though Paul emphasized that there is only one gospel message for all humankind, the apostle was willing to do whatever it takes to present this differently to reach the world with the Good News. He was passionate about seeing people come to Christ and was willing to sacrifice everything that was sacred to him personally so that he could win them for Christ (1 Cor 9:19-23).

The evidence of contextualization started and ended in the Bible. At the time of creation, God made humankind in his image. This imago Dei is significant as it reflects

God’s love for humankind as he ultimately came down to earth as a human so that humankind could relate to him. At the time of the apocalypse, contextualization is also evidenced as there will be a chorus of voices from “every nation, tribe, people and language” to give praise and glory to his name (Rev 7:9).

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Chapter 2: The Theological Foundations for Contextualization of Music.

Chapter 2 makes a case for the theological foundations for contextualization of music. I indicated that theologians and missiologists essentially birthed the conversation on contextualization in the 1970s - which arose out of the need to address concerns on the manner in which missionaries from the West were sharing the gospel in foreign countries.

Today the topic of contextualization has moved beyond the discussions of missiologists and scholars to include pastors, parachurch organizations, and community leaders who have recognized the need to be sensitive to people's culture with whom they work.

David Bosch and Lesslie Newbigin were among the prominent theologians who propelled the missional conversation into the limelight as they emphasized the missional principle as the premise for contextualization. The Taiwanese theologian I-to Loh held that contextualization principles were vital “to fully develop our skills and art forms, using them to express our Christian faith and to participate in God’s continuing creation.”

Steven Bevans rightly pointed out, "Doing theology contextually is not an option…,” as it is essential that whomever is sharing the Good News should do so with the particular context in mind.

Newbigin spent many hours to learn the language, the culture, and music of the people with whom he worked so that he could minister to them in their culture. Richard

Mouw also emphasized the need to be with the people so that he could sense what moved the people he cared for musically and culturally. Rick Warren underscored the importance of “appropriate music” if evangelism is a priority for the church. It is essential to utilize local music and culture otherwise it could lead to a situation as in

Africa where folks thought only Western musical instruments such as the piano were

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ideal for praising God, and not their own type. Similarly, after learning that he could worship God in the Thai culture, one Thai student declared that he did not know that he could be Thai and Christian; he had thought that to be an ideal Christian, he had to adopt

Western culture.

Music is extremely important to Hindus. They especially appreciate the bhajan and other Hindustani musical genre when they contemplate devotion to God. Indians are thirsty spiritually but though they desire this spiritual water, they find it difficult to drink it because of the receptacle that holds the desired contents. The manner in which the gospel was packaged for Hindus made it difficult for them to accept its message. If the gospel is presented with an Indian appearance, it becomes more palatable and inviting.

Therefore, those who contemplate sharing the Good News with Hindus might need to present the contents of the message so in an Indian “cup.”

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Chapter 3 describes the research methodology of the study and includes: (a) rationale for the research approach, (b) the research sample, (c) a summary of the information needed, (d) an overview of the research design, (e) methods of data collection, (f) analysis and synthesis of the data, (g) ethical considerations, (h) trustworthiness, and (i) limitations of the study.

Qualitative research is the preferred approach for DMin projects. This approach allows the researcher to personally investigate a lived-in situation through in-depth interviews. The qualitative approach is ideal for this study as it allows for the researcher to undertake research from an inductive perspective. The researcher can have a good

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sense of the participants' feelings, fears, excitement, emotions and they are able to clarify doubts or confusions. A rich description of the participants and the context is possible to assist in analyzing the data.

One can have a good sense of the participants' attitudes, motives, feelings, fears and other emotions as the investigator probes into the question of music in the church in

Guyana. By interacting directly with the participants, the researcher is able to chronicle a rich description of the participants and the context of the studied settings. This research approach allowed me (the investigator) to enter into the world of the Hindus and the pastors to have a sound understanding of their perceptions of the phenomenon.

I interviewed a sample of 12 Hindus and 12 pastors using various questions to decipher how they felt towards the phenomenon of music in the church in Guyana. I audio-recorded and transcribed the conversations and included a rich description of the interviews by use of memos.

I colour-coded the data and put them into groups. This activity continued several times until the codes were grouped into patterns which were finally categorized into themes.

