Lutrogale Perspicillata) in RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK, NORTH-WEST INDIA

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOK FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

Vol. XLI: No. 2 2014

Featuring

Vol. XXVIII: No. 2 Contents

Forty years of Olive Ridley sea turtle conservation in Odisha, India - an outstanding conservation success story...... 1 A study of bird abundance and diversity in Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Kandy, Sri Lanka...... 7 Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ conditions - management practices in Bangladesh...... 12 Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban: an insight into blood honey...... 19 Recent confirmed record of existence of smooth-coated otter in Rajaji National Park, north-west India...... 25 No special ingrediants in tiger bone wine: implications for REGIONAL OFFICE wild tiger conservation and public education...... 30 FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletin dedicated to the exchange of information relating to wildlife and protected area PNG tackles the ‘3R Challenge’ of logging code management for the Asia-Pacific Region. implementation...... 1 Training senior forest policymakers in Asia and the Pacific... 7 ISSN 1014 - 2789 When facing apocalypse...plant a tree...... 8 International Conference on “Insects to feed the World”...... 10 Forests Asia Summit...... 11 Address. Forestry strategic planning in the Asia-Pacific region...... 13 Vietnam is newest partner country of Forest and Farm TIGERPAPER Facility (FFF) in Asia...... 14 FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road Strengthening the environment, forestry and climate change Bangkok, 10200, Thailand capacities...... 15 Tel: (662) 697-4000 Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips...... 16 E-mail: [email protected] FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar...... 16 Website: http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/ rap/nre/links/tiger-paper/en/

Editor: Janice Naewboonnien Advisor: P. Durst

TIGERPAPER is dependent upon your free and voluntary The opinions expressed by the contributions in the form of articles, news items, and announcements in contributing authors are not the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the region. In order to necessarily those of FAO. The better serve the n eeds of our readers please write to us and send in the designations employed and the information you have or let us know if there is any information that you presentation of the material in the need. We appreciate receiving your letters and make all efforts to TIGERPAPER do not imply the respond. expression of any opinion on the part Front cover: A pair of Olive Ridleys mating under water, photographed off of FAO concerning the legal or the Odisha coast (Photo: Sumer Verma) constitutional status of any country, Back cover: An Olive Ridley arribada at Rushikulya rookery showing females territority or sea area, or the arriving at and leaving the nesting beach (Photo: Kartik Shanker ) delimitation of frontiers.

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| | Forty years of olive ridley sea turtle conservation in Odisha, India India Odisha, in conservation turtle sea ridley olive of years Forty FORTY YEARS OF OLIVE RIDLEY SEA TURTLE CONSERVATON IN ODISHA, INDIA - AN OUTSTANDING CONSERVATION SUCCESS STORY

by H. Robert Bustard |

First arrivals of an Olive Ridley arribada at Gahirmatha rookery. (Photo: Wildlife Wing, Odisha Forest Department)

In 1974, during the course of an FAO consultancy for their eggs. In 1973, fifteen boatloads of eggs to the Government of India, I visited the state with each boat estimated to hold up to 1 lakh adjoining the Bay of Bengal then known as Orissa (100,000) of eggs making a total of 15 lakh (1.5 (in 2012 the name of the State was changed to million) eggs were taken for sale mostly in Calcutta. Odisha). To avoid confusion hereafter I have The State Royalty was Rs 15/- per boatload, which adopted the new name throughout). In my report was then £1 or approx US $2.00. The local villagers (FAO, 1974) I noted the very large sea turtle got nothing except food in season from this resource. rookeries contiguous to the coastal estuarine Furthermore, there was no control on the actual crocodile habitat. I identified the turtle species as level of egg take, which might have been over- Lepidochelys olivacea - the Olive Ridley. My exploiting the resource. This latter point is important, advice was sought by the Odisha authorities as once permission to take eggs was granted, there concerning their management. was no check on the actual numbers of eggs collected. Furthermore, the authorities were of the At that time these turtles, nesting on a beach known opinion that most likely the total egg take was at as Gahirmatha, were being commercially exploited least twice the recorded take.

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| The Government of India, having accepted my Now, 40 years after my initial involvement with report, invited me to return to implement a project this very important sea turtle project I would like on conservation of the gharial and India’s other to briefly report on what has happened. The crocodile species and I returned in early 1975. achievements have far exceeded my greatest Concerning the Olive Ridley rookery, I advised expectations. In a world where we are the Forest Department, Government of Odisha accustomed to reading about huge conservation (wildlife in India comes under forestry) that: problems, it gives me great pleasure to report on 1. They should stop the sale of eggs. an important ongoing success story. 2. They should protect this huge rookery. 3. A mark-recapture programme should be These successes have been achieved by the initiated on this population using the standard Odisha Forest Department despite many model metal tags applied to the trailing edge difficulties in implementing a project of this size of a front flipper in order to start scientific and scope, particularly when the turtles spend most study of this population. of the year on the high seas where adequate monitoring and protection is problematic. That the The Forest Department accepted all three success described below has been achieved in the proposals. face of these difficulties is a great tribute to the Odisha Forest Department, which has had the full Two years previously, the Government of India co-operation of the Fisheries Department as set had enacted the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, out later in this paper. 1972. Nothing was known about the status of Forty years of olive ridley sea turtle conservation in Odisha, India

| sea turtles in India at that time so they were not In 1976, a Research Scholar (CS Kar) was included under the Act. This meant that people appointed to study this sea turtle population under could and did exploit olive ridley and other sea my guidance, and a tagging programme was turtles and large numbers were taken annually started. This indicated a re-nesting at Gahirmatha both on the high seas and on the beaches for food. the following year by approximately 24% of the Mostly these were to supply the Kolkatta market marked population (Bustard & Kar, 1981). where turtle meat was highly prized. Concurrently with this, protection staff were “The recommendations of the Indian Board for posted to guard the Gahirmatha nesting sites Wildlife in 1969 (as a result of the discovery of during the extended nesting season which runs the Gahirmatha olive ridley rookery) and Bustard from December to April. A much more complex (1976) culminated in the 1976 inclusion of all five situation was to protect these turtles when they species of sea turtles that occur in India in were at sea for the bulk of the year. Here one has Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife (Protection )Act, to bear in mind that the Forest Department is a 1972.” (Sharma, 2006) land-based department.

Legislation then had to be framed by the State Over the years there has been an enormous build- Government to bring the Act, as modified, into up in mechanised trawlers. Whereas 40 years ago force in Odisha. It then took - as always - some most fishing was done by traditional means which time to bring in adequate enforcement and give did not impinge on the turtles, modern trawlers people time to learn about the changed status of with their long trawls and extensive nets have had sea turtles. So, the harvest of wild turtles, at least a major impact on sea turtles worldwide. Offshore on the high seas, continued to varying degrees the nesting rookeries in Odisha many are captured until the early 1980s. Since then there has been and drowned in the nets or clubbed to death to no commercial utilisation of sea turtles in India. save the nets. This has resulted in large numbers - some thousands each year - being washed up I had reported on this Pacific Ridley rookery - on the beaches and has caused wide criticism in very significant on a world basis due to its the Indian media. Non-government organizations enormous size - in Tigerpaper (1976). (NGO’s) have also taken up the cause. In some cases this has raised welcome awareness and

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some have become actively involved in turtle that is important but the percentage of the total India Odisha, in conservation turtle sea ridley olive of years Forty conservation. However, NGO’s do not have female breeding population (about two-thirds of implementary responsibility, which rests with the the turtles drowned in nets are females). While it Forest Department, and as I frequently say in is certainly true in terms of the turtles’ population Odisha and elsewhere “when you do anything, ecology, it is difficult to get this across to the media you are open to criticism.” and people naturally deplore the numbers of dead turtles. Turtles are killed by two kinds of nets - The problem of ‘bycatch’ of washed up dead trawls and gill nets. A turtle excluder, modified for turtles has been a result of the enormous size of Indian conditions, where a mixed catch of shrimps the Odisha ridley rookeries. “The Olive Ridley sea and fish is usual, has been developed and its use turtle population of Orissa represents about fifty is mandatory. However, many trawler crews think percent of the world population (of this species) it reduces their catch and so are unwilling to use of Ridleys.” (Sharma, 2011) An important point is it. Furthermore, the majority of turtle deaths are that it is not the actual number of turtles killed caused by gill nets.

Table 1 : Annual number of deaths of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles due to fishing activities along the

Odisha coast from 2001-02 to 2012-13. Odisha Forest Department, ( 2011), updated with | unpublished data for subsequent years courtesy of the Odisha Forest Department ). ______

Year Number of deaths ______

2001-02 12,977

2002-03 10,086

2003-04 4,981

2004-05 3,227

2005-06 3,242

2006-07 4,046

2007-08 5,763

2008-09 5,680

2009-10 5,003

20010-11 3,373

2011-12 2,382

2012-13 2,712 ______

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| Table 2. Estimated number of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles nesting at the two main rookeries on the Odisha coast during the October-May arribada nesting seasons from 2001-02 to 2012-13. Odisha Forest Department (2011), updated with unpubli shed data for subsequent years court esy of the Odisha Forest Department. ______Year Gahirmatha rookery Rushikulya rookery Total (Dhamara river mouth) (Rushikulya river mouth) ______

2001-02 no arribada 35,000 35,000

2002-03 73,000 208,000 281,000

2003-04 243,000 201,000 440,000

2004-05 234,000 89,000 323,000

2005-06 267,000 198,000 465,000

2006-07 146,000 no arribada 146,000

Forty years of olive ridley sea turtle conservation in Odisha, India 2007-08 no arribada 180,000 180,000 | 2008-09 167,000 261,000 428,000

