At our barbles, don't be You've got to be joking! surprised to see the odd Never been more serious. You see. unlike the bazas and drongos that you baza and drongo or just a probably associate with outdoor eating, ours have feathers. And the barbies aren't in backyards. few old bustards. In fact they're located in some of the most beautiful places on this Earth. Such as the New England National Park. A magnificent place to chomp on a chop, surroundedby rainforest and right on the edge of the Dorrigo Plateau. And home to the Eastern Bazas and Spangled Drongo plus countless other varieties of feathered and furred fauna inthis subtropical wonderland. As for our bustards, both old and young, you'll need to head west to Mootwingie, Kinchega, Sturt and Mungo. all of which offer excellent locations for a snack in the wide open spaces. N.S.W. has some extraordinary National Parks and they're there for us all to enjoy. But it wasn't always like that. Which is why the Foundation was formed. Who is the Foundation?

Our full title is the National Parks and Wildlife Foundation of NSW, a non-governmentorganisation made up of members from every section of the community. We do not run national parks. The management and control of national parks is carried out by the National Parks and Wildlife Service; a government body financed from State funds. The foundation was instigated in 1970 when it became clear that the money required to save our unique animals and plants and to conduct research programmes was well beyond the reach of government funds. In effect, we provide funds for the Service by financing projects jointly formulated by the Foundation and the Service. However, being a non-government body the Foundation reserves the right to make the final decisions on all expenditures. They're welcome to join It's what you might call the people's way of becoming involved in national parks - a way in which everyone us. So are you. can play a positive role in the preservation of our natural heritage. ------I Please accept my application-- for membership--- as: -..I And we don't sell s, u pporter;,- £ n . I ncl ud es,c: ree rarks ntry rerm,t 'Save the Drongo' stickers. I Coo-eeMagazine, Parks & Wildlife News $28 0 I with Kosciusko National Parl< I Not a bad idea really ••• But that's not our role. I Winter Entry Permit $35 0 Rather than talking about what should be done, we just Friend- I quietly go ahead and do it. Like the Lord Howe Island I Includes Free ParksEntry Permit. Woodhen programme which literally saved these birds Quarterly copies of GEO, Coo-eeMagazine, I from extinction. I Parks & Wildlife News. $40 D And if you've ever taken one of the many guided tours with Kosciusko National Park I with a Seasonal Ranger during the holidays then you've I see the Foundation's funds at work. Through this Winter Entry Permit $4 0 7 I programme, countless thousands have discovered first I And/Or my donation to help preseroe our national heritage D hand the mystery and the magic of our National Parks. I And it's totally funded by the Foundation. I Cheque enclosed for 0 Debit my Bankcard I I Become a member I I I I I IT I '��I.__I .L.-.L-_.__.._I__.I.__. I ExpiryDate ______I and you 're in for a treat! I Signature______I Name ______I Address I I Mail today to: TheChief Executive National Parks & Wildlife I I Foundationof NSW L ------GPOBox 2666SYDNEY NSW ---- 2001 I 19 Jf\t{\987 \ \' Australian Natural History EDITORIAL Published by arctica is undertaken by the Hobart­ The Australian Museum Trust o commemorate the fiftieth 6-8 College Street, year of the Australian Antarctic based Antarctic Division (part of the Sydney, N.5.W. 2000 Territory, the bulk of this issue Department of Science), for whose Phone: (02) 339 8111 T assistance in the production of this fea­ of Australian Natural History is Trust President: Robyn Williams devoted to Antarctica. The Antarctic ture we are extremely grateful. It is Museum Director: Desmond Griffin Treaty was signed by Australia and 11 refreshing to see that Antarctica, such EDITOR other nations in 1959, which neither a large and unique area of the world, Fiona Doig supported nor denied existing ter­ is being utilised in the search for know­ SCIENTIFIC EDITOR ritorial claims and its terms effectively ledge; but disappointing to see the Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. meant that Antarctica could only be overexploitation of marine life, which CIRCULATION John McIntosh used for peaceful purposes. threatens the continued existence of many species. Ultimately, however, ART DIRECTION With sovereignity no longer a stum­ watch This! Design bling block, it provided an impetus for these problems should be overcome TYPESETTING the exchange of scientific information with the unity of the nations under the Rochester Communications Group Ply Ltd between these nations. treaty. FILM WORK Australian scientific research in Ant- -Fiona Doig, Editor F.M.F. Colour Creations Ply Ltd PRINTING RodenPrint Pty Ltd Contents ADVERTISING ARTICLES Jean Barnet Antarctica's frozen Past 98 {02) 939 6263 Patrick Quilty {02) 339 8234 Iced With Life 102 SUBSCRIPTIONS Harvey Marchant, Rod Seppelt, Fiona Doig Annual subscription {4 issues) Understanding Ice Dynamics 110 Within Australia SA 13.00 Ian Allison Other countries SA 15.00 floating Giants 112 Two-year subscription (8 issues) Trevor Hamley Within Australia SA25.00 formulating the Future 116 Other countries SA30.00 Patrick Quilty For renewal or new subscription please More to the Mantis than Meets forward credit card authority or cheque the Eye 138 made payable to: Pamela Maitland The Australian Museum Who Gives a fig? 140 P.O. Box A285 Sydney South Tim Low N.S.W. 2000, Australia POSTER ARTICLE Subscribers from other countries please note that money must be paid in The Lesser Long-eared Bat 123 Australian currency. Harry Parnaby All material appearing in Australian RARE & ENDA 1GERED Natural History is copyright. 124 Reproduction in whole or in part is not Norfolk Island Green Parrot Neil Hermes permitted without written authorisation from the Editor. WILD FOODS Opinions expressed by the authors are Wonderful Weeds 126 their own and do not necessarily Tim Low represent the policies or views of the Australian Museum. FORUM The Editor welcomes articles or Dolphins in Captivity 128 photographs in any field of Australian Laura Mumaw natural history. PHOTOART Published 1986. Diamondscapes 133 Bill Sechos and Rudy Weber ISSN-0004-9840 VINCENT SERVENTY Front Cover Birds of the Reef 136 The delightful Chinstrap Penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica), aptly named for REGULAR FEATURES the black band that extends under its Letters 119 chin, is one of several species of Quips, Quotes & Curios 120 penguins that breed in and around Books 130 Antarctica. Photo: F. Gohier, Auscape. Robyn Williams 132 Subscription Coupon 143

AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 97 p A s T

Antarctica's frozen past

ntarctica has not always been the way it now is. Over the last 0 billion years it has been subject to three separate ice ages; it has been to the tropics; it has been covered by forest; and it has supported a considerable plant and animal population both onshore and offshore. Antarctica is made up of two vastly different parts. The larger area, often called Greater or East Antarctica, consists of an old, stable landmass, most of which falls in the eastern hemis­ phere. It is roughly semicircular with the base of the semicircle marked by the T ransantarctic Mountains, one of the world's greatest mountain chains, rising well over 4,000 metres in many

. ---­... Life flourishes in Antarctica. Apart from D AUSTRAUAN A�lARCnc n11.1t110Rr the ubiquitous birds and seals, this cold, vast desert supports a variety of animals Present-day Antarctica (above), and plants not immediately obvious to the observer. The and Gondwana (left) as it collection of articles here is arranged into Past, Present and was 160 million years ago. Future sections. The Past and Future were written by Dr The shaded area shows Patrick Quilty (Antarctic Division) and various authors were Antarctica's location in responsible for the Present. Ors Harvey- Marchant and Rod Gondwana. Seppelt (both from the Antarctic Division) wrote the sect­ ions on present-day terrestrial and marine life; Fiona Doig (A.N.H.) compiled the information on seals and penguins; Ian Allison (University of Melbourne) wrote the article on glaciology; and Trevor Hamley has written about icebergs­ those awe-inspiring floating giants of the polar regions.

98 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86·87 ·------

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• - • places. The T ransantarctic Mountains Gondwana seems to have re­ provide spectacular scenery and the mained intact until some 160 million best insight into the geological evolu­ years ago, when it started to break up tion of the continent between 600 and by a series of well-documented steps. 200 million years ago. The first fragmentation began when a The rest of East Antarctica is much unit consisting of Africa and South older and its history is gleaned from America began to move northward, study of more scattered coastal out­ incidentally taking with it a piece off crops, although one region, Prince north-western Australia north of the Charles Mountains, is over 500 Exmouth Plateau. At 125-128 million kilometres inland. Parts of East Antarc­ years, India-considerably larger than tica are as old as four billion years­ at present and often termed Greater only 600 million years younger than India-departed, leaving a residual the estimated age of the Earth. Other consisting of a still united Australia­ J widespread areas have an age of 2.5 Antarctica. Australia began its north­ billion years. ward migration from Antarctica some Reconstruction of the Triassic West Antarctica, dominantly in the 86-105 million years ago, initially mammal-like reptile Lystrosaurus western hemisphere, is generally moving only some 0.9 millimetres per found on Antarctica. Drawing: Mar­ younger, most of its history falling in year until 55 million years ago when it garet Colbert. (From E.H. Colbert, the 200-40 million year time interval. accelerated to the present rate of six 1965, The Age of Reptiles, W.W. Rather than a single shield-like entity, centimetres per year. Norton, N.Y.) West Antarctica appears to consist of The consequences of the fragmen­ a collage of continental fragments tation and movement were far form, in the Tasmanian cold­ assembled during a long period when reaching for life in Antarctica. Until temperate rainforests. From this point the Pacific Ocean floor was being sub­ 160 million years ago the Antarctic on, with the exception of a couple of duced (swallowed) along the western fauna and flora were similar to those in grass species, most of the Antarctic side of the Antarctic Peninsula. other parts of Gondwana. The fossils vegetation has been limited to lichen The geological history of Antarctica discovered in Antarctica, and their and moss. is assembled by studying the widely similarity to fossils elsewhere, are At 25 million years ago (Late Oligo­ scattered outcrops which, although indeed important indicators that the cene) there is evidence in offshore small in comparison with the size of continents had initially been con­ sediments of iceberg-borne debris, the continent, are extremely well joined. Nowhere is this better illus­ indicating that sea-ice and icebergs preserved and exposed as a result of trated than in the case of the Permian existed then. At the same time there glacial action. Thus the four billion plant fossil Clossopteris and the Tri­ are indications of the formation of Ant­ year old terrane of Enderby Land is an assic (230-195 million years) mammal­ arctic Bottom Water (ABW)-a cold, ideal study area for rocks of that age, like reptile Lystrosaurus sp. dense, highly saline water, formed as a giving insights into the processes The best evidence for continental residual from freezing surface waters. occurring at that time but not since. movements over the last 160 million Development of ABW marked a new These processes can be researched years comes from the study of mag­ phase of deep seawater history. here perhaps better than anywhere netic lineation patterns preserved on Conditions for the next ten million else on Earth. the sea floor. From these, it is a simple years (up to the Middle Miocene) Antarctica has not always been as matter to recreate the relative posi­ seem to have been rather constant, isolated as it is today. It was once cen­ tions of Antarctica and its related con­ perhaps only with gradual intensifica­ trepiece of the supercontinent Gond­ tinents over that interval. tion of ABW. Glaciation developed to wana and thus only a relatively small Other elements of the evolution, approximately its present level part of it was open to the sea-that such as climate and glacial history, between 15 and six million years ago part now marked by the Transantarctic come from piecemeal scientific (Mid-Late Miocene). Mountains. studies. The development of glacia­ A major debate is now developing tion and its effects on seawater tem­ on the events between six and 2.5 mil­ perature has best been studied from lion years ago (the Pliocene). The cores taken by the Deep Sea Drilling prevailing belief is that this time Project south of New Zealand and Tas­ interval was one of glaciation similar mania, the story having been modified to the present but the discoveries, in by recent fossil discoveries on main­ the last two years, of fossil wood land Antarctica. (3.5-2.5 million years old) at 86° S and Some 40 million years ago (Late the mucn publicised four to five mil­ Eocene), extensive vegetation disap­ lion year old dolphin near Australia's peared from Antarctica as some form Davis Station, provide evidence to the of continental glaciation began. The contrary. These discoveries suggest a Reconstruction of the Permian plant flora that existed until then was prob­ major warm period in Antarctica over Glossopteris, found on Antarctica. ably similar to that also existing on the interval 5-2.5 million years. Per­ (From R.A. Stirton, 1959, Time, Life other continents of the Southern haps much of the continent was even and Man: The Fossil Record, John Hemisphere, then much closer. This covered by an extensive shallow Wiley & Sons, N.Y.) vegetation exists today, in a modified ocean. 100 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 Life in Antarctica's Past The history of Antarctic life is more poorly known than for any other conti· nent, mainly because of its inaccessi· bility and extensive covering of ice. Once again, piecemeal fossil finds in Antarctic rocks as young as 210 million years suggest that life before then was virtually identical to that living on or around Australia at that time. On the Antarctic Peninsula there are many areas where excellent fossil finds are known but the faunal similarities, instead of being with Australia, are with New Zealand, Europe, South America or even Alaska. Evidence of life elsewhere around Antarctica since 210 million years is scant indeed. Reworked pollen, spores and various marine dino· flagellates are known-particularly from studies carried out in Australia Four to five million year old fossil of the Davis dolphin compared with the from glacial debris dropped at sea by modern dolphin skull (Tursiops truncatus). Note the fossil dolphin has a nar­ icebergs but originating under con· rower, more elongated skull. Photo: R.E. Fordyce. tinental ice. Perhaps the best evidence is now coming from studies of plant and animal microfossils which have been reworked into sediments as young as 2.5 million years at high altitudes in the Transantarctic Mountains. These tell mainly of marine life at various ages over the last 100 million years. The fossils are included in glacial sedi· ments and are under study by staff at Ohio State University. The source of these microfossils is unknown but probably lies to the west of the Transantarctic Mountains from where they have been transported to their present site by glacial action. Again, in contrast to the prevailing

Reconstruction of the Davis dolphin showing the position of the skull. Drawing: ° 580 ± 20 14 s R.E. Fordyce. 520 ± 10 18 ° N 500 12° N belief, they suggest a story of warm undescribed; a plesiosaur from the 430 32° s conditions, with low tundra-type vege· Late Cretaceous of Seymour Island, off 240 60° s tation of conifers and angiosperms the northern end of the Antarctic 160 57 ° s between 2.5 and 3.5 million years ago. Peninsula; and three jaw fragments of 128 54 ° s The fossil dolphin, which is cur· a primitive marsupial also from Sey· 95 77° s rently being described and appears to mour Island, which dates to about 66 83° s be a highly derived dolphin, 40-45 million years (Late Eocene). 44 85 ° s represents the only known fossil ver· Our understanding of Antarctic life 21 c. 80 ° s tebrate in the last 40 million years of over past ages is in its infancy. But this 0 90° s Antarctic history. Other fossil ver· is only because the continent is tebrates include the skull and ver· covered by a thick icy deterrent. If tebrae of whales, found at the only we could simply peel back the Table of pole movements showing the northern end of the Antarctic Penin· icing from the Antarctic cake-just latitude of the present-day south pole sula, which probably date to around imagine what past secrets would be through the ages (millions of years). the 40 million year mark but is as yet revealed! D AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 101