I gave high priority to the ethical considerations of the study and ensured the privacy of the participants and assured them that I was going to store the data on a secure, password-required computer. I also regarded the trustworthiness of the study so I asked a colleague to check a sample of my analysis and findings and he agreed with my analysis.

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Chapter 4: Findings of the Study

Chapter 4 describes the findings of the study. The following are some of the major findings with the Hindu participants:

All the Hindu participants were passionate about or had a great affinity with

Indian music. Bhajans were very important to all the Hindu participants and were a significant musical expression when they contemplated about devotion to God.

Indian instruments (especially the harmonium and the dholak) were essential to all the participants when meeting with others to express worship to God. An overwhelming majority of Hindu participants indicated that they would be willing to attend a Christian gathering or place of worship if they knew the church would play Indian instruments or have other expressions of Indian music.

The following are the findings of the pastor participants:

Though a small number of pastors was keen on contextualization, a considerable number of the ministers felt that the church has a known “Christian” culture which should not be adulterated with Hindustani music or culture. The pastors who experienced the use of Indian musical instruments in churches were more likely to approve of their use.

The main concerns of pastors who were open to the use of Hindustani music were (a) the need for translation of the Hindi lyrics, and (b) availability of musicians who could play those instruments. The vast majority of pastors who disapproved of any form of Indian music in the church changed their attitudes after seeing the videos. It appears that if pastors see or experience that Jesus Christ could be worshipped with various types of musical instruments or a different genre of music, then this medium could help pave the way to build bridges between the Hindustani people and those of the Christian faith.

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Chapter 5: Practical Project for Ministry

Chapter 5 describes the practical project for my ministry.

One of my responsibilities in my present occupation is to encourage and guide pastors into their calling. I established an excellent rapport with one of the pastor participants who was excited about our conversation regarding contextualization.

Pastor Rohit is of Hindustani extraction, and though approximately half of his congregation and most of the villagers are Indians, he has never considered using Indian instruments in a regular church service. He was excited to learn about contextualization principles and requested assistance to take practical steps to make changes in his church to make Hindus feel more with his congregation. I designed a plan to assist him to use

Indian instruments and sing Indian music in his church.

I shall discuss with him my findings regarding Hindus’ views of music and their perception of the church music. I will also attempt to allay his fears about syncretism and point out solid biblical and theological foundations for the principles of contextualization.

I outlined a plan to give some practical suggestions on how to overcome difficulties in accessing Christians who can play the Indian instruments and to be able to sing Christian songs with Hindi lyrics.

This project could be a watershed in the church in Guyana. I plan to encourage

Rohit as he traverses this new contextual road and shall assist him where possible. We praise God for his desire to be open to new ideas and the Holy Spirit in reaching the

Hindustani people with the gospel.

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Suggestions for Future Research

The suggestions for future research in this area of study arise from the limitations and findings of the study.

Though qualitative research scholars suggest a sample size of 3-10 is sufficient for this type of phenomenological approach, I interviewed 12 Hindus and 12 pastors so as to give greater creditability to the trustworthiness of the study. However, one needs a much larger sample size to make the sample more representative of the population that is studied. A larger sample size broadens the range of data and allows for a more accurate picture for analysis. The larger sample size not only gives greater credibility to the study; it allows for generalizability to situations in similar settings.

The trustworthiness is an important aspect of research, as the concern is the validity of communication. It would have been helpful to obtain data from other sources rather than relying only on in-depth interviews. Triangulation allows the researcher to have different perspectives and increase the level of knowledge on the phenomenon of music for the study. Such an approach would help the researcher to have a truer picture of the phenomenon and thereby strengthen the trustworthiness of the study.

In the Findings chapter, it might be more expedient to translate the patwa dialect that was quoted in the interviews. I wanted to give a rich description of the participants and felt that it was essential to quote the participants verbatim. Though many readers might be able to garner the gist of what the participants uttered, the patwa might not make any sense to other readers. It would be helpful to quote the patwa verbatim and also include a translation of what was articulated.