2009-10 357,000 156,000 513,000

2010-11 472,000 252,000 724,000

2011-12 168.000 406,000 574,000

2012-13 401,000 288,000 689,000 ______

It is important to point out that the number of turtles spectacularly - up to the latest data for the year being drowned has decreased by over 60% over 2012/13 (Table 2) The deaths recorded above recent years. The mean number reported dead decreased again in the years 2011-12 and 2012- along the entire Odisha coastline for the years 13 to an annual average of 2,587 - a marked 2001-02 and 2002-03 was 11,542/year. This reduction from a decade before (see above and compares with a mean of 4451/year for the eight Table 1). years from 2003-04 to 2010-11 . These numbers have to be viewed against the mean number of A number of very positive actions have been taken nesting females for the same eight-year period of by the State Forest Department, with the fullest 417,500. Hence, the death percentage averaged co-operation of the State Fisheries Department. 1.0 % of the breeding female population. This low Gahirmatha had been included in the Bhitarkanika level of loss is well within the recruitment level of Wildlife Sanctuary, which was set up in 1975 the population. Indeed, as the impressive growth following my recommendations, to protect one of in the size of the population over the same period only two remaining estuarine crocodile populations shows (see below), this low level of loss of breeding on mainland India, together with the associated females is not significant in terms of the viability mangrove ecosystem. In 1997, Gahirmatha was of this population and has not prevented the notified as Gahirmatha Wildlife Sanctuary by the population from increasing steadily - and Forest & Environment Department, encompassing

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2 2 | 1,435 km , of which 1,408 km was sea and 27 The nesting grounds are subject to great changes India Odisha, in conservation turtle sea ridley olive of years Forty km2 was land (nesting) area encompassing the as a result of cyclonic activity in the Bay of Bengal nesting islands in the mouth of the Dhamara river. and the arribadas move between two main areas. The Fisheries Department prohibited fishing within Accordingly the data are presented separately for a seaward radius of 20 km from the Gahirmatha each nesting area and then grouped to give the area of the Sanctuary and this ban has been totals for each nesting season. The detailed renewed annually. In 2004, the Fisheries methodology used for estimating the totals is given Department notified a further ban further south in Kar (2011). for a similar distance from the shore to protect a large rookery at the mouth of the Rushikulya river We can now assess these achievements in the to come into force from 2005 for five months from light of long-term census figures covering the 12 January to May, which was also renewed annually. years from the 2001-2002 nesting season through to 2012-13 (the 2013-14 nesting season is in In 2005, this initial ban was amended to cover the progress as I write this in March 2014). The twelve period from l November to 31 May by allowing years showing a marked reduction in - but still people engaged in fishing using traditional non- substantial numbers of - dead turtles is given in motorised fishing crafts such as catamarans, Table 1. In view of the difficulties set out above country crafts and canoes to fish in the protected and the enormous numbers of turtles congregating zone since these do not constitute a serious threat off the nesting beaches, these results have to be to the turtles. Importantly, the same notification seen as very positive. prohibited ‘the use of fishing gear made by seine nets (ring nets) along the entire coast The results for the size of the nesting turtles | throughout the year.’ The same year some population over the same twelve-year period show Forest Officers were appointed as ‘Authorised a strongly rising trend, indicating that the Officers’ to check fishing activities which have conservation activities are succeeding. The been prohibited within the seaward radius of 20 twelve-year mean is 410,000 nesting female km from Gahirmatha Beach in the Sanctuary. This turtles. It should be noted that the highest numbers brief summary shows that the Fisheries of nesting turtles have all been recorded in the Department was also fully engaged in both last four years. The mean for the last four years protective legislation and also in practical is 625,000 nesting turtles, which is 215,000 greater enforcement, and where they had no people than the mean for the previous eight years. available they deputed Forest Department officers Although variations between years is a normal to act on their behalf. feature of such nesting activity this huge increase in numbers demonstrates beyond any doubt the The problem remained one of implementation on success of the conservation work of the State of the high seas. At various times the Indian Navy Odisha supported by the Government of India and and the Coastguard service have also participated. led by the Odisha Forest Department. A Turtle Excluder Device (TED) has also been developed (see Kar, 2011, plates 21 and 22 and A second huge plus resulting from this work has text for details and also this publication for more been a massive upsurge in research efforts on all detailed accounts of ongoing conservation work). Indian sea turtles over this 40-year period, culminating in an excellent book co-edited by Furthermore, a High Level Committee has been another of my former Research Scholars BC constituted by the State Government under the Choudhury (Shanker & Choudhury, 2006), which Chairmanship of the Chief Secretary Odisha for includes some 30 papers on sea turtle biology and reviewing all sea turtle protection and conservation conservation, including many in which he is an as well as other related activities for coordinating author. between various Departments and the Indian Coastguard. Finally, it is also gratifying that work carried out by FAO in 1974 which highlighted this - the world’s largest Pacific Ridley rookery and which

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| has had FAO/UNDP support over many years - Bustard, H.R. & C.S. Kar. 1981. Annual nesting has had such a successful long-term conservation of the Pacific Ridley sea turtle outcome. This too, at a time when sea turtles are (Lepidochelys olivacea) in Orissa, India. under ever increasing threats in virtually all areas British J. Herpetology 6L:139. of the world, and most reports are of drastically FAO. 1974. A preliminary survey of the reduced breeding aggregations. prospects for crocodile farming (based on the work of H.R. Bustard). Rome. FAO. The future 50pp. Kar, C.S. 2011. Sea Turtle Conservation in Future threats will result from the rapid Orissa during the third millennium. Forest industrialisation of Odisha with many ports Department. Government of Orissa. 2011 recently constructed or planned along the state’s Shanker, K. & B.C. Choudhury 2006. Eds. Marine 480 km coastline fronting onto the Bay of Bengal. turtles of the Indian Dhamara port, for instance, is within 10 km of the Subcontinent.Universities Press (India) Gahirmatha rookery. How these ports impact on Private Ltd. Hyderabad. these rookeries of world importance remains to Sharma, J.D. 2011. In: Sea Turtle Conservation be seen and hopefully their effects can be in Orissa during the third millennium. migitated as far as possible. Forest Department. Government of Orissa. 2011. p. iii. Acknowledgements Sharma, S.C. 2006. Background and Scope of

Forty years of olive ridley sea turtle conservation in Odisha, India the GOI-UNDP Sea Turtle Project. In:

| It is a pleasure to acknowledge the Marine Turtles of the Indian Subcontinent. conservation activities over 40 years by both 3: 22. Eds K. Shanker & B.C. Choudhury. the State Government of Odisha and the Universities Press (India) Private Ltd. Government of India dedicated to these turtle Hyderabad. rookeries. Without the dedication of many Odisha Forest Officers over many years this Dr. H. Robert Bustard resided in India for eight project could never have been undertaken and years as Chief Technical Adviser from FAO/ pursued over the last forty years. I would also UNDP to the Government of India and was like to acknowledge my former Ph.D. scholars deputed to the Forest Departments of those Drs Sudhakar Kar and L.A.K. Singh and B.C. states of the Indian Union which requested his Choudhury for their assistance and my wife technical assistance. A key factor of his input Gwen for reading the Ms. Finally I would like was to guide selected Masters students through to thank FAO/UNDP for their very conservation-relevant Ph.Ds in order to leave considerable help in the early years of the a sound level of scientific expertise behind implementation of this project when I lived in after he departed. He took on a total of 7 India as their Chief Technical Adviser. Research Scholars, all of whom were paid a stipend from their respective Forest Depart- ments and - most importantly - were guaran- References teed a post within their Department on comple- tion of their doctorates. His address is: Airlie Bustard, H.R. 1976. World’s largest sea turtle Brae, ALYTH Perthshire PH11 8AX Scotland rookery? Tigerpaper 3(3):25. U.K.; E-mail: [email protected]

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| | A study of bird abundance and diversity in Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka Lanka Sri Reserve, Forest Udawattekele in diversity and abundance bird of study A A STUDY OF BIRD ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY IN UDAWATTEKELE FOREST RESERVE, KANDY, SRI LANKA by Gajaba Ellepola

Introduction recorded on data recording sheets and identification of birds was based on Harrison The uniqueness of Udawattakele is that, unlike (1999) and Kotagama and Fernando (1994). most other natural forests, it is man-made. Up to the 19th century this was a virgin forest. Udawatta- The study site at Udawattakele is situated at kele Forest Reserve is a tract of rainforest in latitude 27° 30' 0" N, longitude 83° 27' 0" E in the Kandy town, rich in bird species, including few central hill capital of Sri lanka. The study was endemics such as Layard’s Parakeet, Sri Lanka conducted on 26/03/2011 from 6.30a.m to Hanging Parrot, Yellow-fronted and Crimson- 10.30a.m. It was a bit humid and misty in the fronted Barbets, Brown-capped Babbler, Greater morning when the study started, and it was sunny Flameback, Brown Fish Owl and White-rumped and hot towards the latter part of study. Shama. Between October and April, many Udawattakele forest reserve is comprised of all migrants visit the isle from as far away as Siberia. the strata in a wet forest with few exceptions. Another noteworthy feature is the presence of Only a few emergents were seen; canopy and mixed-species flocks, which makes birding both the sub-canopy were prominent; the understory easy and interesting, since one can carefully study was disturbed by an alien invasive plant species the interactions between different species and shrub layer, understorey, and undergrowth (Caldera 2002). were comprised of only a few plants. The forest | floor contained many fallen leaves, logs, litter and Many types of habitats associated with the forest the soil contained a small amount of moisture. structure can be identified in this forest. The loss of structural components of old growth forests, A line transect integrated with the point count such as large canopy trees, logs and snags, is method was used for the study. While walking affecting the populations of many species that along a circular path, birds were observed on both depend on these habitat elements (Raphael and sides of the road. At some places the point count White, 1984; Patton, 1992; Newton, 1994; Berg method was used. The birds were identified using et al., 1994). Therefore, identification of critical the bird guides, and their abundance, habitats and structural elements and their relationships to bird behaviours were noted. species richness and abundance is clearly important for conservation and forest management Results (Walters, 1991; Patton, 1992; Miller and Marion, 1995; Franklin et al., 1997). Twenty-three species belonging to 20 genera were identified and among them 5 endemic species were Objectives of the study: found. Most were canopy and sub-canopy species. 1. To observe the bird diversity in Udawattakele. Most were associated around the aquatic habitat 2. To observe the feeding guilds of birds in where food was abundant. The majority were Udawattakele. frugivorous and insectivorous but some generalists were also present. Materials and methods