Temperatures in the brief Antarctic the severe climate of truly continental summer may sometimes reach 10 °( Antarctica. Availability of free water near the coast, but they fall to -30 °( during the short summer growing or lower in winter. The dome-shaped season is a major factor determining ice cap rises steeply from sea level to the distribution and abundance of the over 4,000 metres. Temperature visible flora-the lichens, bryophytes decreases rapidly with altitude. In and some algae. Many of the algae, summer inland temperatures are fungi and some lichens are not around -30 ° C and in winter as low as obvious. Snow algae are common in -70 ° C. The cold Antarctic air is coastal localities and in summer may extremely dry and the almost constant proliferate to such an extent that the strong winds very desiccating. An snow appears green or red. Algae and enormous amount of fresh water is fungi can be recovered from almost all locked up as ice in Antarctica and is soils. Algae have been found growing inaccessible to living things. In this profusely beneath small stones, chiefly respect Antarctica is a vast, barren, white quartz, in what otherwise cold desert-the largest desert on appears to be lifeless soil. Some algae Earth. Compared with the surrounding and lichens occupy highly specialised sea, which supports an abundance of habitats such as fissures in rock or arctica contain lakes. The water in life, the Antarctic continent is a harsh even cavities in porous rocks where some of these is of marine origin, the and virtually lifeless environment. they are sheltered from the rigours of lakes being formed as the land rose However, a close look at the snow, the environment. Moss tufts and following ice retreat. Antarctic lakes rocks and soils reveals that the conti­ turves are often encrusted with algae vary in salinity from fresh water to ten nent is far from lifeless. and lichens. Nostoc, a cyanobacterium times that of seawater. Increasing (blue-green alga), is capable of fixing salinity depresses the freezing point Terrestrial life atmospheric nitrogen and converting and some highly saline Antarctic lakes The terrestrial Antarctic flora is it to a form able to be utilised by other will only become ice-covered when represented chiefly by algae, fungi, plants. the temperature drops below -20 ° C. lichens and bryophytes (mosses and Among the moss, lichens and soil Freshwater lakes, on the other hand, liverworts). Two flowering plants-a exist microscopic animals such as may have an ice cover that persists grass (Deschampia antarctica) and a mites, nematodes (roundworms), throughout the year. small cushion-forming plant tardigrades (water-bears) and, on the The lakes usually contain algae and (Colobanthus quitensis)-are known Antarctic Peninsula, collembolans other aquatic organisms, which are from the northern part of the Antarctic (springtails). All these animals feed found in the water column or in the Peninsula, which is climatically more primarily on algae and bacteria. surface layer of bottom sediments. akin to cold sub-Antarctic regions than Many of the ice-free areas of Ant- The hypersaline lakes are particularly interesting since they represent some of the few environments where organisms are exposed to water at sub-zero temperatures. The organisms inhabiting these lakes have been shown to remain active down to at least -14 ° C. To be able to survive and be motile in such an environment is quite remarkable as the organisms have to contend with extremely low temperatures as well as high salinity. The organisms, particularly algae, syn­ thesise and accumulate chemicals to balance their internal osmotic con­ centration with that of the surrounding water and to maintain an environment within the cells in which complex pro­ teins and other cellular constituents remain functional. The unicellular motile alga Dunaliellia, for example, synthesises and accumulates the sugar alcohol glycerol. As well as being hypersaline, some of the lakes are stratified, that is they have a less salty layer overlying a saltier, often anoxic, bottom layer. The organisms living close to the boundary Pink snow algae occurring near Casey Station. Photo: P.J. Gormly, courtesy A.O. between the oxygenated and unoxy- 104 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 scientists and their species composi­ Most large animals like birds and tion, distribution and abundance in the seals migrate when the food sources Southern Ocean is reasonably well are low but many smaller organisms, known. Other species of phyto­ unable to migrate, have adaptations plankton, called flagellates, bear one which allow them to survive this food or more fine hair-like appendages, the shortage. Laboratory research, for beating of which either propels the example, by the Antarctic Division, organism through the water or moves suggests that krill actually decrease water past it. Many of these flagellates the size of their outer skeletons when are covered in fine scales, often deli­ starved. This 'regression' occurs with cately patterned and made from their regular moult. organic material or silica. In spring, with the return of sun­ In the process ot photosynthesis, light, the organisms that have lain dor­ phytoplankton, like other green mant in the sea-ice proliferate greatly. plants, use the radiant energy of sun­ For most of the year the majority of light to convert carbon dioxide and planktonic organisms are concen­ water into complex organic mol­ trated either in or immediately under ecules-the building blocks of living the sea-ice. This community plays an lichens growing on a protected rock­ things. During winter the surface of important part in 'seeding' the water face. Photo: H. Marchant, courtesy the sea around Antarctica freezes to a with life when the ice finally breaks up. A.O. depth of about two metres for During the summer when light is abun­ hundreds of kilometres out from the dant, the phytoplankton bloom and genated water are often quite bizarre. coast. This formation of ice in March may reach concentrations of millions One of these is a single-celled animal and April, which reaches a maximum of cells per litre. covered with a coat of bacteria. It is in September, essentially doubles the Of the animals that feed on known simply as 'Eric' as it has not yet size of Antarctica. With a layer of phytoplankton, Antarctic Krill are been formally described. snow, the amount of light penetrating probably the most abundant. Mature this sea-ice is only about one per cent animals may reach about six cen­ Oceanic Life of that falling on the snow. Remem­ timetres in length and look very much bering also that the Sun is low in the like small prawns. Krill are thought to In contrast to the continent, the sky at this time of year, this means that Southern Ocean appears rich with life. be central to the Southern Ocean the amount of light available for pho­ Seals and whales have been exploited marine food chain, forming an impor­ tosynthesis, and thus the amount of tant part of the diet of whales, some for the last 150 years and, more food available to grazing animals, is recently, fish and krill. Phytoplankton, seals, fish, penguins and other sea­ minimal during the winter. microscopic unicellular plants, bloom birds. in the top 100 metres or so of the ·• . ...�- Southern Ocean during summer. . ... - . '"'!a>- . . ,.,... These organisms are grazed by krill, in �•··...... =:;;: . .. �. particular Antarctic Krill (Euphausia .. superba), and other zooplanktonic animals, which in turn form a large part of the diet of fish, squid, flying seabirds and penguins, some seals and the baleen whales. It is important to remember that the Antarctic animals such as seals, penguins and flying sea­ birds, which breed on the land or ice, get their food either directly or indirectly from the sea. The phytoplankton is made up of many different sorts of unicellular plants. These vary in size from about one millimetre across to less than one thousandth of a millimetre (one micrometre). Organisms smaller than ten micrometres make up the bulk of the phytoplankton population and account for most of their productivity. The most conspicuous of the phytoplankton are the diatoms, which are encased in a wall of often highly ornate silica. These beautiful organ­ Frozen lake with pressure cracks in the Vestfold Hills near Davis Station. Photo: isms have captured the attention of G. Claridge, A.N.T. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 105 While Antarctic Krill may be the most abundant grazers in the area of the Antarctic Peninsula, the South Atlantic is the centre of abundance. Although they are not as widespread in the Pacific and Indian Ocean sectors of the Antarctic, they still maintain a high abundance but tend to be more localised. To illustrate this, one third of all commercial krill catches were taken from the Indian Ocean sector and two thirds from the South Atlantic. There is considerable international concern that heavy fishing of krill could so deplete the populations in certain areas that animals depending on them for food could literally starve. Evidence from around the island of South Georgia indicates that Antarctic cod, too, have been severely over­ fished and, as a result, fewer and smaller fish are now being taken. In the first couple of years of harvest, starting from the summer of 1969-70, over 500,000 tonnes were taken and it is now estimated there is less than 5,000 tonnes total biomass now. There is similar concern for ice fish, which are also being overfished. These fish are particularly important from a research point of view, for they belong to the only vertebrate family (Chan­ nichthyidae) that lacks haemoglobin in its blood. Those Transitional Animals Many birds and seals are known to be predators of Antarctic Krill, but detailed information on the composi­ tion of their diet and how it may change seasonally and from year to year is as yet unavailable. Such infor­ mation is necessary to relate the potential impact of krill and fish har­ vesting on bird and seal populations to Adult Adelie Penguin with chicks. Photo: Ron and Valerie Taylor, A.N.T. the observed trends in their breeding numbers. To this end, the diet of Penguins prominent white rings around their Adelie Penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) During the long, dark winters, the eyes and reddish-brown beaks, com­ during the four months that they are Antarctic mainland is devoid of bird mence their trek over the sea-ice ashore for breeding each summer, is life ... except for the Emperor Pen­ towards their breeding grounds before being studied by the Antarctic Divi­ guins (Aptenodytes forsten) that arrive this ice breaks up. The weather, now sion. The aim of the study is to inves­ in early winter to breed on the sea-ice. warming up, brings a variety of sea­ tigate the availability of food They huddle together in tight groups birds such as petrels, skuas, alba­ compared with what Adelies actually of adults and chicks to keep out the trosses and terns to the region. bring ashore in their stomachs to bitter cold. Predatory and scavenging birds appear regurgitate as food for their chicks. The Emperor is also notable for its over the penguin colonies, eagerly To anyone interested in Antarctic diving ability. The deepest dive has waiting to snatch up unguarded eggs fauna, the penguins and seals are by been measured at 265 metres and the and young chicks. far the common favourites. No doubt longest for 18 minutes. Most dives, Other penguins that breed in Ant­ this is because they are the most however, are rarely more than 20 arctica, and also on and around sub­ readily seen and most human-like, and metres and usually only last a few Antarctic islands, include the Chin­ therefore the most endearing animals minutes. strap (Pygoscelis antarctica), so called to be found there. In spring, Adelie Penguins, with the because of its conspicu�us black band

106 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 under its chin, extending from ear to ear; the Gentoo Penguin (P. papua) with its bright red beak and vivid yellow-orange feet; and the Macaroni (Eudyptes chrysolophus) which fea· tures a distinctive yellow crest plume. Like all Antarctic birds, penguins have developed special adaptations to life in an extremely cold environment. The chicks have a thick down coat, eggs are closely brooded and insula· tion is provided by a thick layer of fat and a heavy down coat next to the skin. Air trapped between the skin and feathers insulates the bird so well that practically no heat escapes from the Adelie Penguins taking to the water. Photo: J. Schou, courtesy Oceanic Research body. Snow falling on the penguin Foundation. therefore does not melt and actually functions as another insulating layer. Emperor and Adelie Penguins can reduce their body temperature 4 ° C or more below normal resting tempera· ture in order to conserve energy stores. So well adapted are Antarctic pen· guins to extreme cold that keeping cool in summer can be more of a problem that staying warm. Tempera· tures during sunny summer days in Antarctica can soar well above freezing. To compensate, penguins can increase their heat radiation by several means. They can expose more surface area of skin by ruffling their feathers and spreading their wings, or by exposing the bare skin on their upper feet (the amount of which varies between species). In the former instance, the radiation from the body is heightened by the flow of warm blood into the blubber under the sur· face of the skin. In addition, they have developed a vascular heat exchange system between the arteries and the veins. Penguins often stand erect, panting with their beaks open to cool down. The clumsy, ungainly appearance of the fat penguins makes them look quite 'unbird·like', yet they have evolved this body form as an adapta· tion to their environment and lifestyle. The fat does not just insulate against the cold. It is essential for their survival during the long bouts of famine. These periods of abstinence from food occur during moulting (when the lack of insulation prevents them from swim· ming and thus catching prey) and also courtship and incubation. All adult penguins go through a three to five week period of starvation during Reception committee of Emperor Penguins meeting an Australian expedition. moulting. A particularly long period of Photo: J. Bechervaise, A.N.T.

AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 107 starvation is undergone by the adult can be erected into a bolster-shaped Tasmanian archives are currently male Emperor Penguin during court­ cushion on top of the snout, with its being meticulously searched by the ship and incubation-three to four tip and open nostrils hanging down in Antarctic Division, which is compiling months-during which nearly half his front of the mouth. It may act as a a census of seal populations during the body weight can be lost. resonating chamber-the roar of a 19th century. The journals of commer­ Fat is built up during the summer large bull may be heard several cial sealers record the number of months when long days of sunshine kilometres away. barrels of seal oil and blubber that enable penguins to gather the abun­ Commercial hunting for the were delivered to port, and calcula­ dant supply of food almost continu­ Southern Elephant Seals' valuable oil tions have been formulated to derive ously. Chicks become fat and mature began in the early 1800s and con­ the number of slaughtered seals quickly so that, by the end of summer, tinued almost to the point of extinc­ they become independent when the tion. It was not until commercial Southern Elephant Seals haul out at food supply is at its peak. sealing was banned in the middle of various sites along the coast of Antarc­ Because penguins are so well this century that populations began to tica to moult during the late summer. adapted to a life at sea, their stance on recover. Photo: H. Marchant, courtesy A.D. land seems awkward. Yet an Adelie Penguin can outrun a human on soft snow! To cross snow drifts, penguins 'toboggan', lying flat on their bellies and pull themselves along with their flippers. Their weight to wing-size ratio, while ideally suited to move­ ment through water, is well beyond the mechanical limits of flight through air. But penguins do fly-at least under water.

Seals The Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina) is the largest of all the seals. The inflatable proboscis, which is this seal's most outstanding feature and responsible for its common name, is only fully devel­ oped in males. It is an enlargement of the nasal cavity and, when breeding,