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In the findings with the pastors, a considerable number of them (4 out of 11

[36%]) felt strongly that there was only one “Christian” culture in the church which the

Hindustani people need to acknowledge and adapt to if they desired to join the Christian faith. It would be helpful to have a deep, heart-to-heart discussion on 1 Cor 9:19-23, and hear how they feel about St. Paul’s passion for souls in that passage.

Another finding with the pastors indicated that there was a remarkable change in the pastors’ perception when they saw the videos of evangelical Christians playing a variety of Indian music to praise and glorify God. It might be helpful to take time to show other videos which contain testimonies of pastors in several parts of the world where they used the local music and the results they experience in the areas of evangelism and worship.

In summary, I suggest the following for future research:

1. Conduct the research with a larger sample size of at least 20 persons in each

group.

2. Allow for triangulation in the research design.

3. Translate words which are colloquial or terms which are foreign to the reader of

standard English.

4. Have an in-depth discussion with pastors regarding Paul’s passion to see peoples

of various cultures come to faith in Christ by chatting about the contextualization

in 1 Cor 9:19-23.

5. Show videos to pastors that contain testimonies of other pastors or missionaries

who have used local music.

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My Passion to Share Good News with Hindus

(The following Scripture passage has been a special source of strength and inspiration that cajoles me to share the Good News with Hindus and others in their culture and heart music).

Even though I am free of the demands and expectations of everyone, I have voluntarily become a servant to any and all in order to reach a wide range of people: religious, nonreligious, meticulous moralists, loose-living immoralists, the defeated, the demoralized—whoever. I didn’t take on their way of life. I kept my bearings in Christ—but I entered their world and tried to experience things from their point of view (my emphasis). I’ve become just about every sort of servant there is in my attempts to lead those I meet into a God-saved life. I did all this because of the Message. I didn’t just want to talk about it; I wanted to be in on it!492

492 Taken from 1 Cor 9:19-23 (The Message version).

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Appendix 1

Genesis Flood Account in View of Ancient Near East Literature

The flood accounts of the biblical text and ANE literature have remarkable similarities, such as those found in The Gilgamesh Epic, the Eridu Genesis, and the

Atrahasis Epic, which have its sources from Babylonian mythology. The Gilgamesh

Epic, circulated around 2500 B.C., is one of the most studied pieces of Mesopotamian literature.493 I agree with Jewish theologian, Samuel Shaviv, that Mesopotamian flood stories influenced the Bible flood narrative.494 Below is a list of similarities among these

Epics as they relate to the flood episodes:

1. Enlil distraught about the "noise" of humankind. 2. Decision made in the divine assembly to send a flood to destroy humanity. 3. Human king (Ziusudra/Atrabasis/Utnapishtim) warned by Enki/Ea by overhearing the discussion of the assembly. 4. Ea gives the king a plan for a boat. 5. People of the king’s city are told that he has to leave because the gods are angry with him. 6. Relatives, skilled workers, animals, and birds all taken on board. 7. Boat has seven stories (either cubical or ziggurat shaped) and is coated with pitch. 8. Storm comes and lasts for seven days and seven nights. 9. Gods lament the great loss of humankind (for their source of provision was gone). 10. Boat lands on Mount Nisir. 11. Dove and swallow sent out, but both return. Raven sent, does not return. 12. Disembark from boat and offer sacrifices. 13. Famished gods gather around the sacrifice “like flies.” 14. Enlil finds out that some mortals escaped. 15. Complaint of the gods against Enlil for such a devastating form of punishment. 16. King is granted immortality.495

493 Tremper Longman III, How to Read Genesis, 22. 494 Samuel Shaviv, “The Polytheistic Origins of the Biblical Flood Narrative,” Vetus Testamentum 54, no. 4 (2004): 528, doi:10.1163/1568533042650831. 495 John Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context, 31.

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In that list, if one substitutes the names of the pagan gods with “God,” the Bible reader could become more aware of the similarities between the flood accounts in the Epics and that of Genesis account.