Observations were done using a pair of 8 x 42 Nikon - Monarch - ATB Binoculars. Data were

77 Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 | Table 1: Birds found in different strata of the forest, their food habits, abundance and behavioural characteristics

Species Stratum Food habit Abundance Behavioural characteristics Brown fish owl Canopy Carnivorous 2 Nocturnal Bubo celonensis Layard’s parakeet* Canopy Frugivorous / 14 Noisy Psittacula calthropae Seed eater Rose-ringed Parakeet Canopy Frugivorous / 5 Noisy Psittacula krameri Subcanopy Seed eater Understorey Sri Lankan lorikeet* Canopy Frugivorous / 6 Noisy, seen Loriculus berylinus Seed eater hanging on trees Black bulbul Canopy Omnivorous 6 Mixed species Hypsipetes leucocephalus Subcanopy flocks, nuclear species, noisy, mimic Yellow-browed bulbul Subcanopy Omnivorous 9 Mixed species Iole indica Understorey flocks, noisy Oriental White eye Subcanopy Omnivorous 4 Foliage gleaner Zosterops palpebrosus Understorey Dark-fronted babbler Forest floor Insectivorous 4 Rhopocichla atriceps Undergrowth A study of bird abundance and diversity in Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka

| Shrub layer White-breasted kingfisher Subcanopy Carnivorous 2 Halcyon smyrnensis Understrey Undergrowth Crimson-backed Canopy Insectivorous 3 Bark gleaner, woodpecker Subcanopy drilling Chrysocolaptes lucidus Understorey White-bellied sea eagle Canopy Carnivorous 2 Loud call in Haliaeetus leucogaster flight, soaring and gliding Asian paradise flycatcher Subcanopy Insectivorous 3 Arboreal Terpsiphone paradisi Understorey insectivorous, streamer, migrant Scarlet minivet Canopy Insectivorous 4 Foliage gleaner Pericrocotus flammeus Subcanopy Understorey Layard’s flycatcher Undergrowth Insectivorous 2 Arboreal Muscicapa muttui insectivore(flycatcher stance) Black-naped monarch Subcanopy Insectivorous 3 Flycatcher Hypothymis azurea Understorey stance

Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 | | Species Stratum Food habit Abundance Behavioural Lanka Sri Reserve, Forest Udawattekele in diversity and abundance bird of study A characteristics Brown-headed barbet Subcanopy Frugivorous 20 Megalaima zeylanica Understorey

Yellow-fronted barbet* Subcanopy Frugivorous 10 Megalaima flavifrons Understorey Sri Lanka small barbet* Canopy Frugivorous 6 Megalaima rubricapillus Subcanopy White-rumped shama Undergrowth Insectivorous 2 Song bird Copsychus malabaricus Common grackle Emergents Frugivorous 11 Noisy bird, Grackula religiosa Canopy mimic Emerald dove/Bronze Subcanopy Frugivorous 5 winged pigeon Understorey Chalcophaps indica Loten’s sun bird Subcanopy Nectarivorous 3 Hovering Cinnyris lotenius Undergrowth Brown-capped babbler* Understorey Insectivorous 4 Pellorneum fuscocapillus Forest floor Undergrowth

* Endemic species

Table 2: Distribution of species in each stratum

Stratum No. of individuals Emergents 11 Canopy 59 Sub-canopy 83 Understorey 72 Shrub layer 04 Under growth 17 Forest floor 8

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Figure 1: Distribution of species in each stratum

A study of bird abundance and diversity in Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka |

Figure 2: Percent of individuals of with respect to their food habit

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Table 3: Number of individuals with respect to their food habit Lanka Sri Reserve, Forest Udawattekele in diversity and abundance bird of study A

Food habit No of individuals Carnivorous 06 Omnivorous 19 Frugivorous 77 Seed eaters 25 Nectarivorous 03 Insectivorous 25

Discussion When you compare the two forests, i.e., untouched and disturbed forest, a higher bird diversity was The study was focused on the abundance of bird observed in the disturbed part. The untouched part species and their feeding habits in relation to their of the forest is quite close to human habitations habitat. The species composition in different compared to the rest of the forest. This may be stations appears to be governed by the vegetation the reason why there are fewer numbers in that structure. Terrestrial ecologists have accumulated region; also, tropical birds are generally less data relating bird species diversity to foliage height resilient to habitat disturbance due to their high diversity (MacArthur and MacArthur, 1961; habitat specificity. MacArthur, 1964; Recher, 1969). Complexity of It is quite evident that Udawattakele is relatively foliage pattern seems to be a better predictor of rich in bird diversity and further conservation bird species diversity than tree species diversity. programmes should be carried out to protect and It was clearly evident that certain regions of the safeguard the biodiversity in this forest. forest were dominated by certain birds. For example Layard’s parakeet was observed only in Conclusion

the center of the forest and they were found only | on tall trees where their nests were built and The bird species diversity in Udawattakele is where fruits were abundant. They occupied only relatively high and there is a tendency towards the remaining untouched part of the forest. There declining numbers, mainly due to anthropogenic is only a small number occupying shorter trees. reasons. This may be due to the presence of the alien invasive plant in the understorey in large numbers References dominating the other plants, which in turn reduces the amount of food. The forest floor is quite rich Baiten, A.L. 1972. Breeding bird species in insects, worms, etc., giving insectivorous birds diversity in relation to increasing an ample amount of food. urbanization. Bird Study 19:157-166 Sieving, Kathryn E. and Mary F. Wilson. 1981. This study was carried out in the morning session Linking forest structure and when most birds were active finding food. Most composition: avian diversity in appear at this hour because insects are frequently successional forests of Chiloe´ Island, found at this time of the day. Many birds were Chile. Iva´n A. found near the water body. It seems like there is http://www.responsiblevacation.com/vacation/ some alteration in the life styles of some birds. 4182/sri-lanka-birding-and-cultural-tour That may be due to the influence by man to the http://seesrilanka.itgo.com/subUk/uk001.htm environment. For example, the Brown fish owl is a nocturnal bird, but it was seen hunting during Author’s address: Department of Zoology, daytime near the pond. This may be to reduce the Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, competition for food. In addition, many migrant Sri Lanka; E-mail: [email protected] birds were found because this study was done during their migration period.

111111 Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 | CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) WILDLIFE SPECIES IN EX- SITU CONDITIONS -- MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN BANGLADESH by M.K. Islam, S.M. Mainuddin, M.M. Rahmanand, M.A. Rahman

Adult male Common langur group (Photo: Md. Kamrul Islam)

Introduction critically endangered (CR) in the country. Despite debate among the wildlife biologists about CR Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ condition and its management practices Bangladesh The forests of Bangladesh were once very rich in wildlife statistics, an alarming number of wildlife | wildlife diversity. But rapid loss of forest areas species are under various categories of threat in and fragmentation of the remaining forest has the country and the number of CR wildlife species brought about alarming rate of depletion in the has been increasing due to population decline, small wildlife resources of the country. Bangladesh distribution and restricted numbers of reproductive possesses 113 species of mammals, 628 species populations caused by habitat loss and biotic of birds, 126 species of reptiles and 22 species of pressure. amphibians (Islam, 2003; IUCN, 2000). Many species of the existing wildlife have either become Where habitat is under severe pressure and a large extinct or can only be found in some localized number of wild species have become endangered areas at very low population densities. Like in other and are at the brink of extinction, ex-situ regions around the globe, the biodiversity of conservation has a vital role in the conservation Bangladesh is also entering a critical period. of endangered wildlife species. Management of Already, respectively 13 (IUCN, 2000), 22 (Asmot, CR wildlife species in ex-situ conditions is a great 2001) and 12 (Rahman, 2010) wildlife species way to ensure the survival of endangered species have reportedly become extinct from the country. and sustainable conservation by captive breeding In addition, IUCN (2000) listed a total of 52 outside their natural habitat. The present study was wildlife species including 21 inland mammal carried out to record the CR wildlife species, species, 19 bird species and 12 reptile species as existing management practices and captive

Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 | | breeding facilities in ex-situ condition in district administration. A wide area with lush green Bangladesh in practices management its and condition ex-situ in species wildlife endangered Critically Bangladesh. trees and grasses houses different wildlife.

Zoo management and conservation of Rangpur Zoo is located in Rangpur city near endangered wildlife species Rangpur Police Line, with a large park in the center of town. A district administration-managed Zoos have played a unique role in the successful zoo was opened in 1991. breeding of rare animals, which in the wild would have no chance of survival. Some examples are Bonobilash Zoo, Khulna, was set up and Pere David’s deer, Przewalski’s horse, European maintained by army authority from 1986 at and American bison, Arabian oryx and Nene Jahanabad cantonment. It is the only zoo in the goose. Zoos of the world are taking a responsibility southwest region of Bangladesh. Hundreds of in conserving species (Jarvis, 1965). The new visitors visit this zoo every day. concept of zoological parks and zoo garden management includes imparting education to raise Comilla Zoo was established in 1986, at Comilla conservation awareness among people; Botanical Garden in Comilla town and is managed conducting research to discover unknown facts by the district administration. about wild animals for better understanding their physical and psychological needs; and breeding Banderban Zoo was established in 1995 near rare and vanishing species for re-introduction into Banderban district town and is managed by the depleted areas to create new reservoirs of wildlife. district administration. Most of the wildlife in this zoo were caught by people from the hill tracts Study areas forest and sent to the zoo for display.