108 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 required to provide a barrel of oil. The The Weddell Seal (Leptonychotes Seal emerging through a crack in the calculations are supported by meas­ wedde/11) is the only coastal breeding ice and was chased for 100 metres! urements of fat thickness of Southern seal in Antarctica. It is common at all Leopard Seals eat many species of Elephant Seals living near Antarctic sta­ continental stations. Long-term studies penguins and it is probable that, from tions. So far it seems that one barrel of in population dynamics, which involve their dim underwater world, they have blubber produced one barrel of oil; annual tagging of adults and pups, taken the outline of a human to be that one male Southern Elephant Seal have been conducted at Davis Station that of an Emperor Penguin. was equivalent to three barrels of oil; since 1973. Other recent research When they catch penguins under one large male equalled four barrels; includes diet studies through faecal water, Leopard Seals shake them and one cow equalled two. analysis and work on underwater vigorously until the skin is loosened. That might seem like a lot of oil vocalisations. They then eat them quickly, devouring from one animal, but a Southern Ele­ Compared to other seals, the outer the meat in only a few minutes. phant Seal bull can weigh between upper incisors and upper canines in Besides penguins they also eat other three and four tonnes and can store Weddells are more horizontally posi­ birds (such as Giant Petrels), fish, squid enough fat to last two months. In fact, tioned. This enables them to saw and and large amounts of Antarctic Krill, weighing seals has been a problem, abrade breathing holes in the ice to which they sieve in a similar way to with cranes often being broken or keep them open. Hence their teeth Crabeater Seals. They will even attack buckled. A recently used device is a are extremely important and it is young Southern Elephant, Weddell or modified cattle-weighing platform, but believed that dental problems com­ Crabeater Seals, and will feed on any its limit is two tonnes. monly occurring in these seals by age available seal or whale carrion. There has been much concern over eight or nine contribute significantly to the decline since the mid 1950s in their mortality. Abscesses or wearing The Whole Ecosystem Southern Elephant Seal populations. of teeth can impair tooth function and Indicative of the international con­ As part of an international program to seals have been known to get trapped cern about the Southern Ocean monitor the global population of under the ice, unable to open their marine ecosystem has been the Southern Elephant Seals, the Antarctic breathing holes. development of the BIOMASS progam Division in 1985 recorded their The most abundant seal in the (Biological Investigation of Marine Ant­ numbers on Macquarie and Heard world and certainly the most arctic Systems and Stocks)-an interna­ Islands in the sub-Antarctic. Results of numerous in Antarctica is the tional collaborative research program daily counts showed a decline of 50 Crabeater Seal (Lobodon car- which investigates the structure and per cent on Macquarie Island and 60 cinophagus). They breed on the sea­ dynamics of the ecosystem to provide per cent on Heard compared to that of ice, close to the mainland, from information for conservation and the mid '50s count. It is not yet clear October to November. After moulting management of living resources. ine­ whether this is a natural fluctuation or in January, the coat is dark but it fades teen nations have also signed the Con­ if it is a result of commercial fishing in during the year, particularly in vention for the Conservation of Antarctic waters depleting the seals' summer, to a pale creamy colour. Antarctic Marine Living Resources food supply. Family groups consisting of male, (CCAMLR). This international Commis­ Southern Elephant Seals are female and pup are commonly sighted sion, with its headquarters in Hobart, capable of wandering thousands of on the ice, although it is unlikely that is concerned with the regulation of kilometres from their breeding the male is the father of the pup. harvesting of marine animals, particu­ grounds on sub-Antarctic islands and Rather, he is waiting for the female to larly Antarctic Krill and fish. little is known of their long-ranging life come into oestrus. Numerous scars Further investigation into Antarctica at sea. Until recently it was thought found on the male Crabeater Seal's as an ecosystem is vital to our under­ that, during winter, they fed only in head and neck are generally the result standing of the individual species that the sub-Antarctic. However, winter of his unsuccessful attempts to get inhabit the area. It has recently been research by the Antarctic Division close to the female before she is announced that Antarctic field science involving analysis of Southern Elephant receptive. programs planned for summer Seals' faecal and stomach contents Crabeater Seals have crenellated 1986-87 will be the most extensive (the latter achieved by induction of cusps on their teeth which form an Australia has conducted for two vomiting with apomorphine) might efficient sieve when the upper and decades. Research planned includes well disprove this. If local Antarctic lower teeth rows are locked. This further monitoring of Southern Ele­ squid and fish are present in the makes them well adapted to a diet of phant Seal populations on sub­ stomach and faecal contents, it will Antarctic Krill-they suck them in with Antarctic Heard Island, and also indicate that they do feed in Antarctic their mouths open and then sieve out studies of the active volcano there that waters during the winter. the water through clenched teeth. has been observed erupting during the Little is known about the Ross Seal Leopard Seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) past two summers. Marine research (Ommatophoca rossi), which is very are not particularly pretty-in looks or will assess fish stocks and the distribu­ solitary and almost unknown outside temperament. They have a long slim tion of Antarctic Krill larvae in Prydz Antarctica. It is extremely rare. It has body with a disproportionately large Bay, between Mawson and Davis Sta­ large protruding eyeballs for percep­ and curiously reptilian-looking head, tions. Further glaciological studies are tion of movement in dimly lit waters and are known for their vicious nature. also planned. Australia's continued under heavy ice. Squid form the bulk They have been reported attacking dedication to Antarctic research paves of the diet although fish and Antarctic scuba divers and one poor scientist the way to uncovering Antarctica's Krill are also eaten. had his foot snapped at by a Leopard buried secrets. D AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 109 p R E s E N T A small ice cap near Casey Station called Law Dome has been the site for taking many ice core samples. Snow­ fall rates here are high and, although the ice in the cores is not nearly as old as that from depth in the main ice sheet, each annual layer in the core is relatively thick. This ensures that a detailed climatic record can be ob­ tained for the last several thousand years. Information on past atmospher­ ic temperature can be provided by measurement of stable isotopes of oxygen in the ice. Past volcanic events are indicated by the analysis of the Understanding composition of the air trapped in bub­ bles as well as the measurement of electrically conducted impurities. Concentrations of radiatively im­ ice dynamics ported gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, can be determined by gas composition analyses. It has been of great concern to climatologists for a number of years that the increase of carbon dioxide in the Earth's at­ mosphere, caused by the burning of fossil fuels together with deforesta­ he landmass of Antarctica is almost totally covered tion, will create a 'blanket' effect IT] around the planet. Known as the by a massive ice sheet of more than 12 million 'greenhouse effect', the carbon diox­ square kilometres-an area more than one-and-a­ ide layer acts in the same manner as half times the size of Australia. Ice 'sheet' is really the glass in a greenhouse, which would result in an overall increase in a misnomer because the average thickness is greater than world temperatures. The results two kilometres and in some places reaches a depth of over would be disastrous. Melt of the An­ four kilometres. In wintertime, when the sea-ice reaches its tarctic ice sheet would be intensified, causing the world's sea level to rise. maximum extent, an additional 20 million square When we consider that about 70 per kilometre band of pack ice surrounds the continent. cent of the world's fresh water occurs as Antarctic ice, the implications are This ice sheet is not just a stagnant Because the history of this ice is so serious. mass. Ice and snow are continually be­ ancient, core samples of it can tell Antarctic ice does not merely pro­ ing added and removed. When snow glaciologists a great deal about the cli­ vide clues to climatic history, it actual­ falls to the ground in the Antarctic in­ matic history of the world. Glaciolo­ ly has quite an influence over the terior, it slowly becomes compressed gists don't just study glaciers, they look global climate. Since sea-ice forms an into ice. Under the force of its own at all forms of ice and snow that occur insulating layer between the relatively weight, this ice sheet moves inexora­ naturally. The ice on Antarctica is of warm ocean and the cold atmosphere, bly towards the coast. It moves much great value to them because the conti­ variations in its extent affect world slower in the centre of the continent nent's remoteness means the water weather patterns and climate at time because the slope of the ice sheet is from which the ice is formed is very scales that range from months to minor. Movement there is only one to pure. Small traces of any impurities are years. The ice sheet, however, inter­ two metres per year. Towards the therefore readily detectable. Bound acts with climate on much longer time coast, the moving ice sheet breaks into the ice is a unique environmental scales than sea-ice and changes in its down into swift-moving ice streams record that stretches back beyond the extent also affect the global sea level. and outlet glaciers. These move sever­ start of the last ice age, more than The Antarctic ice sheet and the much al hundreds of metres a year because 150,000 years ago. Studying the ice smaller Greenland ice sheet are rem­ they are sliding at their base as well as and its impurities, and the air that it nants of huge ice sheets that covered deforming internally. The overall trapped when it was snow turning into a large proportion of the world's land movement towards the coast from the ice, provides a continual historic surface during the last great ice age. centre, however, is very slow, which record of the Earth's climate as well as Most of these ice sheets were in the means that the ice near the bottom of other variables, such as volcanic fall­ Northern Hemisphere and disap­ the ice sheet may actually be out and changes in atmospheric gas peared after the end of the ice age hundreds of thousands of years old. composition. from about 15,000 years ago. The An-

110 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 tarctic ice sheet has probably existed uninhabited regions is provided from ly. The outer edge slowly advanced as in one form or another over the last 20 automatic weather stations on the ice the ocean cooled and ice formed on million years. By investigating this ice sheet and drifting buoys among the its surface with the progression of sheet we can gain insight into the pack ice. Since the information is sent winter. Now it has been shown that growth, behaviour and decay of ice automatically via satellites, once these much of the ice is formed in the colder sheets in general and even the possi­ systems are established they need not waters further south and moved ble causes of ice ages. be revisited. Automatic weather sta­ northwards so that the overall extent Another area of research in tions, positioned between the coast is controlled as much by the sea-ice glaciology is that of ice sheet dynam­ and interior of the ice sheet, have also dynamics as by the sea surface tem­ ics. Investigations are carried out on been used to study wind formation. perature. long, difficult oversnow traverses The surface winds over much of the Much of what we now know operating out of Casey Station. They ice sheet arise as a consequence of about Antarctica has been gained by are complemented by aircraft­ 'katabatic' cooling-the cooling of air studies on the ground and from air­ supported studies of outlet glaciers. close to the surface of the ice sheet craft. Over the past decade or so, re­ Such traverses have covered thou­ causes it to become dense and thus motely sensed data collected from a sands of kilometres on the ice sheet, fall, producing a wind that blows few satellites that cover parts of An­ measuring essential, basic characteris­ downhill. tarctica have given the first complete tics such as ice thickness and surface Drifting data buoys operating views over large areas of the conti­ elevation, ice velocity and the rate of within the pack ice in 1985 have nent. Data has been collected at visi­ snow accumulation. These studies shown that the sea-ice within this zone ble and other wavelengths. ew and have been greatly aided by technolog­ can be very mobile. Even near the An­ sophisticated remote sensing systems ical developments. It is now possible tarctic coastline, hundreds of are being fitted to polar orbiting satel­ to continually sound ice thickness with kilometres in from the outer edge, lites to be launched in the next five to special radars operated from ground where the pack ice is usually at its den­ ten years. They are expected to pro­ vehicles or aircraft and to determine sest, the pack can be moving at vide a wealth of new data covering the an accurate relative position on the ice speeds of up to 60 kilometres per day. whole of the Antarctic ice sheet for sheet with reference to navigational Previously it was thought that the pack the first time, and providing the impe­ sate I lites. was slow moving and generally tus for major new studies of this re­ Meteorological data from remote, formed by freezing of the ocean local- mote region of the globe. D

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AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 111 p R E s E N T

Floating giants

cebergs originate from the calving � events of floating ice at the seaward boundary of outlet glaciers and ice shelves. The thick ice of the Antarctic interior, flowing constantly outwards under its own enormous weight, converges into fast-moving outlet glaciers at the continental margin. As the ice protrudes into surrounding waters, the effect of buoyancy causes further spreading and thinning, forming floating ice tongues or ice shelves. Bending stresses, caused by waves and swell, soon extract their toll and iceb�rgs are born. Since the days of the earliest polar explorers, Antarctic icebergs have thrilled writers and photographers, terrorised mariners, fascinated civilian and military engineers, and tempted tourists, yet they've all but been 112 ignored by scientists until relatively not unfamiliar, was Captain James recent times. Cook. For Cook, the hazards of sailing Distribution and Dissolution Icebergs (huge frozen masses of among icebergs were not taken light­ A traditional method used to col­ fresh water) are a common feature of ly. On his second voyage of discovery lect information on iceberg distribu­ both Arctic and Antarctic oceans. (1772-1775), Cook (in the HMS Reso­ tions during Australian National However, Antarctic icebergs are lution) circumnavigated the globe at Antarctic Research Expeditions has generally much larger, colder and an approximate latitude of 60 °S, cross­ been shipboard observations, both vis­ more numerous than their Arctic ing the Antarctic circle on three occa­ ual and radar, within a 12 nautical mile equivalents. For example, whereas a sions but without actually sighting the radius of the ship. Iceberg sizes are es­ 'very large' Arctic iceberg might meas­ mysterious continent they had hoped timated and the numbers within desig­ ure 750 x 350 x 30 metres in length, to discover. He notes: nated size categories recorded in a breadth and thickness, a 'very large' ".. . About noon came close under logbook with latitude, longitude, wa­ Antarctic iceberg could measure 1,500 the above mentioned island of ice and ter temperature, sea-ice concentration x 750 x 400 metres. With these dimen­ were by a kind of indraught or some and any other relevant information. sions, it would weigh up to 400 million means or other insensibly sucked so Detailed size measurements are tonnes-almost the entire annual near that we had scarce any probabili­ gathered for tabular icebergs and the water consumption for the city of ty of escaping being drove against it more northerly pinnacled icebergs. In Melbourne-and have a freeboard which must have been inevitable de­ these cases iceberg height and width (height above water) equal to that of a struction and it was equally as un­ are measured trigonometrically, using ten storey building (freeboard for known almost how we got off without a sextant to obtain the subtended an­ tabular icebergs being typically 15 per and we scarce got a cables length gle, in conjunction with a distance ob­ cent of their total thickness). Of all the from it..." tained by radar. icebergs in the Southern Ocean, those In the 20th century, icebergs have Satellite surveillance is at present over 1,000 metres in width ('width' be­ occasionally created news. The sinking not capable of monitoring iceberg ing the maximum horizontal dimen­ in 1912 of the HMS Titanic, for exam­ movement and decay, except for sion at waterline) comprise only about ple, was caused by the collision with a gigantic icebergs larger than say ten four per cent by count, yet 51 per cent relatively small iceberg off the coast of kilometres in width. Typical problems by volume. Most Antarctic icebergs, ewfoundland, Canada. The stagger­ incurred using satellites include obscu­ however, are less than 500 metres in ing loss of 1,513 lives, making it one of ration by cloud, difficulty in distin­ width, with the largest numbers (more the worst maritime disasters in the his­ guishing between sea-ice and than a third of all sightings) being in tory of mankind, jolted maritime icebergs, limited resolution and cover­ the size range of 50 to 200 metres. authorities into organising the first 'In­ age, and difficulty recognising the Imagine the mixture of terror and ternational Convention for Safety of same iceberg(s) again after breakage enchantment that must have 'shivered Life at Sea'. This resulted in the in­ or rollover has occurred. the timbers' of early explorers, who, in troduction of safety measures (today The mechanisms by which freely flimsy and sometimes ill-equipped sail­ taken for granted), such as a place in a floating icebergs are reduced from ing vessels, dared to probe Antarctic lifeboat for each person embarked, large to small are as yet not fully un­ waters in search of the 'southern conti­ lifeboat drills to be held during the derstood, although they are known to nent'. One of the earliest of these ex­ voyage and a compulsory 24-hour be a combination of breakage, calving plorers, to whom polar regions were radio watch. around the edges and subsurface melt. Melt plays a relatively minor part in the dissolution of large icebergs al­ though it becomes the major mechan­ ism in the dissolution of smaller, blocky icebergs. The speed of subsur­ face melt is easier to appreciate when you realise that typical Southern Ocean water temperatures are around + 1 °C. Melting of the above water por­ tion by the Sun's direct radiation also has a negligible effect on iceberg dis­ solution. Generally, the meltwater so produced percolates down into snow and firn (compacted snow) layers and simply refreezes. The effect of rollover tends to en­ hance all of the above dissolution processes, particularly subsurface melting. Icebergs have been observed to roll over abruptly, although the spectacle is one that few are privileged to witness. Rollover will occur when, Iceberg showing wave notches. Photo: courtesy Oceanic Research Foundation. Jfter breakage and melting, the thick- 114 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 ness of an iceberg becomes less than or equal to the width. Sometimes ice­ bergs may 'turn turtle' (180 °), although a roll of less than 90 ° is more com­ mon. Rollover is the primary factor re­ sponsible for pinnacles-caused by thrusting edges or corners high into the air. When an iceberg 'rolls' it rev­ eals a characteristic smooth and rounded underwater shape. Normally a wave notch is visible, marking the position of the previous waterline. Sometimes the waterline may be stained green from algae, although this is uncommon. Rollover can also identify those icebergs that have sedi­ ment layers embedded in the icemass. Particle matter in the ice and sediment from the sea floor can give rise to the appearance of black or dark green icebergs. large tabular bergs, freshly calved from glaciers or iceshelves, may last for a period of years if they either run An iceberg near the Mawson ice edge that has recently split into two large pieces. aground or remain in waters close to During the next major storm, each piece may roll over on its side, possibly fraction­ the Antarctic coast. Here the surface ing again into smaller pieces. Photo: H. Marchant. water is extremely cold, which minimises melt. More importantly, gory to be reduced to half of their than 13,000 kilometres to the west. however, the presence of sea-ice original numbers by breakage into Icebergs at these latitudes were well dampens the swell and produces a flat smaller sizes.) This means that a medi- known to the captains of the clipper sea, devoid of wave action. This en­ um iceberg of 350 metres width could ships who, after rounding the Cape of vironment is one in which there are be expected to last between six Good Hope on their way to Australia, minimal bending stresses or erosion months and two years before all traces would have had to weigh up the risks forces, responsible for the dissolution of the original berg are destroyed. Esti- of steering further south to pick up the processes of breakage and calving. mates of life expectancy are necessari- strong westerly trade winds versus the The deep draught (portion below ly imprecise because of the fact that increased likelihood of disastrous en­ water) of Antarctic icebergs causes icebergs, like human beings, come in counters with icebergs. them to drift in the direction of aver­ all manner of consistency, quality and age current movement. Icebergs, un­ shape. Reflections in Ice like sea-ice, are not greatly affected by Recent studies of Antarctic ice- Perhaps on the next occasion you winds or irregular surface currents. berg distributions have shown that the find yourself lounging in a reclining Bergs will simply rip through sea-ice common northerly limit seems rough- chair and sipping a cool lemon-squash, like tissue paper if the overall current ly linked to the average maximum ex- you might like to reflect, finally, on is at variance to the top few metres of tent of Antarctic sea-ice at about why the ice blocks in your drink have the watermass. latitude 59°5. One might be forgiven, so much less freeboard than that ob­ large tabular icebergs are known however, in thinking that the Antarctic served for tabular icebergs. to have travelled tens of thousands of convergence (or polar front), at lati- The answer to this question is kilometres in westerly moving cur­ tude 51 °5 in the Australian region, twofold. First, the iceberg is floating in rents of Antarctic coastal flow (that is, would have delineated the absolute salt water and therefore has slightly around the coast over the continental northern boundary of icebergs, since more buoyancy. But second, and shelf). Icebergs tracked by satellite this is where a sharp temperature more importantly, most of the above- transponder have shown typical difference occurs between the cooler water portion of a tabular iceberg is in speeds of up to half a knot. waters of the Southern Ocean and the fact snow or firn with a density much Size distributions of icebergs flow­ warmer oceans of mid latitudes. less than that of ice. A typical thick- ing in the easterly-moving Antarctic Sightings of icebergs north of the ness to freeboard ratio for tabular ice- circumpolar current have been stud­ Antarctic convergence are relatively bergs is about 6 or 7:1 although for ied statistically to determine life ex­ rare, however on 15 January 1982, irregular icebergs this ratio is more pectancy. Analysis has shown that for two icebergs were sighted at 48 °5, likely to be about 2 or 3:1. icebergs less than 1,000 metres in 111 ° E-only about 1,800 kilometres Icebergs are a fascinating width a 'median-life' of about 0.2 years south of Perth. These icebergs were al- phenomenon and a surprising amount may be expected. (The term median­ most certainly the remnants of a gigan- can be learned about them by simply life refers to the time taken for half of tic iceberg and may have come from watching an ice cube melt and roll the icebergs in one particular size cate- as far away as the Weddell Sea, more over in a glass of water! D AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 115 F u T u R E Formulating the future

any would like to see the Antarctic set aside, one way or another, as a continent free from development or exploitation of any kind. Humanity's history of discovery, explora­ tion and eventual exploitation has seen waves of people move from their native land to inhabit what were for a long time seen as uninhabitable regions. Two hund­ red years ago, white man moved into Aust­ ralia shortly after moving into southern Africa. We are now showing signs of moving into space, the deep sea and Antarctica.