The Atrahasis epic is of fastidious interest to Bible scholars because of its close parallel with the biblical flood account. Tikva Frymer-Kensky, former Assistant

Professor of Near Eastern Studies at Wayne State University points out that in both the

Genesis and Atrahasis accounts, the flood happened because of a serious problem (sin) in creation; however, the problem was “solved” after the flood.496 Daniel C. Harlow, feels that the Genesis account is a retelling of the Mesopotamian myths.497 Harlow compiled a list of striking similarities between the Mesopotamian myth (mainly the Atrahasis) and the Genesis account where there are similar stories relating to creation, population growth and rebellion, flood and a “new” beginning after the flood.498 Though the Professor highlights the similarities of creation accounts, he also indicates that the Genesis account alludes to God’s sovereignty, holiness and justice as opposed to the “capricious” motives of the Mesopotamian deities.499 The Genesis and other OT texts have been written to sanitize the false ideas that people had about God and his relationship with his people, as demonstrated in the creation and flood episodes.500

496 Tikva Frymer-Kensky, Tikva. "The Atrahasis Epic and Its Significance for Our Understanding of Genesis 1-9." The Biblical Archaeologist 40, no. 4 (1977): 147. doi:10.2307/3209529. 497 Harlow, Daniel C. "After Adam: Reading Genesis in an Age of Evolutionary Science." Perspectives on Science & Christian Faith 62, no. 3 (2010), 182. 498 Ibid., 182-191. 499 Ibid., 183-184. 500 Jeremiah Unterman, Justice for All, 14; John H. Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One, 123.

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Appendix 2

The “Unknown God” in Acts 17:23

There were several accounts of altars to the unknown gods in Athens and the references to these gods were always given in the plural.501 Though no evidence has been uncovered for an inscription to a single god in Athens,502 altars to unknown gods have been discovered in nearby cities – as was the case in Demeter’s temple in Pergamum, as well as in Rome on the Palatine.503

According to a local legend, Athenians had suffered from a series of plagues in the sixth century B.C.E. and they made sacrifices to the various deities but the plagues continued.504 Consequently, they summoned a reputed “prophet,” Epimenides of Crete, to solve the problem. He proposed that black and white sheep be allowed to graze on the

Areopagus. Wherever the sheep rested, sacrifices were offered at those spots in deference to the unknown gods. The Athenians highly regarded these unknown gods and perceived them as “awesome.”

There might have been other reasons for setting up such altars. As F.F. Bruce observes, “When a derelict altar was repaired and the original dedication could not be ascertained, the inscription ‘To the (an) unknown god’ would have been quite appropriate.”505 In addition, the Athenians might have erected altars to unknown gods because of the fear factor, as they might have not wanted to incur the wrath of an

501 Craig S. Keener, Acts: An Exegetical Commentary: Volume 3: 15:1-23:35 (Baker Academic, 2014), 2629. 502 Luke Timothy Johnson, Sacra Pagina: The Acts of the Apostles (Collegeville, Minn: Michael Glazier, 2006), 315. 503 Craig S. Keener, Acts, 2631. 504 The details of the legend in this paragraph are taken from Craig S. Keener, Acts, 2631. 505 F. F. Bruce, The Book of the Acts, Revised ed. edition (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1988), 335-336.

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unknown god.506 Eventually, there was a great proliferation of altars to the “unknown god” during the time of Paul – which also caused Apollonius of Tyana to be aghast at the degree of devotion given to the “unknown god.”507 However, Paul might have observed several such altars and could have chosen to address the concept of setting up altars to an unknown god rather than speaking specifically about one particular altar which was dedicated to an unknown god.

Tertullian (in the 3rd century) claimed that Paul deliberately used the singular to describe the “unknown god(s)” instead of the plural even though the plurality of the concept was widely known.508 About a century later, Didymus of Alexandria and Jerome repeated Tertullian’s claim – that Paul spoke of the unknown deity in the singular to coincide with his theology.509 The transition of speaking of deities from the singular to the plural and vice versa was an acceptable notion at that time among philosophers – especially among the Stoics.510

Paul utilized the opportunity to speak on their religious relic (the “unknown god”) to bring the truths of God to his listeners at the Council of the Areopagus. The apostle was essentially “making the unknown God, the God of the Scriptures, known to his audience.”511

506 Dean Flemming, "Contextualizing the Gospel,” 202. 507 J. Daryl Charles, "Engaging the (neo) pagan mind: Paul’s encounter with Athenian culture as a model for cultural apologetics (Acts 17-16-34)." Trinity Journal 16, no. 1 (1995): 51. 508 Ibid., 56. 509 F. F. Bruce, The Book of the Acts, 335. 510 Eckhard J. Schnabel, "Contextualising Paul,” 179. 511 Dean Flemming, "Contextualizing the Gospel,” 203.