There are seven government and semi- Shitesh Babu’s Zoo, Srimongal. Shitesh Babu, government organizations that run famous zoos, a a wildlife lover, established a wildlife rescue center private zoo and a safari park in Bangladesh that and opened it for viewer’s recreation. At times play a big role in outdoor recreation, education the zoo releases rescued wildlife species into and research on wildlife species. Lawachara National Park. Hundreds of visitors visit this private zoo everyday situated at Dhaka Zoo, Bangladesh’s largest zoo, was Ramkrisnna Mission Road at Srimongal town. established in 1961 and opened to visitors in 1974.

It is located in the Mirpur Thana, Mirpur section Bangabandhu Safari Park, Chokoria, Cox’s | of Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. The zoo Bazar, was developed on an undulating landscape contains many native and non-native wildlife of around 2,224 acres some 107 km from the port species and the two lakes at the zoo host migratory city Chittagong. The objective was to create waterfowls each winter. It is managed by the facilities for eco-tourism, research work and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. The zoo entertainment, aside from conserving wild animals attracts around 10,000 visitors a day with the in a natural environment. Since the park opened number increasing during the weekends. to the public, it has been drawing huge crowds all year round – with 6,000 visitors daily during the Chittagong Zoo was established in 1989 at Foy’s peak season (November to March) and 2,000 Lake, Pahartali, Chittagong, with an area of about visitors daily during the off season (April to 5 acres. The zoo contains many native and a few October). The park also protects a large number non-native wildlife. Most of the native wildlife were of native wildlife species within its boundaries. caught and donated by local people and organizations. Zoos and safari parks in Bangladesh have both native and non native wildlife on display for visitors’ Rajshahi Zoo is one of the main attractions of recreation. The wildlife stock held in zoos and Rajshahi city. It was established by the banks of safari parks in 2010 is shown in Fig. 1. the Padma River in 1981 and is managed by the

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| Fig. 1: Wildlife stock in zoos and Safari park in 2010

Wildlife stock in zoos & Safari park in 2010

1800 1663 1600 1400 1200 1000 "Species number" 800 505 Total populatiopn Num be r 600 382 400 220 126 99 170 200 38 35 30 2581 1556 931 8 21 0 Dh B S Rang Cht. Raj Setes Khu Band Comi Park

Zoos & Safari park

Dh=Dhaka zoo; B S park=Bangaba zoo; Rang=Rangpur zoo; Cht=Chittagong zoo; Raj=Rajshahi zoo; Setes =Setes Babu's zoo; Khu=Bonobilash zoo, Khulna; Band=Banderban zoo; Com= Comilla zoo

Methodology these there were 12 mammal species, 6 aves species and 3 reptile species. The CR wildlife and The study was carried out through direct their populations in ex-situ conditions are shown observation and identification of indigenous CR in Table 1. wildlife species, their management and breeding facilities from 2008-2010. The list of CR species Management of CR wildlife species in ex-situ was made according to IUCN (2000) and Rahman conditions in Bangladesh (2010). Authorities, veterinary surgeons, other staff, and caretakers of zoos and safari parks Nutritious food, clean water and hygienic shelter were interviewed to collect information on the are prerequisites for a long life span and breeding Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ condition and its management practices Bangladesh management of captive CR wildlife. The breeding potential of confined wildlife. In captivity, supplied | facilities of CR species provided by zoos and park food is the sole source to fulfill the nutritional needs authorities were observed. The cage size, food of the wildlife. In this regard, only Dhaka Zoo has items and quantity, living conditions and the existing a nutrition department to ensure quality food for management system of endangered species were its animals. Other zoos and safari parks make an noted. Previous records, literature and relevant effort to follow the food supply chart of Dhaka information, both published and unpublished, were Zoo. In addition, only Dhaka Zoo and B Safari reviewed and assessed. Data collected from the Park have their own veterinary medical facilities ex-situ conservation areas were compiled and to monitor the health conditions of captive animals. analyzed. Supplied food for CR wildlife species in ex- situ conditions in Bangladesh is shown in Table 2. Results and discussion The recorded terrestrial CR wild animals in all CR wildlife species in ex-situ condition in different zoos and safari park of Bangladesh are Bangladesh housed in cages or enclosed by fences and aquatic wild animals are kept in the ponds. The cages are A total of 21critically endangered (CR) wildlife constructed of brick and iron rods, the floor is made species were recorded in ex-situ conditions at of concrete and the roof is built with tin shed or different zoos and parks of Bangladesh. Among concrete. Enclosures are fabricated with iron rods

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Table 1: CR wildlife stock in ex-situ conditions in Bangladesh in 2010 Bangladesh in practices management its and condition ex-situ in species wildlife endangered Critically

Sl. Species Name Zoos/safari park Number Total No. 01. Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) Dhaka Zoo 3 6 B Safari Park 2

Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 1 02. Common Langur (Semnopithecus entellus) Dhaka Zoo 4 8 B Safari Park 2 M Khulna Zoo 2 03. A Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) Dhaka Zoo, 3 7 M B Safari Park 1 M Chittagong Zoo 3 04. A Phary’s Leaf Monkey Comilla Zoo 2 2 L (Trachypithe cus phayrei) 05. S Slow Loris ( Nycticebus coucang) B Safari Park 1 2 Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 1 06. Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) Dhaka zoo 11 18 Chittagong Zoo 1 Rangpur Zoo 2

Khulna Zoo 2 B Safari Park 2

07. Leopard (Panthera pardus) Khulna Zoo 1 5 Rangpur Zoo 2 Dhaka Zoo 2 08. Bear Cat (Arctictis binturong) Dhaka Zoo 2 5 Comilla Zoo 1 09. Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Dhaka Zoo, 8 29 B Safari Park 18 Chittagong Zoo 2

Khulna Zoo 1 10. Hog deer (Axis porcinus) B Safari Park 4 5

Chittagong Zoo 1 | 11. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Dhaka Zoo, 2 8 B Safari Park 6 12. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 1 2 B Safari Park 1 13. Painted Stork (Mycteria lucocephala) Khulna Zoo 2 2 14. B Large Indian Parakeet (Psittacula eupatria) Chittagong Zoo 10 10 15. I Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) Chittagong Zoo 2 3 R Rangpur Zoo 1 16. D Green Pigeon (Treron apicaudata) Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 3 3 17. S Pallas’s Fishing Eagle Dhaka Zoo 2 2 (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) 18. Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilus dubius) Dhaka Zoo, 6 7 Rangpur Zoo 1

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| Table 1: CR wildlife stock in ex-situ condition in Bangladesh in 2010

Sl. Species Name Zoos/safari park Number Total No. 19. R Salt Water Crocodile (Crocodylus prosus) Dhaka Zoo 3 18 E Khulna Zoo 2 P B Safari Park 13 20. T Gangetic Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) Dhaka Zoo 4 9 I Rangpur Zoo 3 L Rajshahi Zoo 2 21. E Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) Dhaka Zoo 1 13 S Sitesh Babu’s Zoo 2 Safari Park 2 Rangpur Zoo 1 Chittagong Zoo 7

Table 2: Supplied food for CR wildlife species in ex- situ conditions in Bangladesh in 2010

Sl. Species na me Supplied food/individual/day No. 1. Hoolock Gibbon Bread- 50 g.m; Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables (Hylobates hoolock) (Pumpkin ,Green Cucumber )-250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra and Apple)- 250g.m; Ground nut-20 g.m and Egg-1 2. Bread- 100 g.m, Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables Common Langur (Pumpkin, Green Cucumber ) -250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, (Semnopithecus entellus) Malta, Amra and Apple)- 125g.m; Ground nut-20 g.m; Gram-20 g.m and Egg-1 3. Bread- 100 g.m Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables Phary’s Leaf Monkey (Pumpkin, Green Cucumber )-250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, (Trachypithecus phayrei) Malta, Amra and Apple)-125g.m; Ground nut-20 g.m ; Gram-20 g.m and Egg-1 4. Bread- 100 g.m Ripe Banana-750 g.m,; Vegetables Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ condition and its management practices Bangladesh Pig-tailed Macaque (Pumpkin ,Green Cucumber )-250g.m; Fruits (Sofeda, | (Macaca nemestrina) Malta, Amra and Apple)- 125g.m;Ground nut-20 g.m; Gram-20 g.m and Egg-1 5. Slow Loris Bread- 50 g.m; Ripe Banana-100g.m,; Vegetables (Nycticebus coucang) (Pumpkin , Green Cucumber )-200g.m ;Fruits (Sofeda, Malta, Amra & Apple)- 100g.m;Ground nut-20 g.m and Egg-1 6. Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera Fresh Beef, 10 k.g/day/tiger is supplied 5 days in a week. tigris) A rabbit 1(one) day in a week and one day meat free in a week 7. Fresh Beef, 3 k.g/day is supplied 5 days in a week and Leopard (Panthera pardus) two days meat free in a week. 8. Clouded Leopard Fresh Beef, 2 k.g/day/tiger or a live hen / day is supplied (Neofelis nebulosa) 5 days in a week and two days meat free in a week. 9. Boiled rice-1 k.g, milk-1litter, Bread- 250 g.m, Egg-2 Bear Cat (Arctictis binturong) pieces & Honey-200 g.m 10. Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Green grasses ,Wheat/rice husk, Ripe Banana ,Gram &Vegetables 11. Hog deer (Axis porcinus) Green grasses , Wheat/rice husk, Ripe Banana and Gram, Vegetables

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(continued from p.16)

| | Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ condition and its management practices in Bangladesh Bangladesh in practices management its and condition ex-situ in species wildlife endangered Critically