What are the possible resources speculation about the potential role of to melt) in seawater as it was towed. available in Antarctica? Although little icebergs as a water source, most An alternative means of moving hope of exploitation exists realistically centring on the concept of towing ice­ such water involves wrapping icebergs in the near future, some possibilities bergs to the site of water need. in fibre-reinforced plastic. A 30 million do exist in the medium to long-term A 30 million tonne iceberg is at the tonne iceberg has a surface area of future, particularly fisheries (being ten­ larger end of the medium-sized ice­ approximately 1.5 square kilometres, tatively developed now), ice (as a berg range and contains about .04 about 40-50 times as large as a foot­ water source), minerals (including cubic kilometres of ice, enough water ball oval. There are no technical hydrocarbons), tourism and what I to serve the needs of a city the size of reasons why such an iceberg should term serendipity-the unexpected Perth for seven to eight weeks in not be wrapped completely in a results of research. summer. That amount of water is plastic envelope. Modern trawling In discussing the future it is also worth some $14-15 million in Perth or techniques could be used to lead a worth considering the impact on Ant­ $18 million in Adelaide. Both cities plastic sheet beneath an iceberg arctica of mankind's activities else­ perceive a need for additional water 150-200 metres below sea level. where on the globe. for both water supply and quality con­ If an iceberg can be wrapped suc­ trol. The iceberg yield from Antarctica cessfully, the towing need is signifi­ Ice as a Water Source could theoretically provide the total cantly reduced and new advantages Antarctica contains 25-30 million water needs for 50,000 such cities. become obvious. Nature would pro­ cubic kilometres of ice, enough to Recent research has suggested that vide much of the transport via ocean raise the sea level by some 70 metres icebergs of this size do not present an current systems. Towing would only should it melt. It sheds some insuperable obstacle for towing. How­ be needed to move it from one ocean 12,000-14,000 cubic kilometres per ever, the same research suggests that current system to another and to a year as icebergs, with a water purity such an iceberg would survive less final resting place where utilisation far in excess of normal distilled water. than two months north of 60 ° S would proceed. The wrapped iceberg There has been much popular because it would dissolve (as opposed would need to be identified and to

116 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 have a satellite tracking device ated to take advantage of an Georgia. The total catch of N. rossii installed. expanded food source. Secondly, from the Southern Ocean has declined The development of an 'iceberg recent laboratory studies suggest that from almost 400,000 tonnes in envelope' would mean that iceberg krill can live longer-between seven 1969-70 to 1,315 tonnes in 1984-85. water could be transported, largely by and 11 years. This means that the sus­ By far the greater part of this catch has nature, to such areas of the world as tainable annual harvest may be as few been from the South Atlantic area. north Africa or California. The value to as two to five million tonnes per year, north Africa would be in providing a although most estimates are now Minerals reliable basis for agriculture. around 25 million tonnes. Antarctica has an area of 13.5 mil­ A floating envelope would get over Antarctic Krill fishing has been lion square kilometres, almost twice one of the other major hurdles in the attempted in Antarctic waters by nine the area of Australia. There is no iceberg utilisation concept-that of nations. Russia and Japan are the reason to suggest that it has fewer grounding on the continental shelf. major krill takers. Russian fleets were minerals than any other continent, in Once far enough north, the ice in the taking up to 550,000 tonnes per year fact rock associations in Antarctica, plastic wrap would melt. The enve­ in the early 1980s, but had decreased which are known elsewhere in the lope of plastic would then flatten on to 370,000 tonnes in the 1985-86 world to have mineral significance, the sea surface, reducing the draught season. Japanese fleets catch about have been mapped. However, no eco­ of the body. 50,000 tonnes per year and operate nomic mineral deposits have as yet Another useful feature of this con­ on a commercial basis. been identified. cept relates to electricity generation. A Krill needs to be processed almost Several factors militate against suc­ body of water or ice at 0 °( floating in immediately as it rots quickly. The cessful search for Antarctic mineral a sea of 20 °( or more allows for 'meat' must be separated from the resources, the most obvious being the power generation simply because of exoskeleton or shell, otherwise the fact that the continent is 98 per cent the temperature difference. One high levels of fluorine in the shell con­ ice-covered to an average depth of authority suggested that the power taminate the 'meat'. Techniques for 2,500 metres. However, many types of generated would pay for the cost of speedy separation have been devel­ minerals that may have originally the entire operation and that the oped and now operate satisfactorily. existed would have been removed water would be free. In addition to the protein-rich krill through long periods of glaciation. The time scale? Who knows? But a 'meat', which may be used as a protein These include beach sands, residual 10-15 year lead time seems a supplement in bread and cattle food; minerals such as bauxite, and deep reasonable guess. as a fish culture food or fishing bait; as leads such as for gold or diamonds. tinned krill tails and more recently as Indications of minerals that may Fisheries packaged krill in Japanese super­ lead a prospector to a prospect are vir­ Antarctic waters are perceived to markets, processes have evolved for tually non-existent as weathering pro­ contain the world's largest undeve­ separating valuable carotenoid pig­ files and scattered traces are also loped protein source-Antarctic Krill ment from the shell. The pigment is removed by glacial activity. Any (Euphausia superba)-a crustacean that the only yellow food dye approved by mineral search must therefore be grows about six centimetres long. In the United States Food and Drug directed to the primary ore in the first addition, fin fish fisheries exist for a Administration. Whatever the uses, instance. group of species often lumped Antarctic Krill fishery has begun and In addition to these problems, eco­ together as 'Antarctic cod'. seems to be here to stay. nomics, the need for stringent The amount of krill living around Because of the emergence of an environmental protection measures, Antarctica is poorly known but most Antarctic fishery, Antarctic Treaty technological and logistic problems, estimates are in the range of nations in the late 1970s negotiated and the need for a regime allowing for 600-1,000 million tonnes. Several the Convention on the Conservation secure tenure of title (which is cur­ years ago, it was estimated that an of Antarctic Marine Living Resources rently under negotiation) are severe annual catch of 140 million tonnes (CCAMLR) with its headquarters in hindrances to commercial mineral may be sustainable. This figure was Hobart. The Commission (also explqitation. obtained by calculating the average CCAMLR) meets each year in Hobart The Dufek Massif is a large layered amount taken by a baleen whale each to discuss relevant matters such as intrusive in the Transantarctic Moun­ year and noting the difference in the potential catch limits, exchange of tains that has been identified as a rock baleen whale population size before fishing statistics and other issues raised type with potential chromite (ore of whaling began and now. It was also as the Convention evolves. chromium) association, and the based on the assumption that krill are Fin fish are taken on a regular basis general geology of the Antarctic short-lived (two to three years) spe­ around the French possession of Ker­ Peninsula is consistent with a copper cies. guelen Island and around South ore association. In neither case has the However, it now seems that there Georgia. Fishing has proceeded to the suggested ore association been are severe weaknesses in both bases stage where concern has been proved at a level that would be eco­ for the calculation. Firstly, since krill­ expressed for the population of nomic anywhere else in the world. consuming whale populations have Notothenia rossii (an Antarctic cod) Hydrocarbons (oil and gas), espe­ decreased, it is highly probable that around South Georgia. At the Sep­ cially offshore, are often perceived to other predators (likely candidates tember 1985 meeting of CCAMLR a be the major possible exploitable being Crabeater Seals, Carcinophagus ban was agreed to on fishing for N. resource. The world has some 35 lobodon, and penguins) have prolifer- rossii within 12 nautical miles of South years supply of oil and 65 years supply AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 117 of gas at present usage rates. With the of distance, lack of Antarctic infrastruc· sheet, eventually leading to a sea level current glut of oil, the oil price has ture and the high cost of facilities rise of the order of five metres. The fallen dramatically over the past year, provided, for example, ice· East Antarctic ice sheet, being far but supply pressures are thought likely strengthened ships. In the foreseeable larger and colder, does not appear to to tighten again by the 1990s. future, tourism will be restricted to be at risk in the short term, although The areas offshore of Antarctica those in the higher income bracket. there may be some effects at its have been subject to several scientific margin. Governments throughout the seismic programs, indicating that the Serendipity world will need to address the situa· Antarctic margin commonly has at One cannot predict what science tion and to examine possible effects. least 5,000 metres of sediment. This will uncover of value to mankind. Ant· would be seen as highly prospective if arctic scientists study biology, Antarctica as a Site for it occurred elsewhere in the world. geology, biochemistry and so on-all Monitoring the Earth's Scientific drilling in the Ross Sea and areas of study that may reveal unex· Environment surface sediment coring in the Ant· pected mineral occurrences or chem· Antarctica (both the continent and arctic Peninsula region have given icals of value to mankind. its surrounding ocean) is that part of good indications that hydrocarbons the Earth least affected by humanity's have been generated by maturation of Humanity's Influence on activities. It has the unusual glacial organic matter in Antarctic sediments, environment which prevents perma· although that in the Antarctic Penin· Antarctica For a long time, Antarctica was nent habitation and keeps an annual sula is probably in a very localised, record of pollutant input. It also has a high heat-flow area and thus means seen as a remote place, far from the influences of the acts of humanity else· series of environments (lakes, moss­ little. lichen fields, oases and so on) which There has been no systematic where on Earth. This is no longer so. It is now recognised that pollutants are sensitive to minor environmental search for hydrocarbons, no structures change. These aspects of Antarctica have been identified, and no explora· generated elsewhere find their way to Antarctica by atmospheric and make it the ideal locale to monitor the tion drilling has been performed. In condition of the world's environment fact Antarctic Treaty countries have, oceanic pathways. Radionuclides from atmospheric nuclear tests, for in a situation where local disturbance since 1975, maintained a moratorium is minimal. on exploration and exploitation of example, are known to be present in Antarctic ice. These can be used to A detailed knowledge of the minerals in Antarctica while a regime chemistry and biota of the Antarctic to govern such activities in the future date samples as each year's fallout has a unique composition. environment has been accumulating is negotiated. Negotiations on an Ant· for many years now and provides a arctic Minerals Regime began in 1982 Recently much concern has been voiced over the potential destruction useful baseline against which changes and are still continuing. can be measured. The South Pole has The technological problems of the ozone layer, particularly above Antarctica. The most significant fore· a complete Baseline Air Pollution Sta· associated with Antarctic oil produc· tion (another is at the aptly named tion would be major and one cannot seeable effect comes from burning of , fossil fuels around the Earth. This Cape Grim in Tasmania) and should a foresee hydrocarbon production marine equivalent ever develop, the within the next, say, 30 years. The produces carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen, collectively Antarctic ocean is an ideal site. prospects for Antarctic gas exploration Already, monitoring of the ozone are even more remote. referred to as 'greenhouse gases' because an increase of these gases in layer over Antarctica has shown that Tourism the atmosphere causes the Earth to there is now a marked seasonal Antarctica must provide tourists retain a higher proportion of the Sun's decrease in its strength-a feature that with one of the greatest attractions on heat, in turn causing the Earth to heat has developed over the last 20 years. Earth. The scenery, cleanliness, colour up like a greenhouse. This is referred Antarctica's environmental change is and generally pristine condition are to as the 'greenhouse effect'. issuing a warning to mankind. great drawcards. The content of carbon dioxide in Air tourism development was the atmosphere has increased from The Need for Careful Use of arrested by the 1979 Mt Erebus air· 270 parts per million (ppm) at the end Antarctica plane disaster which claimed 257 lives. of World War II to 345 ppm now. Antarctica is the only continent not However, this was a navigational error Projections of this rate of increase subject to exploitation. It is the only rather than a result of conditions pecu· have been made for the next 100 continent we can get to know before liar to the Antarctic, and one can only years and, if accurate, are important we use it. There is no significant local speculate that such flights will expand for mankind. input of pollutants and it is surrounded in the future. The predictions provide for a by an essentially unexploited ocean, For several years, shipboard general increase in atmospheric tern· other than for 200 years of whaling tourism on the MV Lindblad Explorer perature, with the rate greater in the and sealing, and small Antarctic Krill was conducted on a regular basis and polar regions than in the tropics. The and fin fish fisheries. included periodic visits to the Aus· estimated temperature rise in 75-100 It is important therefore that we tralian station on Macquarie Island. years for the Antarctic Peninsula care for it. It is essentially pristine Today only occasional trips are made. region is 5-8 ° C. This rise is enough, it and the best place on Earth to moni· Most tourist operations in Antarc· is believed, to lead to commencement tor the global effects of humanity's tica are and will be expensive because of melting of the West Antarctic ice activities. D

118 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 LETTERS Blazing Snail Trails

The article in the Autumn within the base of the plant 1986 issue of ANH (Vol. 21, during the dry season and No. 12), discussing the rele­ emerging to feed during the vance of controlled burning brief wet. Annual fires burn to the survival of certain fau­ the spinifex to ground level na of the Tanami Desert, has and, in some places, I have implications far beyond that found tuft after tuft of the desert. burnt, broad stem with a My area of expertise is cluster of five to six empty land snails, and my work shells lying within. In other over the past ten years has places where, according to involved me in much field early collectors at the turn work in 'arid Australia', from of the century, these snails the Flinders Ranges of South were collected in the Australia through the centre hundreds, today not one to the Kimberley region of live specimen has been the north-west. In those found. years I have seen fire, and its Other animals adversely effects, far too often. And affected by pastoralists' an­ mostly I have seen those nual conflagrations are ter­ fires on land exposed to mites. Contrary to common pastoral use, as distinct from thought, not all are wood­ the largely pristine state of eaters. Many, and probably the Tanami. most, of the termite mounds The article referred to dis­ seen in our 'desert' country cussed the long-term ramifi­ are made by grass-feeding cations of the absence of 'white ants', which annually 'normal' fire (that is, the ab­ do much in the way of recy­ sence of "small, periodically­ cling scarce nutrients by har­ lit fires") on the survival of vesting the dead grass and certain medium-sized ani­ leaves and carting it under­ mals. In much of the country ground where it is eventual­ where I have worked, but ly returned to the system. mostly in the Kimberleys, Annual burn-offs, which the altered pattern of fire eliminate much of their use has had a quite different food, must eventually mean effect. Here, the small, a large decrease in termites; periodically-lit fires of the and nutrients consumed by past have been replaced by fire would be leached out of large, annually-lit conflagra­ the remaining ashes. tions, which have probably I don't know what the an­ seen the extinction of sever­ swer is. I question whether al species of land snail and these annual burn-offs do doubtless many other spe­ much, if any, good. Certain­ cies of fauna and flora. ly in the short term they pro­ These annual burns are duce a small crop of green deliberately lit by pastora­ fodder, but at what long­ Specimens of the genus Rhagada. Several species have lists to produce a hopeful term expense to the system? been described, mostly from the shell only. With the high crop of green between the There must be eventual probability of the group becoming extinct, absence of annual rains. elimination of shrubs and preserved animals will mean that proper species definition The snails illustrated here, trees, with saplings being will forever remain unsolved. Photo: Kate Lowe. which are perhaps our most killed each year. Soil ex­ colourful, belong to the ge­ posure must enhance estab­ search is already under way strayed in the Top End will nus Rhagada of the family lishment of exotic plants. in this area, but if it is not it be finished off by man. Camaenidae. Most species Erosion must accelerate. In should be initiated immedi­ are closely associated with fact I can think of no lasting ately. Otherwise, what the -Phillip H. Colman spinifex, lying dormant benefit. It could be that re- Water Buffalo has not de- Australian Museum AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 119 .· . �- �- . '... . . QUIPS, QUOTES & CURIOS .