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Appendix 3

LETTER OF INVITATION TO PERSONS OF THE HINDU FAITH Dear friend, I will be the principal investigator undertaking a research project entitled: Contextualization of Christian Faith in Guyana: Using Indian Music as an expression of Hindu Culture in Mission. This project will be completed under the supervision of Dr. Stephen McMullin so that I may fulfill the requirements of the doctoral program at the Acadia Divinity College at Acadia University. I would be grateful for your cooperation in making this research project possible. I am requesting that you contact three of your Hindu friends and inform them about this research so that they will contact one Hindu friend who is familiar with music in the Christian church and who will be willing to participate in the study. Please request the participant to contact the investigator at 270-4531. The participant will be asked to watch four videos (approximately 6 minutes for each video). An interview shall be conducted before and after the videos are viewed. The participant will be requested to answer questions concerning the music in the videos. The total time for the two interviews would be approximately 1 hour. The interviews will be audio recorded. Participation in this research is entirely voluntary and participants are free to refuse to answer any question at any time. Furthermore, participants are free to withdraw their involvement in this research within two weeks of the interview date. Confidentiality will be respected. Only my supervisor and I will have access to any data collected. All audio recordings and documents will be stored on a password-protected personal computer and thumb drive until the data are transcribed, after which recordings will be destroyed (approximately one year after the interviews). Please note that the results of the study (thesis) will be accessible through the university’s library digital collections, as well as in the archives of Canada. Excerpts from this interview may be included in the final report, but under no circumstances will any identifying characteristics be included in the report. Although there are no known harms associated with this research, participants’ consent to participate does not waive any right they have to legal recourse in the event of research- related harm. Subjects will not benefit directly from participation in this research. Your cooperation is very important. Should you wish to request any further information please feel free to contact me either by e-mail ([email protected]) or by telephone (592) 270-4531. This research has been reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Board at Acadia University. If there are any questions regarding ethical issues, please contact Dr. Stephen Maitzen ([email protected]), Chair of the Research Ethics Board.

Yours truly,

Devanand Bhagwan (Investigator)

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Appendix 4

LETTER OF INVITATION TO PERSONS OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH

Dear friend, I will be the principal investigator undertaking a research project entitled: Contextualization of Christian Faith in Guyana: Using Indian Music as an expression of Hindu Culture in Mission. This project will be completed under the supervision of Dr. Stephen McMullin so that I may fulfill the requirements of the doctoral program at the Acadia Divinity College at Acadia University. I would be grateful for your cooperation in making this research project possible. I am requesting that you contact three of your Christian friends and inform them about this research so that they will contact one pastor who will be willing to participate in the study. Please request the participant to contact the investigator at 270-4531. The participant will be asked to watch four videos (approximately 6 minutes for each video). An interview shall be conducted before and after the videos are viewed. The participant will be requested to answer questions concerning the music in the videos. The total time for the two interviews would be approximately 1 hour. The interviews will be audio recorded. Participation in this research is entirely voluntary and participants are free to refuse to answer any question at any time. Furthermore, participants are free to withdraw their involvement in this research within two weeks of the interview date. Confidentiality will be respected. Only my supervisor and I will have access to any data collected. All audio recordings and documents will be stored on a password-protected personal computer and thumb drive until the data are transcribed, after which recordings will be destroyed (approximately one year after the interviews). Please note that the results of the study (thesis) will be accessible through the university’s library digital collections, as well as in the archives of Canada. Excerpts from this interview may be included in the final report, but under no circumstances will any identifying characteristics be included in the report. Although there are no known harms associated with this research, participants’ consent to participate does not waive any right they have to legal recourse in the event of research- related harm. Subjects will not benefit directly from participation in this research. Your cooperation is very important. Should you wish to request any further information please feel free to contact me either by e-mail ([email protected]) or by telephone (592) 270-4531. This research has been reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Board at Acadia University. If there are any questions regarding ethical issues, please contact Dr. Stephen Maitzen ([email protected]), Chair of the Research Ethics Board.