Sl. Species na me Supplied food/individual/day No. 12. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Banana plant – 300 k.g , Green grasses-5 k.g, Ripe Banana, Gram mixed boiled rice-2.5 k.g 13. Painted Stork Fresh small fishes as taki (Channa punctata), puti (Mycteria lucocephala) (Puntius spp.) . 14. Pallas’s Fishing Eagle Fresh small fishes-taki (Channa punctata), puti (Puntius (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) spp.),Carp fry etc. 15. Greater Adjutant Fresh small fishes-Taki (Channa punctata)-2.5 k.g/day, (Leptoptilus dubius) Puti (Puntius spp.)-600 g.m, Carp fry-600 g.m. 16. Large Indian Parakeet Fresh small fishes-Taki (Channa punctata), Puti (Puntius (Psittacula eupatria) spp.),Carp fry, green cucumber, ripe banana 17 Green Pigeon (Treron apicaudata) Poultry feed, wheat, maize 18. Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) Pumpkin , green cucumber, ripe banana 19. Salt Water Crocodile Beef /Hen, 2.5 kg is supplied twice in a week. (Crocodylus prosus) 20. Gangetic Gharial Alive/ fresh fishes- small carps, taki (Channa punctata) (Gavialis gangeticus) -10 k.g/day/Ghorial 21. Elongated Tortoise Pumpkin , ripe banana, green cucumber, carrot, cabbage (Indotestudo elongata)

The recorded terrestrial CR wild animals in the Captive breeding different zoos and safari parks of Bangladesh are housed in cages or kept in fenced enclosures. Captive breeding success of CR wildlife species Aquatic wild animals are kept in the ponds. The was observed in several zoos of Bangladesh cages are constructed of brick and iron rods; the including Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock), floor is made of concrete and the roof is built with Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris ) and Sambar

tin shed or concrete. Enclosures are fabricated (Cervus unicolor ) in Dhaka Zoo; Large Indian | with iron rods with brick constructed basements Parakeet (Psittacula eupatria) at Chittagong and ponds are excavated with sand beds and brick Zoo; and Samber (Cervus unicolor ), Hog deer stairs. Non-human CR primate species were kept (Axis porcinus) and Salt Water Crocodile for display only in cages of comparatively small (Crocodylus prosus) at Bangabandhu Safari Park size and low height and supplied poor climbing and (BSP). Only 28% of captive CR wildlife species hiding convenience. The Royal Bengal Tigers are breeding in captivity, mainly in Dhaka Zoo and (Panthera tigris) Dhaka Zoo and the safari park Bangabandhu Safari Park. This rate could increase were kept in a large enclosure in addition to display by taking special efforts with healthy stock of CR cages. Leopards (Panthera pardus) and wildlife close to being extirpated in the wild, such Clouded Leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) were kept as pig-tailed macaque, leopard, greater adjutant in smaller cages unsuitable for the fast movement and Gangetic gharial. of the agile species. Deer enclosures are larger in all zoos and in the safari park it is large enough Conclusion and suitable to forage in. In the safari park Salt Water Crocodiles (Crocodylus prosus) are kept CR wildlife stock in ex-situ conditions in different in a bigger lake with facilities for easy swimming, zoos and parks of Bangladesh could present a basking and catching fish than Dhaka and Khulana great opportunity to save species from extinction Zoo’s small ponds. and be a great source of gene conservation. The

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| bred population and their distribution in other zoos reproduction of CR species in the zoos and will attract more visitors and will save foreign safari parks. currency by decreasing wildlife imports for zoos. Translocation of bred CR wildlife populations to References their natural habitats will preserve the species in the wild and ensure a balanced environment for Asmot, G. 2001. Bangladesher Blupto human beings across the world. Bonnoprani in Bangla (Extinct Wildlife of Bangladesh). Bangla Academy 25-26 pp Recommendations Islam, S.S. 2003. State of forest genetic . It is necessary to upgrade the national zoo resources conservation and management policy with proper direction of the management in Bangladesh. Forest Genetic Resources of CR wildlife through co-operation among Working Paper, Working Paper FGR/68E. the zoos and safari parks. This includes Forest Resources Devlopment Service, Forest breeding in the zoo and subsequent release Resources Division.FAO, Rome, 31pp. into the natural habitat. IUCN Bangladesh. 2000. Red list of threatened . It is essential to set up a Specialist committee animals of Bangladesh. The World for the breeding and conservation of wildlife Conservation Union (IUCN), Dhaka, species in ex-situ conditions. Bangladesh. 54pp. . Special care is needed in the breeding season Jarvis, C. 1965. Zoos Conservation to support breeding facilities such as: Symposium. Int. Zoo year .V: 97-100. transferring male and female animals into new Lekagul, B. 1977. Captive breeding and wildlife cages with enough area that gives the species conservation. Tigerpaper IV(2):20. easy movement; an artificial forest Rahman, M.M. 2010. Status of Wildlife of environment could be simulated by decorating Bangladesh. Bangladesh Forest Research the cage with pictures of the species’ real Institute, Chittagong, Bangladesh.1-44pp. habitat; ensure a sufficient nutritious food Rahman, et al. 1998. Zoological gardens of supply, and enough light and shelter. Regular Bangladesh. Bangladesh Forest Research observation is also necessary. Institute, Chittagong.1-48pp. . Wildlife biologists need to be posted in the zoos to supervise the management and breeding Authors’ address: Wildlife Section, Bangladesh biology and monitor the impediments to Forest Research Institute, Chittagong, India, E-mail: [email protected] Critically endangered wildlife species in ex-situ condition and its management practices Bangladesh |

Common langur group (Photo: Md. Kamrul Islam)

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| | Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban Sundarban Indian the in collection honey during conflicts Human-tiger HUMAN-TIGER CONFLICTS DURING HONEY COLLECTION IN THE INDIAN SUNDARBAN: AN INSIGHT INTO BLOOD HONEY by Pradeep Vyas, K. Sengupta and Vinod B. Mathur

Introduction The Sundarban is known for its tigers. It is the only mangrove forest in the world to have a large The Sundarban lies across a part of the delta of tiger population. Due to its inhospitable conditions, the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna in the flora and fauna of this delta have developed southern Bangladesh and the state of West Bengal specialized adaptations. The Sundarban tiger is an in India, spanning a width of about 350 km. It is excellent swimmer, and in one recorded instance one of the largest contiguous blocks of mangroves a tiger swam a distance of about 8 miles (Malley, in the world. There are 34 true mangrove species 1914). It is perfectly adapted to surviving entirely and some 62 mangrove associate species in the on saline water, and its diet includes spotted deer, Indian Sundarban (Mitra, 2000). This coastal wild boar and water monitor lizards as well as wetland is within the Central Asian Flyway and is fish, crabs, snakes and almost all any life form the only mangrove wetland tiger habitat in the that can provide a mouthful of food. The world. Sundarban tiger exhibits extreme behaviour and has attacked without provocation human beings | The Sundarban is home to over 4.2 million people who enter the mangrove forest for their livelihood. (Vyas, 2012). The region is characterized by This results in many human deaths and injuries to developmental constraints in terms of a rapidly fishermen and honey collectors. Surprisingly, the growing population, coupled with a lack of same tigers do not harm human beings when they appropriate transportation and modern energy stray into villages at the fringe of the forest, services, inadequate health care delivery and primarily in search of food (Vyas, 2012). education facilities. The mainstay of the local economy is agriculture, primarily monsoon-fed Methodology paddy cultivation made possible by raising embankments along the periphery of inhabited To determine the extent of the human-tiger conflict islands to keep saltwater out. Fishing and fishery- during the honey collection period in the Indian related enterprises, particularly shrimp farming, are Sundarban, data relating to a period of 25 years the other major economic activities. People in the between 1985 and 2010 were collected from the Sundarban struggle constantly for survival and Forest Department, Government of West Bengal. climate change is making matters worse for them These data were analysed statistically to draw and for the wildlife of the Sundarban (Vyas, 2012). conclusions and make recommendations in light of the available literature on the subject. Non-timber forest product (NTFP) collection in the Indian Sundarban is the next major occupation Study area after agriculture. NTFP collection in the Indian Sundarban includes collection of honey, wax, The Indian Sundarban is located at the apex of firewood, tannin bark, lime, fish, crabs and prawns the Bay of Bengal (between 21°13’ and 22°40’ N (Singh et al, 2010). Traditionally the Forest and between 88°03’ and 89°07’ E) at the southern Department issues permits for honey collection, boundary of West Bengal (a maritime state in the which is a seasonal activity starting in April and north-eastern part of India’s coast). The area of continuing up to June each year; this period the Indian Sundarban is 9,630 km2, of which the coincides with the flowering of the mangroves. forested area is about 4,238 km2. The region is

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| bordered by Bangladesh in the east, the Hooghly Honey collection is officially permitted by the river (a distributary of the Ganges river) in the Forest Department and is regulated by issuing west, the Dampier - Hodges line in the north and permits to registered fringe dwellers. They are the Bay of Bengal in the south. Most of the given permits because collecting honey is a ecosystem of the deltaic Sundarban exhibits traditional practice of theirs. They are set a limit marine characteristics to a considerable extent. in terms of kilograms of honey that may be The important morphotypes are beaches, mudflats, collected from the buffer zone of the Sundarban. coastal dunes, sand flats, estuaries, creeks, inlets Honey collection is not permitted in the national and mangrove swamps (Chaudhuri et al, 1994). park and sanctuaries situated within the The rivers are the live matrix of the deltaic complex, Sundarban. According to the prescriptions of the and its unique biological diversity is embedded in management plan (Table 1), honey collection is this matrix. allowed in only 2,132 km2 of the total area of 4,238 km2 of mangrove forest. Each year, 160 permits The Indian Sundarban region holds reserved are issued, and with an average of about seven forests, with one national park, i.e., Sundarban persons per team, an estimated 1,120 people enter National Park, and four wildlife sanctuaries, the Sundarban forest for honey collection. During namely: Saznekhali, Lothian Island, West the honey collection period, the Forest Department Sundarban and Haliday Island. An area of 2,585 stops fishing activity (Tiger Conservation Plan, km2 consisting of Sundarban National Park, 2012). Saznekhali Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjoining reserved forest was declared as the Sundarban Honey collectors enter the forest and look for Tiger Reserve in 1973. The entire Sundarban honeybees. Once they find a bee, they follow its

Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban National Park was also inscribed as a World trail and enter the forest in search of its | Heritage Site by UNESCO on 11th December, honeycomb. Honey collectors are locally called 1987. The Sundarban was also designated as the Moulis. There are two types of Moulis - the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve in 1989 (SBR, ‘Kande’ moulis are the experienced ones, and 2003). the ‘hata’ moulis are the inexperienced ones. Interestingly, there are no traditional tribal Honey collection in the Indian Sundarban populations in the Indian Sundarban as the area was colonized late in the 18th century by the British Rock bees (Apis dorsata) from the Himalayas rulers for harvesting natural produce. So, all the visit the Sundarban forest each year and build bee- current settlers are migrants from other areas. The hives in the mangrove plants, which flower from height of the honeycombs from the ground is from the end of March to June. All the mangrove plants 5 to 30 feet. Once the Moulis find a honeycomb, are intensely nectar-bearing, which attracts the they make four ‘bolen’- (bunches of leaves) from rock bee. Flowering starts with the blooming of hental (Phoenix peludosa) shrubs by cutting the kalashi (Aegiceras corniculatum) at the end of leaves. These bolen are burnt to make smoke and March, followed by harguja (Acanthus ilicifolius), drive the honeybees away from the hive. Once baen (Avicennia spp.), keora (Sonneratia the honeybees move away, the comb is cut into apetala), garjan (Rhizophora spp.), etc. The pieces and the collectors move to their boat, where density of the honey depends on the number of they squeeze the honey into earthen pots. The wax salt-excretory glands of the trees. Kalashi, with is kept separately. The honey collectors move to 19 glands per mm2, gives the best honey. It has the same comb after 15 days and cut it again. been found that the gnewa bears about 39% of The second yield is normally 60% of the first. The the honeycombs, baen 16%, garan 11%, garjan yield per honey comb varies from 10 to 12 kg 10% and others 24%. The ideal site for (Vyas, 2010). Depending upon the mangrove construction of hives is a forest with the hental- flowering, the total honey collection per year varies gnewa combination (Tiger Conservation Plan, between 25 and 60 tons (Table 2). 2012).

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| | Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban Sundarban Indian the in collection honey during conflicts Human-tiger

Table 1- Area in which honey collection is permitted in the Indian Sundarban Administrative Management unit Total area Area where honey collection is unit (km2) permitted (km2) Sundarban Tiger Core area or critical tiger 1699.62 0.0 Reserve habitat B uffer area (Saznekhali 885.27 522.85 Wildlife Sanctuary and other reserve forest) 24 Parganas Area including Haliday 1653.78 1609.78 (South) Division and Lothian Wildlife Sanctuary Total area 4238.67 2132.63

Table 2- Crude honey collection in Indian Sundarban CRUDE HONEY COLLECTED (tons per YEAR year) TOTAL SUNDARBAN 24 PARGANAS TIGER RESERVE (SOUTH) DIVISION 2000-2001 33.83 15.40 49.23 2001-2002 15.40 17.10 32.50 2002-2003 16.41 14.45 30.86 2003-2004 20.79 17.53 38.33 2004-2005 22.11 8.92 31.04 2005-2006 30.55 30.56 61.12 2006-2007 25.17 13.03 38.20 2007-2008 21.36 13.83 35.20 2008-2009 12.55 12.01 24.56 2009-2010 13.80 11.95 25.75

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| The origin of blood honey – human - tiger earned about Rs. 5,800 per month from honey conflict during honey collection collection during April and May, as compared with about Rs. 3,000 per month from fishing. These Due to the aggressive behaviour of the Sundarban amounts represent the income after expenses are tigers, which do not hesitate to attack humans deducted. In a sample survey conducted as part inside the forest, everyone involved in the honey of this study, it was observed that 80% of the collection process is subjected to a great risk of honey collectors were traditional honey collectors, attack. During the 25-year period from 1985 to whereas 20% were non-traditional and were new 2010, a total of 409 people became victims to tiger to the profession. All the honey collectors (100%) attacks when they ventured into the Sundarban were fishermen. Fishing is closed during this period. forest to meet their livelihood requirements (Vyas, The correlation between the level of the human- 2012). Out of these, 71 persons were honey tiger conflict and the honey collection activity can collectors (Table 3). These numbers are based be seen from the responses of the honey collectors on official records of persons entering the forest about the threats they face during honey with permits (Boat License Certificate or BLC) collection. All honey collectors feared the tiger as from the Forest Department and do not include a danger (100%), 70% feared snakes, and natural the number of people entering the forest without calamities, piracy and sickness were perceived permission from the Forest Department. In addition as danger by 30%, 10% and 20% of the to this, a total of 19 persons were injured during respondents respectively. Honey collection is an honey collection during this period (Vyas, 2012). important activity for the people of the Sundarban. Though no information is available anywhere on This activity may not constitute a major share of the number of people without BLCs killed by tigers, their annual income, but is an additional annual

Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban it is generally believed that this number is income that is important due to the vulnerability | anywhere between two and three times the of livelihoods in the Sundarban (Singh et al, 2010). number of human deaths reported officially. Thus, honey collection in the Indian Sundarban involves Honey collection is the activity that is responsible the loss of human blood every year. The honey for the greatest number of direct confrontations collected can therefore be termed ‘blood honey’. between the tiger and man in the mangrove forest, Blood honey collection is unique to the Sundarban with the greatest potential of human-tiger conflicts. and exists nowhere else in the world except the Honey collectors represent the highest percentage Bangladesh Sundarban. of human casualties during the short period of honey collection. Honey collection also creates Discussion possibilities of attacks on the tiger by honey collectors in self-defence, and such attacks remain Honey collection in the Sundarban is the activity unnoticed under the conditions prevailing in the that results in the maximum human-tiger conflicts. Sundarban. Human-tiger conflicts inside the forest areas primarily occur when tigers get disturbed and Vyas, 2012 has analysed data relating to human irritated due to human intrusions in their habitat. deaths caused by tigers during the period from Honey collectors penetrate deep into forest areas 1985-1986 to 2009-2010 in the Indian Sundarban in search of beehives. The intrusion of large (Vyas, 2012). It was found that four categories of numbers of people in the forest, which otherwise people became the victims of tiger attacks: does not have many intruders, causes a massive fishermen (75%), honey collectors (17%), wood disturbance to the fragile ecosystem. Vyas et al., cutters (6%) and staff members and labours of (2010) have analyzed the socio-economic aspects the Forest Department (2%). The victims’ profiles of honey collection in the Indian Sundarban (Vyas match their professions. The fishermen are in the et al, 2010). It was observed that in 2009-2010, a Sundarban almost 10 months in a year, but spend total of 154 honey collections permits were issued most of their time in their boats. The honey by the Forest Department and about 1,078 honey collectors’ visits to the forest are during a 2 month collectors entered in the Sundarban forest with period, but they have to penetrate deep into the legal permits. On average, each honey collector mangrove forest in search of beehives, which leads

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Table 3- Number of persons killed by tigers in Indian Sundarban- all Sundarban Indian the in collection honey during conflicts Human-tiger professions and honey coll ectors.

Year Total number of Honey collectors killed persons killed by by tigers in the Indian tigers in the Indian Sundarban Sundarban 1985-1986 8 5 1986-1987 25 8 1987-1988 32 7 1988-1989 27 7 1989-1990 12 1 1990-1991 46 2 1991-1992 48 4 1992-1993 42 6

1993-1994 47 5

1994-1995 7 0

1995-1996 4 2 1996-1997 3 0 1997-1998 5 0 1998-1999 3 0 1999-2000 15 3

2000-2001 17 8 | 2001-2002 15 2 2002-2003 15 3 2003-2004* 11 6 2004-2005 4 1 2005-2006 1 0 2006-2007 0 0 2007-2008 9 1 2008-2009 6 0 2009-2010 8 0 Total 410 71

*1 person was killed in village.

to conflicts with tigers. The percentage of of professionals, fishermen (44%), woodcutters woodcutters is low due to the fact that woodcutting (36%) and honey collectors (18%), are the most has been discontinued since 2000. The staff affected by tigers (Reza et al., 2002; IUCN, 2004). members and labourers work with all precautions, and so their percentage is also low. Vyas, (2012) analysed data from the Sundarban Tiger Reserve relating to a period of 12 years Chakraborti (1992) analyzed human casualties on (1998-1999 to 2009-2010) to study the seasonal the basis of studies carried out in the Indian variation in killing of humans by tigers (Vyas, 2012). Sundarban from 1964 to 1989 (Chakraborti, 1992). The Sundarban has three distinct seasons; the pre- Fishermen casualties represented 57.78%, honey monsoon (March - June), monsoon (July - collectors 23.28% and others, including timber October) and post-monsoon (November - traders, 18.93%. In studies carried out in the February). The number of humans killed was 38 Bangladesh Sundarban during the period from 1984 during the pre-monsoon season, 25 during the to 2000, it was recorded that out of eight categories monsoon and 23 during the post-monsoon.