Who Said Sharks were discharged as not guilty. 'Armless? Despite ominous associa­ On the night of 17 April tions with insurance money, 1935, a small shark was drug trafficking, blackmail, hooked on a set line off etc., the fact remained that Maroubra Point (Sydney)-an the arm had no body and event of seemingly minor im­ without a body no inquest portance, that is, until a large could formally be held. After Tiger Shark (Caleocerdo ray­ much debate about how neri) decided to make a meal much of a body comprised 'a of it. It seized and swallowed body', the inquest was dis­ the smaller shark, becoming continued. Brady was later captive in its turn. The next tried upon a charge of mur­ morning the fishermen took der but the presiding judge directed the jury to acquit the shark to a Coogee aquari­ um and here it remained him on the grounds that the rather subdued for about a evidence was insufficient to week. On 25 April 1935, establish guilt. How James however, the shark began to Smith came by his grisly thrash and flail the water with death (that is, if he is dead) remains a mystery to this day. its tail and disgorged several pieces of decomposed flesh An Ode to Statistics and bones. Among this grisly collection of stomach con­ Sometime in the 1940s, a bi­ tents, to everyone's surprise, ologist was collecting butter­ was a human arm, almost un­ flies in Malaysia. He noticed affected by digestion. A pair that he collected some spe­ of boxers was tattooed on cies many times, some sever­ the forearm and a piece of al times and others only once. rope knotted around the He asked the statistician Sir wrist. Ronald Fisher to tell him how The arm was positively many species were there that identified as belonging to he did not catch, using only James Smith, amateur boxer, the number of times he had illegal S.P. bookmaker, billiard caught each species ... a seem­ room owner and bankrupted ingly unanswerable question builder, who had disap­ to the average person. peared under mysterious cir­ However, according to Fish­ cumstances. He had er, Corbet and Williams (/. apparently been murdered Anim. Ecol. 1943, vol. 12, p. and his dismembered body 42), if one assumes that the disposed of at sea. numbers of butterflies that Of all the thousands of are captured are in propor­ sharks on the Australian tion to how many of each coast, the fishermen had species there are, and that the caught the one that had swal­ and was later sunk. Holmes claimed that he had been butterflies are randomly dis­ lowed the only and damning told police that he was black­ shot by an unknown assailant tributed in space and time, clue to James Smith's alleged mailed about the sinking by near his home and took to the number of species murder. Patrick Brady and that Brady the speedboat to escape fur­ present, but not caught, can According to various had confessed to him the ther injury, having mistaken be estimated. sources, the story goes some­ murder of Smith. Brady was the police for his attacker. Fisher's 'negative binomial thing like this: Smith was em­ arrested on 17 May and held An inquest on Smith's death model', as it is called, was ployed by Holmes, a Sydney on an unrelated forgery was arranged for 12 June, but used-just for fun-in an ana­ boat builder, as caretaker of a charge. Three days later Hol­ the key witness, Holmes, was lysis of Shakespeare's vocabu­ launch, which had apparently mes, with a bullet in his head, shot dead the evening be­ lary by B. Efron from Stanford been involved in insurance was involved in a speedboat fore. Two suspects for Hol­ University and his student at frauds and drug trafficking chase by the police. He mes' murder were later the time, R. Thisted, now at 120 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 - - 'r! . come and see ·em at the l Compiled by Georgina Hickey . . australian

the University of Chicago (Bi­ works. In a poem by John omet ri ka 1976, vol. 63, Donne, for example, there p. 435). Basing their work on were 17 words that the information that Shakespeare had never used mus•• Shakespeare used a total of (predicted number for a 884,647 words in all his poem of that length was only There's always something to see and known works, with a vocabu­ eight-7.91 in fact). do at the Australian Museum lary of 31,534 different words; So, although the analysis and that 14,376 of these cannot prove absolutely that words appeared once, 4,343 Shakespeare wrote the Planet of Minerals appeared twice, 2,292 three poem, there is no convincing Discover the wealth of times ...five 100 times, Efron evidence to reject the minerals hidden beneath and Thisted predicted that hypothesis that he did. our Earth. Walk inside a the discovery of a new giant replica of a quartz Shall I die? Shall I fly volume of Shakespeare, crystal, explore a Lovers' baits and deceits, limestone cave and a equal in length to his old, sorrow breeding? mine. Try our mineral would contain 11,430±178 Shall I tend? Shall I send? wheel-of-fortune which new words not previously Shall I sue, and not rue explains the composition of minerals and see the used. In this study, a word is my proceeding? finest collection of Broken Hill specimens in the defined as any distinguishable In all duty her beauty world. arrangement of letters; Binds me her servant for ever, plurals, for example, are If she scorn, I mourn, counted as new words. I retire to despair, 1oymg never. TAMS It never occurred to the [1st of nine verses] The Australian Museum Society statisticians that they might conducts lectures, trips, special sneak ever have a chance to put previews of exhibitions. films, dinners Beagle Business and parties. Phone for details and a their analysis to the test... un­ free brochure 339 8225. til November 1985 when an Here's a piece of trivia that anonymous nine-stanza may or may not amuse the poem was found in the Bod­ dog-lover. It is also an exam­ The Discovery Room leian Library (Oxford, ple of research that seems to Our new interactive - 'hands­ England). advantage neither the sub­ on' - room is open every week­ The poem consists of 429 ject, researcher nor man on end and all through the school words, of which Efron and the street. holidays from 1 Oam-4pm. Thisted predict 6.97±2.64 to R.H. Sprague and J.J. Anisko, Manage a rainforest using an be new_ The actual number of IBM computer, discover your from the University of Califor­ own fossil, learn different words never used before by nia at Berkeley, set out to languages and conduct a wave tank experiment. Shakespeare is nine (admira­ show that the general idea of Activities are always changing and parents are tions, besots, exiles, inflec­ a sexually dimorphic urination welcome too! tion, joying, scanty, speck, pattern in the domestic dog tormentor and explain). was indeed oversimplified Seven of the words had been and in some respects untrue Free Guided Tours used once before by (Behaviour 1973, vol. 47, p. Highlight tours leave at 12, 2 and 3_3Qpm every Shakespeare (Efron and Thist­ 257). Adult males were gener­ day from the College Street information desk. ed predicted 4.21 ±2_05); five ally assumed to raise a leg and Specialist tours can be arranged for special had appeared twice before urinate on vertical surfaces (as interest groups and clubs by phoning 339 8382. (3.33± 1.83 were predicted); part of their scent-marking be­ and so on up to none that had haviour), while females, appeared 99 times before merely squatted and urinated open Tuesday-Sunday & holidays 1 oam-spm, (0.32±.030 predicted; April on the ground_ Mondays noon-Spm. Phone 339 8111 for 1986, Univ. Chicago, Dept After five weeks of obser­ details of temporary exhibitions. Stats, Tech. Rep. No. 195). serving urination and defeca­ Other poets' works were tion in 62 female and 62 male australian also tested but none was Beagles, 12 distinct 'elimina­ even close to the predictions tion postures' were recorded based on Efron and Thisted's (see diagram reproduced museum6-8 College St. Sydney analysis of Shakespeare's here). Their data tended to

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 121 .

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support the male urination as­ urinate and aim at vertical sur­ sumption but cast doubts on faces? And why do males that of the female: 11.6 per sometimes lift a leg to defe­ cent of female urinations cate? Who knows? And, for were directed at vertical tar­ that matter, does anyone gets. Also discovered was the care? fact that females used a great­ er variety of postures than Pink Dolphin: An Amaz­ males (females mostly 'squat­ ing Animal of the ted' and 'squat-raised' but also 'flex-raised', 'raised', 'elevat­ Amazon ed', 'leant' and 'did hand­ As modern fishing and hunt­ stands'; whereas males ing technology is introduced mainly 'elevated' or 'raised' into the Amazon basin in and sometimes 'squat-raised' South America, the number Growing up to three metres Amazon River Dolphins' eyes, and 'leant-raised'). of dolphins being killed is in length, it is the largest of all thought by many to be good Sprague and Anisko also drastically increasing. Dolphin the freshwater dolphins luck charms. Photo: courtesy went into details of the Bea­ organs are considered by (there being three others Earth Alert!. gles' defecation postures. Five many to have magical or found in China, India and Ar­ were used by males (arch, 'lucky' properties. The eye­ gentina). phin's diet, which consists elevate, arch-raise, standing balls are considered good The Amazon River Dolphin mainly of fish, river turtles and and raise; elevate and raise luck charms, their sexual or­ has many characteristics that small crustaceans, includes being postures thought previ­ gans to attract the opposite differentiate it not only from the infamous piranha fish. ously only to be associated sex, and other organs are marine dolphins but also from There is no record of the with urination); and two by fe­ thought to have powers of the other freshwater dol­ dolphins being attacked by males (arch and elevate). healing. phins. The most obvious is its piranha and it is thought to What is interesting, however, These beliefs are not res­ skin colouration. This some­ use its sonar as a stunning is that both sexes were tricted to the isolated villages times changes from greyish­ mechanism. recorded defecating on verti­ of the Amazon. Many people white to pink and back again No one knows how many of cal targets-very messy! from industrialised Brazilian over a period of time (hence these intriguing animals are Various questions are cities, and even European the name 'Pink Dolphin'). No left in the Amazon River but raised, such as why do female tourists, buy dolphin organs extensive research has been they are suffering from many Beagles sometimes lift a leg to to use in voodoo rituals and carried out to explain this factors. One is habitat des­ potions, or as 'lucky charms'. change in colour but it is truction due to pesticides, Elimination postures of the The dolphin at issue is the probably due to a change in herbicides and the damming humble Beagle according to Amazon River Dolphin or water environment, diet or of rivers, not to mention the Sprague and Anisko (1973). Pink Dolphin (lnia geoffrensis). both. use of modern maximum­ Another special characteris­ yield fishing aids that destroy tic of the Amazon River Dol­ their food base. However, the phin is the unfused vertebrae main factor affecting their in its neck. This allows the dol­ numbers is hunting by people phin to turn its head 90°, the who sell the dolphins' body only dolphin able to do so, parts as curios, sexual attrac­ and is an adaptation enabling tants, aphrodisiacs and good .,��STAND , ,..�1{� L�LEAN _@RAISE ELEVATE it to better manoeuvre on luck charms. A dolphin eye­ and off mud banks to search ball may be sold for three dol­ for food. It is on these mud lars, their jawbones for five, banks and in shallow waters and an entire dolphin for 20 that these dolphins use dollars. In an area where two -���� UAN·"''" mx ..... another physical feature dollars is a good daily wage, ' . found in no other dolphin-a these tourist sales are consi­ . . sixth 'finger' in the bones of dered lucrative. The Pink Dol­ the flipper. This helps the dol­ phin Project (P.O. Box 38037, phin to raise its head to ob­ Hollywood, 90038), which is surface activities or ,. HANDSTA�ND �ARCH �SQUATtl�-RAISE ARCH-RAISE serve organised by Earth Alert!, is a move about in shallow water. campaign to savethese amaz­ The Amazon River Doi- ing animals of the Amazon. D

122 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 ew Australian bats have as wide a distribution as the Lesser Long­ eared Bat (Nyctophilus geoff­ royi).F It is found throughout the conti­ nent including Cape York Peninsula and is widespread in Tasmania. The species lives in a great range of environments-from the arid regions of central and Western Australia to near the summit of Mt Kosciusko. One of the few environments it does not seem to prefer on the mainland, how­ ever, is rainforest. The Lesser Long-eared Bat belongs to the genus of some eight other long­ eared species restricted to Australia and New Guinea. The distinctive ears fold down when the animal is asleep or frightened and, in combination with the noseleaf, make these bats an easy group to recognise. The function of the noseleaf is unknown but is thought to be related to the ultrasonic calls emitted through the mouth and nostrils. While we usually associate bats with caves, the majority of Australian .,; species in fact shelter in cavities in ..:.,:... trees or under loose bark. The Lesser = Long-eared Bat is no exception. Occa­ z sionally, however, it is found in caves z and solitary individuals have even 0 -0 turned up under rocks on the ground. .c Dietary preferences of this species 0... are unknown but a range of inverte­ foliage or branches, but this has not age. Young are born naked and the brates including moths, huntsman been confirmed for the Lesser Long­ eyes and ears are closed. The long spiders and beetles have been found eared Bat. ears are floppy and do not start to be­ in the stomach contents of the few in­ The average life span of the Lesser come erect until about a week. By four dividuals examined. The species is a Long-eared Bat is unknown but, if bet­ days, the bats are stretching their highly manoeuvrable flier and is able ter known species are any guide, it is wings and at about two weeks start to to hover. It emits ultrasonic calls for probably between 10 and 20 years. glide but are incapable of sustained navigation and communication, which Despite their long life spans, bats tend flapping flight until after about three are of low intensity compared to other to reach adult size rapidly. Research at weeks. Australian insectivorous species. Re­ T aronga Park Zoo on a related species As is ironically but frequently the search on various overseas species in­ (Gould's Long-eared Bat, N. gouldi} case with common, widespread Aus­ dicates that highly manoeuvrable may give some insight into growth and tralian animals, we know very few de­ species with relatively long ears and development of the Lesser Long-eared tails of the biology and life history of low intensity echolocation calls are of­ Bat. In Gould's Long-eared Bat, adult the Lesser Long-eared Bat.O ten 'gleaners', that is they grab prey off size is reached at about three weeks of - Harry Parnaby AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 123 RARE & ENDANGERED Norfolk Island Gre