Yours truly,

Devanand Bhagwan (Investigator)

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Appendix 5

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

Thank you for expressing an interest in participating in this research study. My name is Devanand Bhagwan and I will be the principal investigator undertaking a research project entitled: Contextualization of Christian Faith in Guyana: Using Indian Music as an expression of Hindu Culture in Mission. This project will be completed under the supervision of Dr. Stephen McMullin so that I may fulfill the requirements of the doctoral program at the Acadia Divinity College at Acadia University. As a participant, you will be asked to watch four videos (approximately 6 minutes for each video). An interview shall be conducted before and after the videos are viewed. You will be requested to answer questions concerning the music in the videos. The total time for the whole process (including the two interviews) would be approximately 1 hour. The interviews will be audio recorded. Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary and you are free to refuse to answer any question at any time. Furthermore, you are free to withdraw your participation in this research within two weeks of the interview date. Confidentiality will be respected. Only my supervisor and I will have access to any data collected. All audio recordings and documents will be stored on a password-protected personal computer and thumb drive until the data are transcribed, after which recordings will be destroyed (approximately one year after the interviews). Please note that the results of the study (thesis) will be accessible through the university’s library digital collections, as well as in the archives of Canada. Excerpts from this interview may be included in the final report, but under no circumstances will any identifying characteristics be included in the report. Although there are no known harms associated with this research, your consent to participate does not waive any right you have to legal recourse in the event of research- related harm. You will not benefit directly from participation in this research. Your participation is very important. Should you wish to request any further information please feel free to contact me either by e-mail ([email protected]) or by telephone (592) 270-4531. This research has been reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Board at Acadia University. If there are any questions regarding ethical issues, please contact Dr. Stephen Maitzen ([email protected]), Chair of the Research Ethics Board. I would be grateful if you would sign this form to acknowledge that you understand the contents and that you provide your consent to participate in this research study.

Name of Participant (please print): ______

Participant’s Signature: ______Date Signed: ______Researcher’s Signature: ______Date Signed: ______

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Appendix 6

QUESTIONS ASKED OF HINDUS BEFORE AND AFTER SEEING VIDEOS

The following questions were asked of the participants who subscribe to the Hindu beliefs before they looked at the videos:

1. What do you consider your “heart music”? (What type of music have you enjoyed as a child, put you at ease, help you to relax and continue to enjoy?) 2. What sort of music helps you to think about spiritual things and relate to God? (In other words, what type of music moves you when you are in a religious mode?) 3. Are Indian musical instruments such as the harmonium and dholak important in your spiritual experience? Please explain. 4. Is Christian music (heard in churches, on TV and radio in Guyana) discordant to you in your religious quest? Please explain. 5. How important is the Hindustani musical genre to you? 6. Describe the significance, if any, of Hindustani-type (Hindi) lyrics when you listen to, or sing religious songs.

The following questions were asked of the participants after they looked at the videos:

1. What do you think of the music (bhajans, geet, chatney and other Indian music) played in the church? 2. How do you feel about the inclusion of Indian instruments – harmonium, dholak and jhaal in the church music? 3. If that type of music were a regular feature of church music, would you feel more comfortable connecting with Christians? Please explain. 4. Do you have any comments or questions?

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Appendix 7

QUESTIONS ASKED OF PASTORS BEFORE AND AFTER SEEING VIDEOS

The following questions were asked of the pastors before they looked at the videos:

1. To what extent does the music in the church reflect the mosaic culture of Guyana? 2. What place does the Hindustani (Indian) musical genre (bhajans, geet, chatney, etc). have in the church? 3. Why are Indian instruments (harmonium, dholak, etc). not used in the church? 4. What are your thoughts/views on the concept of contextualization of the Christian faith to peoples of other cultures?

The following questions were asked of the pastors after they looked at the videos:

1. What do you think of the music (bhajans, geet, chatney and other Indian music) played in the church? 2. How do you feel about the inclusion of Indian instruments – harmonium, dholak and jhaal in church music? 3. If that type of music were a regular feature of the church music, what type of impact would it have on the Hindustani (Indian) community? 4. Do you have any comments or questions?

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