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| ANOVA indicates significant seasonal variation boxes be placed on a flotilla of country boats,

in the human deaths, with Fobs = 31.6831 >Fcri t = which should be parked inside the mangrove 7.7086. The large number of humans killed during forest at specified locations, preferably near the pre-monsoon period can be directly correlated protection camps. This will result in tapping with the honey collection period, during which of more of the mangrove forest by honeybees honey collectors come face to face with tigers and will provide employment to many people, inside the forest when they collect honey. The especially from the honey collector groups. monthly data relating to humans killed during the This will eliminate human - tiger conflicts period 1998-2010 also shows a peak in April, during the honey collection process. which can be attributed to the honey collection d. Education, awareness generation and training (Vyas, 2012). in alternate livelihood options, duly supported by micro-finance credit, may help honey Recommendations collectors opt for livelihoods other than collection of blood honey. Honey collection in the Indian Sundarban is an age old practice and is historically linked to human- Honey collection in the Sundarban is a practice tiger conflicts resulting in loss of human lives and that results in severe human-tiger conflicts, occasionally leading to harm to tigers also. In the resulting in harm to both people and tigers. Hence, 21st century, when honey is available from many in the overall interest of conservation of Sundarban other alternate sources without any conflict, this and its people, this activity needs to be stopped. practice of honey collection in the Sundarban Sundarban honey, a precious natural wealth, should cannot be justified on any account and needs be collected, but without loss of human blood, by

Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban review. The following measures are suggested to gradually reducing the collection of honey by the | minimize/eliminate the loss of blood during honey traditional means. The traditional practice is an collection in the Sundarban: outcome of livelihood compulsions for the majority a. Honey collection in the forested areas of the of unwilling honey collectors (88%) in the Indian Sundarban should be discouraged with the Sundarban and can be minimized by providing objective of gradually stopping it as no alternate and improved livelihood opportunities as civilized society can allow this practice. indicated in the foregoing. Alternate livelihood options should be provided to the people engaged in it. This will wean Authors: Pradeep Vyas, West Bengal Forest them off the collection of blood honey. This Department; K. Sengupta, IUCN Project Staff, will save many human lives and will preserve West Bengal and Dr V B Mathur, Director, the Sundarban from the extreme biotic Wildlife Institute of India. Email: disturbances caused during the collection [email protected] process. References b. In recent times beekeeping has increased considerably in the fringes of Sundarban Chakraborti, K. 1992. Man-Eating Tigers. during the mangrove flowering season. Darbari Prakashan, Calcutta, India. pp. 142. Migratory beekeepers visit the area and set Chaudhuri, A.B. and A. Choudhury. 1994. up beekeeping boxes in the villages after Vertebrate fauna. Mangroves of the making payment to land holders. This has Sundarban, Vol. 1: India. IUCN, Bangkok, provided good employment to local people and Thailand. pp. 135. allows Sundarban honey to be tapped without IUCN. 2004. Bengal Tiger in the Bangladesh people going to the forest. Hence, beekeeping Sundarban. IUCN, Bangladesh, Dhaka. should be encouraged. Malley, L.S.S.O. 1914. Bengal District c. Honeybees flying from beekeeping boxes kept Gazetteers: 24-Parganas. The Bengal in the villages to the mangrove forest can fly Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta. pp. 408. only short distances into the forests, and as a Mitra, A. 2000. The north-west coast of the result most of the mangrove forest remains Bay of Bengal and deltaic Sundarban. Seas untapped. It is suggested that the beekeeping at the Millennium: An Environmental

Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 | | Evaluation. Vol. II (ed. Sheppard, C.). UK. Forest Department, Government of West Bengal. Park National Rajaji in otter smooth-coated of existence of record Confirmed pp.160. 2012. Tiger Conservation Plan. Sundarban Reza, A.H.M.A., Feeroz, M.M. and M.A. Islam. Tiger Reserve. 2002. Man–tiger interaction in the Vyas, P. 2012. Biodiversity Conservation in Bangladesh Sundarban. Bangladesh J. Indian Sundarban in the Context of Life Sci. 14, 75–82. Anthropogenic Pressures and Strategies SBR, A. 2003. Handbook on Sundarban for Impact Mitigation. Ph.D. thesis. Biosphere Reserve. SBR Report. Published Saurashtra University, Rajkot. by Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, Vyas, P., Kundu, J. and S. Kundu. 2010. A socio- Directorate of Forest, Government of West economic study on honey collectors in Bengal. Sundarban. Report of Sundarban Singh, A., Bhattacharya, P., Vyas, P. and S. Roy. Biosphere Reserve. Published by Forest 2010. Contribution of NTFPs in the Directorate, Government of West Bengal, livelihood of mangrove forest dwellers of 2010. Sundarban. J. Hum. Ecol. 29, 191–200.

RECENT CONFIRMED RECORD OF EXISTENCE OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER (Lutrogale perspicillata) IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK, NORTH-WEST INDIA

by Ritesh Joshi |

Introduction 2008; Nawab and Hussain, 2012; Hussain, 2013). Its protected breeding populations have also been Three species of otters occur in the Indian sub– recorded from Corbett and Dudhwa Tiger continent, viz. the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra, the Reserves and Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary smooth–coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata and (WWF-India). In Uttarakhand state, it is known the oriental small-clawed otter Aonyx cinerea. to occur in Ramganga river basin (Corbett Smooth–coated otter is distributed throughout National Park) and in Baanganga wetland southern Asia from Indonesia, through Southeast (Conservation Reserve); various wildlife habitats Asia and westwards through southern China, India which fall across the stretch of river Ganges from and Pakistan, with an isolated population in Iraq Byasi/Kaudiala to Haridwar are potential habitats (Prater, 1971; Hussain and Choudhury, 1997). for smooth–coated otters. Based on historical However, the other two species are restricted to records, Hussain (2002b) pointed out that all three the Himalayas, north of the Ganges and to southern species (Lutra, Lutrogale and Aonyx) were India (Conroy et al., 1998). The smooth-coated distributed in the foothills of Himalayas during otter, once common in the wetlands and low-lying 1823–1887. areas of South Asia, is now restricted to a few protected areas (Hussain et al., 2008). No systematic field work has been carried out in Rajaji National Park on smooth–coated otter so In northern India, most of the work on this aquatic far and therefore, we don’t have any authenticated species has been carried out by S.A. Hussain and information on species survival and status in the A. Nawab in parts of the lower Himalayas/Terai park. Historical archives (working/management landscape (Corbett Tiger Reserve), Dudhwa plans of the park) have recorded the otter’s National Park, Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary presence in the Ganges flowing across the park. and National Chambal Sanctuary (Hussain, Further documentation of faunal species, carried 2002a&b; Hussain and Choudhury, 1997; Nawab, out by the Zoological Survey of India during 1981-

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| 87, noted that smooth-coated otter was present in surveys but it was not confirmed whether those this protected habitat (Sinha, 1994). However, dens belonged to otters or other animals. detailed notes on species abundance and status have not been stated in the consolidated record. Discussions held with some local people regarding The status of otters from the Indian sub-continent the presence of the species revealed that otter is poorly documented and practical conservation sightings were common ten years ago, but due to measures have not been developed; however, their the escalating rate of anthropogenic activities population is under severe threat (Hussain, 2013). across the Ganges, sightings became uncommon. People’s responses were difficult to authenticate Rajaji National Park (RNP), located at 29º5'- because of the animal’s resemblance to the 30º31' N, 77º52'-78º22' E, was established in 1983 common mongoose, whose sightings are common to protect the Asian elephant’s habitat, which in this area. However, discussions held with some comes under ‘Shivalik Elephant Reserve No. 11’. inhabitants who were involved in illegal fishing had This protected habitat falls under the Gangetic plains biogeographic zone and upper Gangetic confirmed animal’s presence in the area. plains province. The total geographical area of the park is 820 km2 across the north-western On 25 March 2012 (17:20 h), an adult smooth– Shivalik landscape. RNP has been designated as coated otter, of unknown sex, was observed in a reserved area for “Project Elephant” by the Chilla forest of the RNP. The individual was Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government spinning, grooming (digging up holes in the sand of India with the sole aim of maintaining a viable and rolling over to it) on a sandy patch of the population of Asian elephants. Ganges. Thereafter, the otter entered the Ganges and started swimming parallel to river’s bank. Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban The dominant vegetation of the area comprises Hussain (2013) has recorded grooming as the | Sal Shorea robusta, Rohini Mallotus second most important activity among otters, as it phillipinensis, Khair Acacia catechu, Haldu plays an important role in the otter’s physiology. Adina cordifolia, Bahera Terminalia bellirica, To record its activities, I started moving silently Bar Ficus bengalensis and Shisham Dalbergia along the river. The animal was swimming under sissoo. The dominant fauna of the park consists water and would raise its head out of the water at of tiger Panthera tigris, leopard Panthera short intervals (±10 seconds), which helped me to pardus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus, Hyaena locate its presence and position. Remaining Hyaena hyaena, barking deer Muntiacus impressions due to the animal’s movement also muntjak, goral Nemorhaedus goral, spotted deer helped to track its exact location in the water. The Axis axis, sambar Cervous unicolor and wild animal did not fear my presence and occasionally boar Sus scrofa. Among the reptilian fauna tried to approach me by diverting its movement in mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris and king the water. After a while the animal moved towards cobra Ophiophagus hannah represent Rajaji’s an island situated in the Ganges. faunal diverseness. A study carried out by Hussain (2002a) in parts On 6 June 2007 (07:40 h) two individuals of of Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Dudhwa Tiger smooth-coated otter, of unknown sex, were Reserve, Corbett Tiger Reserve and Alaknanda sighted, playing on a sand bed of the Ganges in valley revealed that Katerniaghat Wildlife Jhabargarh forest of RNP. Sensing our presence, Sanctuary has the highest percentage of potential they quickly moved inside a hollow space under a sites from where the otter’s activities had been big rock and disappeared from sight. To confirm recorded, followed by Dudhwa and Corbett Tiger the existence of the species in the Ganges flowing Reserve. During this study the presence of otter across RNP, the author conducted 17 surveys in was not recorded from Alaknanda valley (from riparian corridors of Ganges (from Bhimgora Rishikesh to Joshimath), though the Alaknanda barrage to Dogadda rau) between October 2007 river appears to be good habitat for otters with to March 2008, but no signs were observed which fairly high prey biomass. could indicate the presence of species. Only few small dens (c 5-8) were encountered during the