124 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 en Parrot

t is often the case when consider­ European Starlings have become es­ ing the plight of an endangered tablished on Norfolk Island and have species that there has been a re­ contributed to the decline of the par­ centI and dramatic population decline. rot. Rats and some exotic bird species However, in the case of the Norfolk ls­ compete with the parrot for nesting -FLIGHT­ land Green Parrot (C yanoramphus sites in tree hollows; rats take the eggs novaezelandiae cooki1) it appears that and nestlings; and cats prey on the un­ THROUGH THE the bird has been rare and endan­ wary newly-fledged youngsters. gered for over a century. Events of the The dense native subtropical last decade or two have only com­ vegetation of the island has all but SPECTACULAR pounded its vulnerable position. been removed-only 20 hectares (less When Norfolk Island was first set­ than one per cent of the island) re­ LAND•OF•THE tled in 1788, the Green Parrot was a mains as weed-free native forest. This common forest bird. It was often en­ reduces the availability of nesting sites DREAMTIME countered in flocks especially when and forces the birds to become depen­ feeding. By 1869 comments made by dent on exotic food sources for at a visiting naturalist indicated that the least some of the year. 14 DAYS population of Green Parrots was in de­ To add to all these pressures, a cline. At the beginning of this century disease outbreak was detected in FROM SYDNEY TO: Flinders the Chief Magistrate protected the Crimson Rosellas on the island in Ranges (S.A.) - Coober Pedy - bird under a special protection order, 1976. The population of rosellas Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Olgas - which only allowed the parrot to be declined dramatically. In 1977 a Green Alice Springs - West and East destroyed if it was actually eating fruit Parrot was reported with this disease. Kimberley Regions (W.A.) or crops. Although not confirmed, it dramatical­ Broome - Ord River Scheme - In 1969 the population of Green ly emphasised the vulnerability of the Bathurst Island (Timar Sea) - Parrots was put at 'several pairs' and in tiny remaining population of Green Darwin - Katherine Gorge - 1975 between 20 and 40. In 1978 the Parrots. Kakadu National Park - Arnhem Royal Australasian Ornithologists' In 1983, a combined effort of the Land Region - Gulf of Carpentaria Union, together with members of the Norfolk Island Government, Lions - Carnarvon National Park (Qld) - two Norfolk Island natural history soci­ Club and the Australian National Parks Sydney. eties, conducted comprehensive sur­ and Wildlife Service established a cap­ veys of the Green Parrots. More than tive colony of Green Parrots on the is­ 70 people were involved in an land. This was seen by all concerned We are looking for a small group observer-point census on the morning to be a highly risky project and one for this unique flight into remote of 4 December 1978. The population that had no guarantee of success. areas. Aircraft: comfortable, of Green Parrots was calculated to However, it seemed to be the Green modern, turbo-charged Navajo contain between 17 and 30 birds. Fur­ Parrot's only chance and the only way Chieftains. ther comparable surveys were done in of immediately halting its continuing 1981. Although population estimates decline. A small number of birds is could not be calculated it was disturb­ now established in captivity but there Departure dates for 1987: ing to discover that the population has been no attempt by them to May 2, June 13, July 25, had continued to decline since the breed. Of more long-term importance, 15, 12. 1978 survey. the best remaining habitat for the par­ August September The decline of the Norfolk Island rots (and many other endemics) has Green Parrot has been a textbook ex­ been included in the Norfolk Island INQUIRIES AS SOON AS PRACTICABLE ample of the impact of discovery and National Park. This was declared early Please phone or write to: settlement on an indigenous species in 1986. Programs to control exotic of a previously uninhabited island. birds and mammals, and to reverse FLIGHT THROUGH THE In the early years of settlement the decline of the native forest, have SPECTACULAR LAND OF the Green Parrot was considered a commenced. THE DREAMTIME PTY. LTD. pest in gardens, orchards and crops. Although the plight of the Norfolk Level 59 MLC Centre Consequently large numbers of Green Island Green Parrot is still precarious, Martin Place, Sydney 2000. Parrots were shot by the first settlers. significant steps have now been taken Phone: (02) 260 0207 to secure its future. D Exotic species including Black 24 hours a day - 7 days a week Rats, feral cats, Crimson Rosellas and -Neil Hermes AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 125 Text and Photos by Tim low

Pigweed (Portulaca oleracea) is a fleshy herb of bare open soil, able to tolerate hot, dry conditions. The leaves and stems are used in soups and omelettes.

The Yellow Wood-sorrel (Oxa/is corniculata) has heart-shaped leaflets, creeping stems, cylindrical seed pods and bright yel­ low flowers. Wonderful Weeds uropean settlement of Australia brought in its wake thou­ sands of weeds from overseas. Weed seeds were stow­ E aways aboard the First Fleet in 1788 and ever since then they have been arriving, mainly from Europe, Asia and South America. So prolific has been the invasion that it has obscured one interesting point-that some of the weeds were here all along. Consider Pigweed (Portu/aca o/eracea). Easily identified by its fleshy triangular leaves and tiny yellow flowers, Pigweed occurs more or less world-wide and throughout much of Aus­ tralia, both as a weed of farms and gardens, and as a herb of inland plains. Inland plants have narrower, darker leaves. They sprout in profusion after rain and formed an important food of Aborigines, who heaped them onto kangaroo skins or bark sheets until the tiny seeds fell out. Ground into flour and baked as cakes, these seeds served as staple foods, for they are rich in oil. Indeed, old Pigweed grinding stones can be recognised by their oily sheen. The outback Pigweed is clearly a native plant, its use by Aborigines pre-dating European settlement. The weedy form, on the other hand, was probably introduced, perhaps in pot· Common Sowthistle (Sonchus o/eraceus) has shiny leaves ting soil from England long ago. Native Pigweed probably and bright yellow flowers, each of which opens only once, reached Australia on the feet of prehistoric birds, or by other during the morning. Sowthistle leaves taste just like Endive. means. In isolation, it has evolved distinct features, but is not

126 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 different enough to be considered a separate species. Both forms have edible leavesand the weedy form is eaten through­ out much of the world, being cultivated on a small scale in Europe. SPIRIT MASK• SMILING HEADS• TYRANNO Yellow Wood-sorrel (Oxalis corniculata) is another very S•BELEMNITES • PLESOSAURS•Z widespread, edible weed. Its heart-shaped leaflets are grouped oks•PENIS GOURD• in threes and the flowers have five yellow petals. Like Pig­ DlffiERI weed, it flourishes in suburban gardens and often sprouts in •DI pavement cracks. This plant, or something very like it, grows in many native habitats: along coastal dunes, rainforest edges and inland river flats. Again, there are old records of Aborigines eating such plants: tribes ate the roots in South Australia last century and harvested the leaves in Victoria and northern South Australia. The wood-sorrels that grow in native habitats do differ slightly from the urban plants.and botanists now recog­ nise them as Australian native species. Wood-sorrels (probably the weedy form) were also eaten by early settlers. Victorian gold-miners nibbled the sour leaves to allay scurvy and Tasmanian settlers baked them in tarts (they were said to taste like barberries). Wood-sorrel leaves are also eaten in Asia. Looking at Pigweed and Yellow Wood-sorrel, it seems obvious that both native and introduced populations occur and are closely allied. With other weeds we can be less cer­ tain. Self-heal (Prune/la vulgaris) is named for its use in Europe in herbal cures. In Australia it sprouts beside streams in native forests and behaves like a native plant-but is it? We will prob­ ably never know for sure. In some cases anthropological data can help us decide. The Commonwealth publication series The Flora of Australia lists Marsh Cress (Rorippa palustris) as introduced, yet there are old records of Aborigines gathering it for food. Also, Joseph Banks collected a specimen in New Zealand in about 1770. I feel convinced it is native, its seeds being conveyed here • RAP long ago on the feathers of water birds. UINEA ARf Anthropological data may also force a reassessment of the EFACTS•boo STRALIAN DIAMONDS•AME Common Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus), an untidy weed with NOPHIS lll•HEAD OF A PRINCESS•books•books hollow stems, milky latex and yellow flowers. Most authori­ •books•KUNDU DRUM•FEATHERH�DBANQS.e 1 ties list this as an introduced plant. It certainly behaves like TEETH•books•OPALISEDfr.)S_SILS �s•V. , one, running riot in gardens and waste allotments. Yet there TIONAL TORRES STRAIT � • • are numerous old records of Aborigines eating the leaves and MASK• books• CULT H even the explorers George Grey, John Stuart and Ernest Giles •books•GLYPfODON made use of them. It seems that there are introduced popula­ PPOS •BERETS• books• tions as well as a native form which, through interbreeding, CORPIONS •BUTTERFLIES• may soon cease to exist. ELLERY• books• books• M Sowthistles, like wood-sorrels, are abundant in national EPARED MICROSCOPE S parks, where their uncertain status creates a curious ambigui­ LIAN EMERALDS • CALEJ ty. Do we uproot them as weeds or cherish them as part of our native flora? CODILES •books• SPEA In any event, these plants are good eating, proving ideal BOAB NUTS• PULl:AlDN��- as ingredients in spinach pies, soups and souffles. Raw leaves TRAVELLERS CHEQUES•VISA CARD• of the Common Sowthistle taste exactly like Endive (Cichori­ MASTERCARD• BANKCARD• AMERICAN um endivia), to which it is closely related, and Yellow Wood­ sorrel leaves have the flavour of true Sorrel (Rumex acetosa). EXPRESS• FOREIGN CURRENCY• Pigweed leaves, although slimy in texture, are good in salads CHEQU ES•CASH and sauces. These edible weeds, and others of their ilk, are Write or phone for our free the most accessible wild foods in Australia, growing in most colour catalogue: urban environments. A range of recipes for using them can The Australian Museum Shop be found in my book Wild Herbs of Australia and New Zealand P.O. Box A285, Sydney (Angus & Robertson, 1985). South, NSW 2000 Happy eating! � 6-8 College St, Sydney ,� Phone: (02) 339 8350

� � � AUSTRALIAN NATURAL � 127 comprises 32 species (which are here collectively referred to as 'dolphins'). With the exception of the Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Spinner Dolphin (Stella longirostris) and Killer Whale (Orcinus area), largest of the dolphins, little is known about the lives of any of these animals in the wild. Life in water requires far different capabilities than life on land, and dol­ phins and men are each remarkably well-adapted to their respective en­ vironments. Little wonder that as visually-oriented, terrestrial beings we cannot yet assess the intelligence of these sound-oriented aquatic animals. Inter-specific communication is not possible now and until a dolphin can tell us what it 'thinks' of life in captivity or life in the wild, conclusions drawn will inevitably be personal interpreta­ tions of the evidence, based on an in­ dividual's experience, knowledge and value systems. There is a myriad of questions to which we have no answers at present. For example, are there conditions un­ der which captivity is acceptable? Is death in the wild better than life in captivity? If the benefits gained from keeping dolphins in captivity include increased survival for more dolphins in the wild, do the 'rights' of the benefit­ ed group transcend the 'rights' of the individual? In each of these questions we can replace the word 'dolphin' with that of any other animal including humans. The very words 'in captivity' carry with them negative connotations, yet DOLPHINS the opposite-life in the wild-is also bound by spatial, behavioural and in­ in captivity dividual limitations. The never-ending by Laura Mumaw hunts for food, evasion of predators, the rigour of established social pat­ terns and the urges of the breeding n an emotional atmosphere with tions, various State governments have ritual are all set against the constant claims and counterclaims-of dol­ already taken actions on its basis. The threat of illness and death. phins dying in captivity, of the Report documents the "heated and How can we assess the conditions needI to close all oceanaria, of animal often acrimonious debate" that of life in captivity? Mortality, longevity rights and human responsibilities-the accompanied presentation of evi­ and reproductive rates are three com­ Senate Select Committee on Animal dence and its interpretation. Similar monly used gauges. These rates vary Welfare released its report Dolphins committees overseas have taken the with the species, oceanarium and time and Whales in Captivity (also called same evidence and reached different under consideration, but if one takes the 'Georges Report' after the Com­ conclusions (for example, in New the four commonest dolphin species mittee Chairman) late last year. Zealand, the Officials Working Party in captivity-Bottlenose Dolphin, Killer Although the Federal Minister for the Report on the issuing of dolphin catch­ Whale, Pacific White-sided Dolphin Environment, Mr Barry Cohen, has not ing permits). Why? (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) and Be­ yet responded to its recommenda- The dolphin family, Delphinidae, luga Whale (Delphinapterus /eucas)-

128 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 and examines current reputable insti­ were first discovered. The early dol­ oceanaria. (Incidental net kil� of dol­ tutions, the data suggest a mortality phinaria brought dolphins to the pub­ phins has dropped from 100,000 to rate of four to seven per cent per year, lic's attention in a way that not only 17,000 per year in the last ten years­ an average survival in captivity of ten won their hearts but tempered their far greater than the estimated 500 years and a longevity record of 37 attitudes towards other cetaceans. animals in captivity world-wide.) Feed­ years. Since 1979 there have been at The population collapse of many ing and growth rates, longevity and least 60 recorded Bottlenose Dolphin whales by the 1950s, the awareness of reproductive biology are among the births. It is difficult to evaluate these the fragility of Earth's ecology in the data obtained from captive animals statistics: the data is not readily availa­ '60s, our visits to oceanaria and view­ that can be corrected and extrapolat­ ble and not available in relation to ing of "Flipper" on television, all com­ ed to assist in understanding and reproductive and absolute age of cap­ bined to make us acutely aware of managing wild populations. tive individuals, groupings by sex, or cetaceans and their plight. A number of the recommenda­ age of oceanarium. Even more signifi­ In 1972 the Marine Mammal Pro­ tions made by the Georges Report are cant, mortality, longevity and tection Act was passed in the United widely accepted: that standards for reproductive rates in the wild are un­ States, one of the first such acts of na­ the maintenance and care of ceta­ available for comparison. Nonethe­ tional protective legislation (now be­ ceans be drawn up (including financial less, there do exist standards for the ing enacted in Australia). Proponents viability of an institution); that ocean­ physical features of oceanaria and hus­ of oceanaria claim that direct contact aria be given a specified time to com­ bandry techniques, which have so far with dolphins is still needed to keep ply with these standards; that proven successful in keeping certain alive public awareness and concern education and research be a significant species of dolphin alive in captivity for for them. Opponents feel that media, component of an oceanarium's activi­ a number of years. ties; that oceanaria display natural These are the physical measures; forms of behaviour; that facilities more but what of the animals' psychological closely approximate the cetacean's needs? We do not know or agree on "Is death natural environment. what these are and how they can be One far-sighted and praiseworthy measured. The claims that dolphins go in the wild recommendation, recognising our mute in captivity or undergo brain better than life continuing need to gather information shrinkage have been proven false in in captivity ? " and modify our actions as necessary, the first case and unsubstantiated in suggests that a national advisory body the second. It cannot be denied that be established "to advise the Federal the transition from the wild to the cap­ and State governments on matters tive state involves substantial change. film and video presentations can have relating to cetacea, both captive and The older or less adaptable an animal the same results. But when it comes to in the wild and to encourage and mo­ and the more different the captive en­ learning more about these animals, nitor research in this area". vironment, the more difficult the not only for our sakes but primarily for Ironically, the remaining recom­ process would seem to be. But the theirs, it is idealistic to think that infor­ mendations greatly limit, if not pre­ claim that an 'intelligent' animal would mation can be obtained well enough vent, us from doing so. These find captivity or the adjustment to it from land or vessel-based studies of propose: that no further facilities for more stressful than another less 'intel­ wild animals. keeping captive cetaceans be permit­ ligent' animal cannot be justified; one The grim fact is that dolphins and ted; that no cetacean be captured in need only examine analogues in the whales face threats from man and Commonwealth or State waters; that human realm. these are likely to increase: the dump­ importation of cetaceans be banned; For the most part, our information ing of toxic wastes at sea; the harvest­ that oceanaria only rescue and re­ about dolphins comes from work and ing of shared food resources; acoustic habilitate sick and stranded cetaceans observations on them in captivity. It disturbance from sonic testing and if they return them to the wild; that was in 1946 that the first captive boat traffic; and building of resorts, the keeping of cetaceans in existing breeding colony of Bottlenose Dol­ breakwaters and coastal facilities. Our oceanaria be phased out "unless fur­ phins was established at Marineland, ability to find solutions is dependent ther research justifies their continu­ Florida, in the United States. (The first on our understanding of these animals ance". But what "further research" can calf born there-a female named Spray and identification of the problems that be intended under these conditions? in 1947-gave birth to five calves her­ our marine-based activities may cause. The issue of keeping dolphins in self and lived for 22 years.) New infor­ Methods of transporting, handling and captivity has no easy answers. In seek­ mation dispelling erroneous beliefs giving first aid to stranded dolphins ing solutions, let us admit our feelings came from Marineland daily: dolphins and whales have come from tech­ (tempered with reason and wisdom), had good vision in air as well as water; niques developed in oceanaria. heed intuition (modified by experience they made a variety of sounds; they Methods of diverting dolphins from and learning) and understand, as fully slept in brief naps day and night. The fish nets, such as the application of sur­ as possible, all the consequences of dolphin's echolocating capabilities face float lines, have been tested in our actions. D

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 129 BOOK REVIEWS Basically Botanical

The Flowering of the 1950-60s, J. Beaglehole death of a Greyhound rated Pacific; Being an edited the massive a longer entry in his journal Account of Joseph Endeavour journals of James than the demise of shipmate Banks' Travels in the Cook and Joseph Banks; Sydney Parkinson, who South Seas and the and, in the late 1970s, prepared the original Story of His Alecto Historical Editions illustrations for the Florilegium. commenced printing the Florilegium. In fact the Brian Adams. Collins, 738 botanical plates Florilegium could more Sydney, 1986, 194pp. produced by the accurately be called the $39.95. Endeavour's voyage. Parkinson Florilegium, In April 1 770, upon These three achievements, Banks' contributions were sighting the coastline of each of heroic magnitude, financial and managerial. Australia, James Cook's have been condensed to Adams does a good job in Endeavour sailed into manageable size by Brian rendering the Endeavour's Australian mythology. In Adams in his The Flowering voyage and its participants The Encyclopaedia of addition to the of the Pacific. Adams' book approachable by the general Reptiles and reconnaissance of the coast digests the approximately reader. In chasing that Amphibians of eastern Australia, the 1,400 pages of the accessibility, Adams indulges in considerable Edited by T.R. Halliday and major achievements of the Beaglehole editions, and Endeavour's three year supplemental information journalistic licence, not the K. Adler. George Allen circumnavigation of the from diaries such as that of least of which is his pre­ and Unwin, Sydney, 1986, occupation with Joseph xvi + 142pp. $39.95. globe included the Sydney Parkinson, into a observation of the transit of very readable 194 page Banks' sex life. This 'Dallas­ This is a superb overview Venus and the charting of book. ification' of the story is of the living amphibians and much of the coastline of The book, as the subtitle evident throughout much of reptiles of the world and New Zealand. Under the indicates, is really the story the text and may be related their biology. It is written auspices of supernumerary of Joseph Banks. The to the need to spice up the and edited by a group of Joseph Banks, the botanical definitive biography of documentary film which professional biologists and results of the voyage were Banks has yet to appear but Adams developed on the illustrated with many good of similarly impressive Banks seems to have been a same subject. to excellent graphs, maps, proportions. During the fairly callow youth. The Other quibbles are minor. drawings, paintings and pho· Adams' unfamiliarity with tographs. Information is or­ the 18th century sometimes ganised along both taxono­ becomes apparent. He mic and topical lines, thus misinterprets Sydney catering to the two current THE FLOWERING Parkinson's description of approaches to herpetology. OF THE PACIFIC the plants of Tierra del The illustrations are both Brun Adams Fuego ("nondescript") to informative and striking and indicate that they were are dispersed through the ordinary. Parkinson meant text in a manner that en­ almost exactly the opposite sures that each turned page for nondescript was a brings a new visual delight. synonym for undescribed­ This book would be a the plants were therefore good general reference for unknown to science. anyone wanting an introduc· For those who can not tion to any taxonomic group afford the $100,000 of amphibians or reptiles at necessary to purchase the the family level or higher, or complete Florilegium, or to many of the current several hundred dollars for a topics in their biology. It single print, the plates in 8dng an ao.."OWM of would make an excellent gift jo8tph Banb'the ln\"dsin Adams' book, or the �th Sea., and lhc Florilegium for any young person show­ storyoihhFIOrll,gi,mr poster sold by ing tendencies toward a the State Library of New scientific interest in herpe­ South Wales, form a tology. reasonable alternative. -Dr Allen Greer -Colin Finney

130 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 The Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. THE ROYAL A History 1816-1985. BOT,i '\'IC GARDENS. Lionel Gilbert. Oxford Uni­ SlDSEY versity Press, Melbourne, A H;story 1816-1985 Liond Gilbert 1986, 210pp. $39.95.

When the English settled a new country they would first found a Club. Usually within a few years they would establish a botanical garden. Botanising was, after all, one of the preoccupa­ tions of explorers, although not stemming from a love of plants so much as of plant products. The Vikings, for as that alleged to have taken example, were delighted to place at the sister institution, find grape vines growing the museum. There was, wild in Vinland, while the however, much political in­ Europeans' need for good fighting with directors and spices for meat that was botanists against governors past its prime was the stimu­ or governments, and at least lus for much of the colonisa­ one action, and counterac­ tion of the(ir) Far East. tion, resulting from a mar­ Although the official foun­ ried couple being unduly dation date of Sydney's Roy­ uxorious in the gardens. At al Botanic Gardens is 13 the end we appreciate the Rainforests of Australia This book should fire an in­ June 1816, and although Dr great contributions of men Edited by Penny Figgis, terest in their fate, an intent Lionel Gilbert's book is sub­ like Kidd, Moore, Maiden, photos by Leo Meier. no doubt of its contributors, titled A History 1816-1985, the Cunningham brothers We/dons Pty Ltd, Sydney, most of whom are promi­ cultivation beg.an there wi­ and the later directors, and 1985, 264pp. nent conservationists. thin a few months of the ar­ of the Gardens themselves, $35.00. An informative text looks rival of the First Fleet when to Australia. What was it Writers about rainforests at each major rainforest cat­ Phillip tried to make the new that Jonathan Swift said in often babble on about the egory in terms of its loca­ colony self-sufficient by es­ his Gulliver's Travels (1726)? unending variety of rain­ tion, structure, flora, fauna tablishing a farm on the The man who makes two forest animals and plants. and conservation. We are site-"nine acres in corn". blades of grass grow in place What makes this book reminded that three quart­ Despite the drawbacks of of one is worth more than refreshing is its emphasis on ers of Australia's rainforests the site-poor soil, too near the whole pack of poli­ the variety of the rainforests were destroyed during the the sea and subjection to ticians. themselves. The reader is last two centuries, often to floods-plants have been One small criticism, but shown not only the familiar be replaced by weed­ cultivated there ever since, of the genus and not of the tropical and temperate rain­ infested pastures of low fer­ although true farming quick­ species. Because histories of forests but also the lesser­ tility. Superb photos by Leo ly shifted elsewhere. Gil­ this kind must record every­ known monsoon forests, Meier create an enduring bert's excellent history con­ thing, almost down to the brigalow softwood scrubs, feel for each rainforest habi­ sequently traces these early last spade and barrow, it Araucarian vine thickets and tat, although they do not days and, indeed, extends does slow the narrative for the like. closely complement the back to the arrival of Cook the general reader. Perhaps This emphasis is timely, for text. The conservation mes­ and Banks. some details could have certain of the so-called 'dry' sage remains understated I can't say that it is an excit­ been banished to appen­ rainforests of inland but compelling, a welcome ing story, but it is a worthy dices for the benefit of the Queensland, like the bottle sign of the Australian con­ and interesting one. There specialists. Despite this con­ tree scrubs, endure more servation movement's in­ were no sackings like that of straint, Gilbert has produced precariously than the wet creasing sophistication. Mueller in Melbourne; nor a book that is well worth rainforests of the coasts. -Tim low sales of dirty postcards such reading. -Arthur Woods AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 131 t was my belief, until recently, curriculum and about aspects of the the status of a scientific model. Evolu­ that creationism in Australia was funding of the creation 'science' move­ tion is just such a model-a vast body little more than a nuisance. Even ment (a grant from the Export Market of ideas that has been, and continues I Development Board for $24,693; and to be, tested and modified. The theory though I was aware of the serious challenge the movement presents to the surprising loss 'written off' of of evolution is no mere specu­ rationalism and learning in North $92,358 for Creation Science Founda­ lation-the evidence supporting its America, I thought we were protected tion funds), Mr Powell dismissed them theories is overwhelming, despite here by a mixture of good sense and as the ill-informed mouthings of an arguments about punctuated equilib­ good practice. Not so. outsider. ria, missing links and so on. Creationists, and in particular a So what has been the nature of As for saying that both science small but vocal group known as crea­ the directive, given by the Minister in and religion are 'beliefs' and so may be tion 'scientists', have had a disturqing 1984, to reinforce the practice of brought together by teachers, Profes­ influence on the teaching of science in 'balance' whenever evolution is taught sor Michael Archer from the University the United States. Many text books in Queensland schools? He says it is of New South Wales wrote this in a let­ have been rendered useless or mis­ merely to reiterate the policy of his ter to the New South Wales State leading, and educators now fear that predecessor, first given in 1981, which Government in June 1986 about the this sanitising of biology will help was to prevent young people having proposal to teach creationism in produce a generation of scientific il­ their religious beliefs undermined by science classes: literates. There has been a similar at­ alternative theories.I replied that most "It would represent the gravest of tempt, in many of our schools, to theologians actually say that science mistakes to recommend, for whatever 'balance' the science curriculum with and Christian faith are not in conflict reasons, the teaching of any aspect of religious material-and not only in and that there is no need for biology this sophistry in the science classes of Queensland. The result has been con­ to be counterbalanced in the class­ public schools. Its only legitimate fusion. Rhondda Jones, Professor of room. However, the Minister insists place in a public school education Zoology at James Cook University in that evolutionary theory is open to would be in a course on the history of Townsville, northern Queensland, did question and such 'incomplete' ideas religious movements. It is, by its a survey of new students arriving at must not be allowed to affect inno­ ministers' own admissions, not both her own department and Griffith cent minds adversely. When I asked science." University, Brisbane. These students how the ruling is enforced and Professor Archer is right because came from outside as well as within whether any teachers refuse to teach creationism is treated as dogma, and the State. She found that five per cent Genesis in science courses, Mr Powell real science, when taught properly, is believed in the straightforward crea­ said the question does not arise be­ not. Of course there are some tionist model: that the world had been cause Queensland teachers are teachers who dispense information as made by God only a few thousand 'professional'. if they are delivering the Sermon on years ago and that all life was put here There are two fundamental mis­ the Mount, whether the subject is di­ at that time. So far so good-five per conceptions underlying such attitudes. vinity or nature study, but this is folly. cent is not too bad.But then she disco­ The first misconception is the belief If one is giving a vigorous intellectual vered that a much greater percentage that evolution is 'only a theory'. The grounding to a young mind trying to held conflicting ideas, both creationist second is that the science curriculum learn scientific principles, the process and scientific, at the same time. These is made up of various 'beliefs' and that is bound to be ruined if, at the end of youngsters had dreadfully muddled religious ones are of the same it, one plonks down some statement minds. currency. confounding all that's been said. "Yes, When I went to discuss the teach­ On the first: many have written at Darwin's hypotheses have been sup­ ing of evolution in schools with length about the nature of scientific ported by modern genetics and the Queensland's Minister for Education, knowledge. It is not demeaning of the fossil record ...but meanwhile let me Mr Lyn Powell, he was ready and will­ scientific process to say that nothing tell you about this chap Noah and his ing but defensive. Mr Powell is said to can be proved absolutely. Science can Ark." hold strong views on a number of is­ be seen as a method in which Michael Archer likes to quote bio­ sues, but he would not tell me any­ hypotheses are challenged and there­ logist C. Loring Brace on this: thing about his personal feelings on by rejected, altered or reinforced. If the creationism debate. He was, be­ hypotheses survive continued and "It is creation and not evolution, fore parliament, a teacher. When I rigorous challenges, they become ac­ then, that is 'indoctrination', and if stu­ mentioned the recent statement in the cepted (always tentatively) as theories. dents are required to spend equal Senate, by New South Wales Liberal When many different such theories time learning it in the public schools, Chris Puplick, warning about the incur­ combine to explain a large body of these institutions would indeed de­ sion of creationism into the science data or observations, they mature to generate into a 'hatchery of parrots'.".

132 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87

FROM THE JOURNAL

Birds of the Reef: Noddy does a Good Tern

ver the vast sweeps of ocean, Sometimes I'll get thee 0 seabirds travel in search of Young sea-me/ls from the Rock. food and a place to breed. Australia has about 20 of the Perhaps the most spectacular of all the world's 42 tern species, 17 of which seabirds are the Sooty Terns (Sterna breed here. The Sooty Tern is one of fuscata), nesting in their tens of thou­ the most common of the tropical sea­ sands on many islands of the northern birds, with an estimate of 30 million in­ Great B·arrier Reef and Coral Sea-and, dividuals in the mid-central Pacific in fact, just about all the tropical seas. region. Except when breeding, the Sooties belong to the group of birds range over the oceans of the birds called terns (subfamily Sturni­ world, possibly sleeping on the wing nae), and are similar to gulls but slim­ as there are few reports of the birds mer and often smaller. Their forked landing on water. tails were responsible for their once­ Oceanic feeding groups usually common name 'sea swallow'. An even number several thousand but, when older name was 'sea mell' or 'sea the breeding urge strengthens, many mew'. Shakespeare used this term in such aggregations coalesce and The Tempest (Act II, Scene 2) where produce one of the most spectacular Caliban, speaking to Trinculo, tried to sights nature has to offer. The first curry favour by promising delicacies. warning of the return of the birds is at night when the shrill yet musical cry of 'wideawake' drifts down from the dark sky. By morning the skies are clear the Great Barrier Reef region. North of again and there is no sign of the birds. this area they breed during autumn, A few weeks pass as this mysterious although autumn breeding has been pattern is repeated night after night­ observed in recent years at Michael­ until one magical afternoon when a mas and Upolu Cays. Regardless of dark mass appears on the horizon­ season, once the nesting days are thousands upon thousands of Sooty over, the birds again disperse over the Terns have returned to breed. oceans. The wheeling flocks, however, Evidence is gradually being only move higher and spread over the gathered on how far they wander. island. Even with the setting of the Sun One Sooty Tern, banded on the the birds remain landshy and stay Seychelles in the western Indian aloft. The hours pass until, when it is Ocean, was found near Darwin six nearly dawn, the calls cease and the months later. Another banded at Lord birds disappear, presumably to fish out Howe Island was found in the at sea. This teasing pattern is repeated Philippines. day after day until a group finally lands One remarkable feature of the and begins the task of nesting. Each Sooty Terns' nesting pattern occurs on day the numbers of landed birds in­ Ascension Island in the South Atlantic. crease until the ground disappears un­ Instead of an annual cycle, the birds der a mass of birds, each laying a here breed every 9.6 months. This single egg in a small hollow in the shorter cycle can only be established sand. Each nest is about a metre from in an area where both food and climat­ the others, out of pecking distance but ic conditions are favourable all year not out of squabbling range. round. This was the situation at Lake Black noddies returning to their nests Sooty Terns breed during the Eyre during the last flooding when after feeding at sea. spring in south-western Australia and breeding by gulls was almost con- 136 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 OF VINCENT SERVENlY

increasing numbers of tourists have damaged either the landscape or its wildlife, both plant and animal. Indeed the opposite can be true, for although wildlife protection laws tend to be ig­ nored in many parts of Australia, this does not happen where tourists are plentiful. Law-breakers know that when the general public becomes in­ volved there is a high chance their crime will be reported and action taken. These few species af tern are only a fraction of the wealth of seabird beauty on the Reef. It is only fitting that the beauty of the underwater world of coral seas should be matched by the beauty of the abovewater world of the sky. 0

tinuous. sights than a pair of Black Noddies Sooty Terns feed on fish and small courting. So unafraid are the birds that squid, snipping them up from or just an incubating individual may be near the surface, although at times a nudged gently aside, enabling its bird will dive through a wave crest. single egg to be seen. Because of this Bedraggled parents leaving a nest site lack of fear, all details of their courting, always return with clean feathers, so nest building and breeding behaviour Nesting Sooty Terns on a coral cay. An they must take short dips on feeding have been well studied. old name still occasionally used for flights. It is most encouraging that the in­ these birds is 'wide awake', after the call In contrast to the Sooty Terns with crease in tourist numbers on Heron ls­ they make. their white underparts, there are other land is paralleled with an increase in terns that are mostly dark. These are nesting noddies. In 1910 there were the noddies and Australia has four: the only 53 occupied nests. By 1946 this Lesser Noddy (Anous tenuirostris) had grown to a small colony and by nests on the Abrolhos Islands off the 1972 there were between 13,000 and western Australian coast, the Com­ 25,000 pairs. A similar increase oc­ mon Noddy (A. stolidus) breeds in curred on the islands nearby, where northern Australia, the Grey (Procel­ tourist visits were less frequent, and sterna cerulea) on Norfolk and Lord the total on the whole of the Howe Islands, and the Black (A minu­ Capricorn Group was estimated to be tus) in north-eastern Australia. 1.5 million pairs. The Black Noddy is the species At least where seabirds are con­ best known to tourists since it breeds cerned there is no obvious danger of in spring in thousands on Heron and tourists 'loving the animals to death' as nearby islands in the Capricorn Group is often feared by conservationists. On at the southern end of the Great Barri­ both offshore islands and mainland er Reef. There are few more charming regions I have found no evidence that Sooty Tern and chick. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 137

140 hen Aborigines in northern In Australia, Aborigines ate a variety of Australia needed sandpaper to wild figs, especially those of the Cluster W polish their tools, they had Fig (F. racemosa). In central Australia only to pluck the leaves from certain Aborigines pounded the dried fruits of kinds of fig trees. Fig-leaf 'sandpaper' the Small-leaved Rock Fig (F. platypo­ worked remarkably well, as a curious da), forming fig cakes that were stored Joseph Banks observed at Endeavour for future use. River in 1770: " ... they use shells and Explorers also ate figs. Captain Cook, corals to scrape the points of their darts, Joseph Banks and Ludwig Leichhardt and polish them with the leaves of a kind sampled Cluster Figs, and scurvy-stricken of fig tree (Ficus radulo), which bites convicts at Port Jackson ate Rusty Figs upon wood almost as keenly as our (F. rubiginosa), which the early writer European shave grass usd [sic] by the D.D. Mann condemned in 1811 as "nau­ Joiners". seous, full of seed, but eaten by the na­ Sandpaper fig leavescontain glass-like tives". Around Gladstone, Queensland, silica-a deterrent to plant-eaters, whose early settlers madesweet jelly from Clus­ teeth are ground down by the chewing. ter Figs, one of the tastier species. Fig-leaf sandpaper really works, easily Figs are not the only food to come removing the paint from pencils, for ex­ from fig trees. The young shoots of many ample. Aborigines in Dampierland, species may be eaten raw or cooked. Western Australia, in keeping with Northern Aborigines actually ate young modern times, use the leaves to clean sandpaper fig leaves and, in Java, Indian saucepans and spark plugs. Papuan Rubber Plant leaves were used in vari­ women use them to shave their legs. ous dishes. (The shoots of ornamental Indian Rubber Plants are well worth try­ The Versatile Fig ing as dinner vegetables, but need first Sandpaper is but one of the myriad to be boiled to remove the offending products furnished by the extraordinary bitterness.) plants of the genus Ficus, known popu­ larly as figs. To pre-industrial societies throughout the world, fig trees provid­ ed a cornucopia of usefulproducts, rang­ ing from fruits and vegetables, string, rope and blankets, to rubber, bird traps, canoes and religious symbols. Consider the white latex of figs. Near­ ly all kinds of figs (800 species occur world-wide) ooze a milky latex from bro­ ken stems.So sticky is this that northern Queensland Aborigines used it to trap birds, smearing the latex over branches where cockatoos and other parrots perched. The hapless birds were then cooked and eaten. In Asia last century, latex from one kind of fig (F. e/astica) was a source of rubber, harvested from small fig planta­ tions in Malaysia. But rubber from South America's Para Tree (Hevea brasiliensis) proved more elastic and the fig-rubber industry never succeeded. Ficus elasti­ Fig tree wood is soft, which may ex­ ca continues to be planted, although plain why most species produce sticky nowadays as an ornamental, especially latex or fibrous bark-to thwart borers. indoors in public buildings in Australia, The tough inner bark can often by spun where it is called the Indian RubberPlant. into string or stripped in slabs and ham­ Few Australians realise that this is a fig mered laboriously into coarse blankets for, in the absence of its pollinating or cloth. Aborigines used at least six wasps, it does not bear fruit. But more native fig species for dillies or blankets, on this later. and in Africa the 'Bark Cloth Fig' (F. The so-called 'fruit' is the most char­ natalensis) is especially important. Be­ acteristic feature of fig trees, and most cause fig wood is soft it is easily carved. kinds are edible to people. The fig of In the Northern Territory Aborigines commerce is F. carica of western Asia. hewed dug-out canoes from Cluster Fig 141 trunks and Egyptians made mummy coffins from Sycamore Fig trunks (F. sycomorus). The diversity of products that comes from this one group of plants is remark­ able. Yet these items touch only the sur­ face of the fig-human relationship. Much more extraordinary is the role of fig trees in religion. Throughout history across much of the world, men and women have revered fig trees as sacred beings. Genus Ficus has served both body and mind. The Religious Fig Tree worship is an ancient rite and fig trees have served as its supreme icons. Romans revered the cultivated fig, Hindus the Banyan (F. benghalensis) and Bo Tree (F. religiosa), and Buddhists be­ lieve that Buddha grasped enlighten­ ment beneath a fig (F. religiosa). Figs find mention over 60 times in the Bible, of­ ten as symbols of prosperity or impend-

The Moreton Bay Fig (f. macrophylla) has speckled figs about 2.5 centimetres wide. Aborigines ate the figs and spun the bark into twine. Photo: T. Low.

Australian Figs crops and gorges. It is an adaptable tree, found also in tropical woodlands and Australia has some 40 native fig spe· Queensland rainforests, usually on cies, growing in eastern and northern rocks. On St Helena Island near Brisbane Australia, and many have figs worth try· it grows on the convict ruins. Being a ing. Of these, a few warrant special men­ typical fig, it has the characteristic sinu­ tion: the Crowned Sandpaper Fig (F. ating roots, milky latex, seed-filled figs, coronata) is easily distinguished by its which are reddish when ripe, and young bristly black figs, about 1.5 to three cen­ shoots enveloped in a spike-like timetres long. They are sweet and suc­ stipule-a characteristic of all but the culent and well worth trying. This is the sandpaper figs. Central Australian most southerly ranging of the figs and Aborigines relished these figs, which are the only species occurring in Victoria extraordinarly rich in protein, fat and where it is restricted to eastern Gipps­ calcium. land. It grows mainly in damp gullies and The Moreton Bay Fig (f. macrophy/­ along streams in rainforest. la) shares all of the Small-leaved Rock Two other sandpaper figs occur Fig's features, except that its ripe figs are across eastern Australia: the Sweet Sand­ purplish-red with pale spots. This fig is paper Fig (f. opposita), found south to widely planted in public parks, both for Brisbane, and the White Sandpaper Fig its stature and for the generous shade (F. frasen), which reaches Newcastle. cast by its big leathery leaves. Its figs are Both have delicious, black and unbristly tasty, although filled with gritty seeds. figs. Sandpaper figs are easily distin­ Like most figs it is a rainforest tree, found guished by their harsh leaves. They are from southern Queensland to the 11- small trees without buttresses or stran­ The interconnecting roots of a strangler lawarra scrubs. Aborigines ate the figs watkinsiana, gling roots, usually encountered along fig, probably f. are begin­ and spun string from the bark. ning to envelope this rainforest tree on stream banks, especially in rainforests. racemosa) The Cluster Fig (f. bears Lamingt�n Plateau in southern Queens­ The Sweet Sandpaper Fig is the tree its large (five to seven centimetre-wide) land. Strangler figs do not literally stran­ Joseph Banks saw in use at Endeavour figs on its trunk as food for fruit bats, gle their host but do compete for River, which he called F. radulo. although Aborigines ate them as well. sunlight and soil nutrients. When rain­ (F. platypo­ The Small-leaved Rock Fig Cluster Figs grow along river banks in forests are logged the strangler figs are da) is Australia's most wide-ranging fig. northern and eastern Australia, south to invariably left standing, where they pro­ It is the only species to reach central Aus­ about Gympie.O tralia where it is restricted to rock out- vide an importantfood resource for hun­ gry birds and bats. Photo: T. Low.

142 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 ing doom. And one doesn't need to be one who has beheld a giant strangler reminded of what sort of leaf Adam was fig in a Queensland rainforest, the an­ clutching (nor what he was hiding) after swer immediately suggests itself: fig trees he'd tasted the forbidden fruit! Across are awesome. Their snake-like roots coil Africa, Asia and the South Pacific, fig about rocks and stumps, and the enor­ trees invoke respect as abodes of spirits mous crown thrusts beyond the forest or ancestors. Even in outback Australia canopy. Most fig trees possess special the native Small-leaved Rock Fig (F. adaptations for germinating on rocks, platypoda) was held sacred in some stumps or other trees. The remarkable areas and anyone damaging certain trees success of the genus, and its religious was risking death. mystique, owes much to these adap­ Fig worship reached its zenith in Sri tations. Lanka. Buddhism was borne to the island Figs do look eerie. Strangler figs upon a fig branch, reputedly from Budd­ sprout in crevices in other trees and ha's own enlightenment tree. Planted throw down tangles of interlocking roots at Anuradhapura, Buddhists believe this that enclose the host in a prison of criss­ branch survives as the sacred Bo Tree crossing coils (although they do not ac­ flourishing there today. Cuttings plant­ tually strangle it). Small-leaved Rock Figs ed throughout Sri Lanka were zealously send roots slithering into crevices and protected-early punishment for fig tree trailing over cliffs. Banyans drop bristly killing was death. When Tamil terrorists prop-roots from heavy boughs, forming rampaged recently through holy forests of trunks from one tree. Other Anuradhapura, they took time out from fig trees sport enormous buttresses, slaughter to desecrate the holy Bo Tree, thick ropes of figs from limbs, and even drilling its trunk with bullets of bigotry. strings of figs underground. Gun wounds notwithstanding, fig To further the mystique, some fig religion has proved beneficial to some trees thrive on bare stone, where no figs. For example, the distribution of the other trees may grow. They sprout mys­ Bo Tree has been extended by Budd­ teriously atop Hindu temples and throw hists from India to Sri Lanka and South­ shade over sacred Aboriginal rock sites. east Asia, aided by birds no doubt, and Questing tiny pockets of soil, their eager it is now a weed in Singapore. In west­ roots snake between boulders and ern Malaysia, where rainforests were around cornices, wedging into creases cleared for villages, fig trees were often and cracks. These eerie organs are the protected and enshrined by the Chinese. bane of archaeologists, dislodging brick­ In India, fig trees are not harmed, even works at such disparate locations as the where their roots damage houses and Angkor Wat temple in Kampuchea and drains. the convict-built walls of St Helena Island Fig worship is so widespread a near Brisbane. phenomenon that it begs explanation: The sheer size of figs helps magnify why feel reverent towards a fig? To any- their mystery. The world's broadest tree Turn over anew leaf ... Turn over the page and Subscribe to Australian

Rusty Figs (f. rubiginosa) also known as Port Jackson Figs were consumed by Natural History scurvy-stricken convicts. Photo: T. Hawkeswood.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 143 LU f­< 0 >­ LU c.:: 0 0::: X 0 LU u f- Vl 0 n:s 0.. -� ·> :D V) • V) r .• Cl)a. :� ·C • n:s § .·U N -� • Cl) ·E:<;: :D

Ripe fruits of the Pink ftg (F. microcarpa), showing the orifice at the base through which the tiny fig wasps (agaonids) have escaped. Pink Figs grow in Queensland rainforests, often close to the sea. Photo: T. Low. is a Banyan in Calcutta spread over 1.2 Fig, while later writers praised it: Cook hectares! With 1,775 trunk-like prop- probably sampled the gall figs contain- � roots, it is a veritable forest of one tree. ing wasps, which neither ripen nor taste 1.1..1 In Brisbane, the suburb of Fig Tree Pock- sweet. et commemorates an old Moreton Bay Consider seed dispersal, too. Figs de­ z Fig (F. macrophylla), which was so enor- pend entirely on animals to convey their mous that a horse and dray could hide seeds to new rock and tree crevices, and ·------································ between its buttressed roots. Some the range of fig-eating animals is strangler figs tower above the rainforest astonishing. In Costa Rica in central canopy, using their encumbered host as America I stood entranced beneath a

(jJ a ladder to the sky and throwing down tree visited daily by Capuchin, Howler C LU ::i f­ a shade of ineffable gloom. No wonder and Spider Monkeys, by Raccoon-like -- < coatis, squirrels and various birds, and 0 these trees evoke awe! at night by Kinkajous, coatis and a >­ A Naturalist's Delight LU c.:: prehensile-tailed porcupine. In Thailand 0 0::: X Even the naturalist may fal! in thrall I watched a squirrel gnaw at unripe figs 0 LU u to the fig. So much about these sylvan while a barking deer waited below for f­ Vl giants seems designed to enthral!. the remains. In Asia, fruiting fig trees 0 n:s 0.. -� Tear open an almost ripe fig, for ex­ evoke a village market mood, as horn­ ·> ample, and you may see a unique bills, gibbons, civets, bats and even In­ :D feature-a seed mass writhing with tiny dian Elephants jockey for their share. V) • V) adult wasps of the family Agaonidae. This generous free-for-all approach .• Cl)a. These wasps, barely a millimetre or two isn't characteristic of all figs. Malaysia's :� in length, form a unique symbiotic rela­ remarkable Earth figs, for example, only ·C tionship with fig trees. • n:s ripen underground as treats for grubbing § ·U The figs enclose the minute flowers, pigs and deer. Queensland's bat­ N : -� which are pollinated only by these ·E dispersed Cluster Figs, heavy-smelling :<;: wasps. Some of these flowers form galls like bat body odours, sprout along trunks :D to house and feed the wasp larvae. Af­ where fruit pigeons cannot perch. Sand­ . -0 ter mating, pollen-laden female wasps paper figs bloom green, yellow, orange, :� (the males are all wingless) fly to new red and then purplish-black in a calen­ . .:,,:.u .c figs, entering via a special hole at the dar of colours to inform birds (most .• co n:s base, and the cycle continues. The rela­ mammals are colour blind) of impend­ tionship is remarkably intricate and ing ripening. :o Cl) E much remains to be discovered. We Phenomena like these provide the z >- c.:: • n:s E coLU .z know that each fig species has its own key to understanding these trees-that � ::: 0 � .. � species of wasp, and that some fig spe­ figs excell at symbiosis. Fig seed disper­ t: il ::J · -oQ.) cies produce two kinds of fig-one for � co -0 z sal, the fig-wasp interdependence and, rearing wasps, the other containing ultimately, fig religion: all are triumphs 1.1..1 � � 0 _;Cl) ..c 0 co n:s C.:: C 1:) seeds. This might explain why Captain of co-adaption. The naturalist can but ::J � < 00 n:s z Vl 0.. u vi u Cook thought so poorly of the Cluster stand in awe. All praise to the fig!D X 144 VOL. 22 NO. 3, SUMMER 86-87 Please send me...... copies of "Uncovering Australia's Dreamtime". Price $8.50 including postage within Australia.

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