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| | Human-tiger conflicts during honey collection in the Indian Sundarban Sundarban Indian the in collection honey during conflicts Human-tiger

Location map of the Rajaji National Park, showing sites from where smooth-coated otters have been recorded

Smooth-coated otter digging up hole on a sandy patch in Ganges flowing across Rajaji National Park (Photo: Ritesh Joshi)

Smooth-coated otter in river Ganges, Rajaji National Park (Photo: Ritesh Joshi)

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| Smooth-coated otter has been catagorized as The major threats to Asian populations of otters vulnerable in IUCN’s Red List of Threatened are loss of wetland habitats because of construction Mammals and in Appendix II of CITES (IUCN, of large scale hydroelectric projects, construction 2011). It is also considered as endangered and of dams & barrages, aquaculture activities, included in Schedule I of India’s Wildlife reclamation of wetlands for settlements and (Protection) Act, 1972. The populations of all three agriculture, reduction in prey biomass, poaching otter species found in the Indian sub-continent are and contamination of waterways by pesticides declining, mainly due to habitat loss and extensive (Hussain et al., 2008; Shenoy et al., 2003). trapping of the species (Hussain, 2002a). Husain Throughout South and Southeast Asia there is a and Choudhury (1997) based on their study on severe conflict between otters and humans as a the distribution and status of smooth-coated otter result of the ever-increasing human population and in National Chambral Sanctuary, indicated that expansion of agricultural fields along the anthropogenic activities, construction of road riverbanks and other otter habitats that also provide bridges and mining activities have increased water for agriculture (Joshi, 2009). disturbances along the river and are putting pressure on the existing populations. Conclusion

Collection of fuelwood and fodder from the riparian The otters, at the apex of the freshwater food corridors was found to be a primary threat to the web, are good indicators of healthy riverine surviving population of smooth-coated otters in ecosystems which they inhabit. Evidences of the RNP. Occasional illegal fishing in the Ganges was survival of smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale found to cause disturbance in aquatic habitats, and perspicillata) have been documented from the thus to the otter population, as fishermen would river Ganges flowing across RNP, in northwest move extensively in the water, sitting on rubber India. However, no archive/literature is available

Confirmed record of existence of smooth-coated otter in Rajaji National Park

| tubes. Mining was another threat observed in so far which could highlights its status in RNP. adjoining habitats (parts of Haridwar forest This species is considered as endangered and is division); these activities might have restricted the listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List and in otter’s frequent distribution and movement in the Appendix II of CITES. Open sandy patches which upper Gangetic plains falling under the domain of consist of rocky bases, the availability of high prey RNP. biomass and a fresh river ecosystem offer an ideal habitat for otters in this protected habitat. This Haridwar city is a holy place and draws tremendous documentation confirms the existence and crowds year round, especially on festival days like abundance of smooth-coated otter in RNP. Saawan Purnima, Navratri, Somvati Amavashya However, to assemble records on habitat and one of the world’s biggest fairs Maha-Kumbh. preference and ecological requirements is of To accommodate the huge crowds small considerable importance in developing effective temporary camps are always constructed in the conservation and management strategies. It is dry river bed, which might place pressure on recommended to undertake further surveys of aquatic ecosystem. Since the north-western part potential habitats across the Gangetic plains, to of the Shivalik landscape falls under the upper collect ground-based information on species Gangetic plains province, the healthy river abundance. ecosystem of the Ganges is sustaining the otter’s population in some pockets of RNP and adjoining Acknowledgements habitats. A study carried out on the water quality of the Ganges in Haridwar exposed that mass I would like to thank Mr. M.S. Negi, former bathing influences the water quality of Ganges but Forest Range Officer, RNP for providing inputs only for a short duration. The Biochemical Oxygen during field visits. Thanks are also due to Ms. Demand recorded during the bathing days Himani Joshi for providing help in preparation indicated that water of the Ganges at Haridwar is of this manuscript. non-polluted (Gangwar and Joshi, 2007).

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References 2013, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Park National Rajaji in otter smooth-coated of existence of record Confirmed Version 2013.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Conroy, J., Melisch, R. and P. Chanin. 1998. The Downloaded on 22nd November 2013. distribution and status of the Eurasian IUCN, 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened otter (Lutra lutra) in Asia–a preliminary Species. Version 2011.2. review. IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull., www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 26 15(1): 15-30. March 2012. Gangwar, K.K. and B.D. Joshi. 2007. Impact of Joshi, D. 2009. Status of smooth Indian otter mass bathing on water quality of river (Lutra perspicillata) and conservation of Ganga during Magh Purnima at Haridwar. fresh water ecosystem outside protected Proceedings of DAE-BRNS National areas of Bardia National Park in Karnali Symposium on Limnology,February 19-21, river, Nepal. Report, www.rufford.org/files/ 2007 (Eds. Venkataramani, B., Sharma, L.L., 06.09.07%20Detailed%20Final%20Report.doc. Puranik, V.D., Durve, V.S., Apte, S.K., Gupta, Downloaded on 22nd November 2013. H.C.L., Gour, H.N., Verma, P.C., Sharma, Nawab, A. 2008. Conservation of otter species S.K. and Sharma, B.K.), Department of in India. Interim field report: Narora (Ramsar Aquaculture, Maharana Pratap University of site), Uttar Pradesh. Freshwater and Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Wetlands Programme, WWF–India, New Rajasthan, India, pp.358-363. Delhi. Hussain, S.A. and B.C. Choudhury. 1997. Nawab, A. and S.A. Hussain. 2012. Prey Distribution and status of the smooth– selection by smooth–coated otter coated otter Lutra perspicillata in National (Lutrogale perspicillata) in response to the Chambal Sanctuary, India. Biological variation in fish abundance in upper Conservation, 80(2): 199-206. Gangetic plains, India. Mammalia, 76(1):

Hussain, S.A. 2002a. Conservation status of 57-67. | otters in the Terai and lower Himalayas Prater, S.H. 1971. The book of Indian animals. of Uttar Pradesh, India. In: Proceedings of Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford VIIth International Otter Colloquium: Otter University Press, Mumbai, India. conservation–an example for a sustainable use Shenoy, K., Varma, S. and K.V. Devi Prasad. of wetlands, March 14-19, 1998 (Eds. Dulfer, 2003. Otters in Cauvery Wildlife R., Conroy, J., Nel, J. and Gutleb, A.C.), IUCN Sanctuary, Southern India, a study on the Otter Specialist Group Bull., Trebon, Czech habitat choice and diet composition of the Republic, pp.131-142. smooth-coated otter (Lutra perspicillata). Hussain, S.A. 2002b. A note on the historical Report, Nityata Foundation and Asian Nature record of otter distribution in India, with Conservation Foundation, Bangalore, India. special reference to lower Himalayas and Sinha, N.K. 1994. Mammals (Mammalia) In: Tarai. In: Proceedings of VIIth International Fauna of Rajaji National Park, Fauna of Otter Colloquium: Otter conservation–an conservation area 5 (Ed. Director). Zoological example for a sustainable use of wetlands, Survey of India, India, pp. 9-23. March 14-19, 1998 (Eds. Dulfer, R., Conroy, WWF-India. Smooth-coated Otter, J., Nel, J. and Gutleb, A.C.), IUCN Otter Ambassadors for wetland conservation. Specialist Group Bull., Trebon, Czech http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/ Republic, pp.143-147. priority_species/smooth_coated_otter. Hussain, S.A. 2013. Activity pattern, Downloaded on 22nd November 2013. behavioural activity and interspecific interaction of smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) in National Author’s address: Conservation and Survey Chambal Sanctuary, India. IUCN Otter Division, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Spec. Group Bull., 30(1): 5-17. New Delhi, India, Hussain, S.A., De Silva, P.K. and F.M. Mostafa. E-mail: [email protected] 2008. Lutrogale perspicillata. In: IUCN,

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| NO SPECIAL INGREDIENTS IN TIGER BONE WINE: IMPLICATIONS FOR WILD TIGER CONSERVATION AND PUBLIC EDUCATION by Wei-dong Bao, Guo-fa Cui, Ji-liang Xu, Nasendelger

Introduction from a poached lynx from Inner Mongolia in March 2010. The bone wines were made by Traditional bone wines of tiger, leopard and other soaking the bones directly in spirits without herbal large wild cats were used for many centuries in additives. folk medicine among Asian people (Zhang & Zhang, 2009). It was believed that bone wine The bone wines were concentrated from 5ml to relieved rheumatic pains, removed dampness, and 0.2ml by bubbling nitrogen gas and the chemical treated lassitude of waist and knee due to cold ingredients were analyzed using GC/MS (GC: and damp (Li et al., 1994). The tale of bone wine’s TRACE 2000 Series, ThermoQuest)/MS magic function makes it still in high demand even (VOYAGER, ThermoQuest, FINNIGAN) when effective modern medicine is conveniently following general procedure described by the accessed. Although the CITES ban on trade in Center of Biological Sciences of Beijing Forestry tiger and other large cats body parts throughout University. The GC/MS analysis procedure is GC the world has reduced the cat bones demand, the column: fused silica capillary column DB-5 (30 illegal trading for tiger bone has never disappeared m×0.25 mm×0.25 μm); the oven temperature was and poaching for wild cat bones remains the chief programmed from 50°C (isothermal for 4 min.),

No special ingredients in tiger bone wine: implications for wild tiger conservation threat to these rare wild cats (State Forestry with an increase of 20°C/min. to 180°C, then | Administration, 2009). For the purpose of reducing 10°C/min. to 290°C, ending with a 10 min. tiger bone demand, Chinese researchers tried to isothermal at 290°C. Helium (99.99%) was used find replacement species using bone composition as a carrier gas at a constant flow of 1.5 ml/min. analysis (Yang et al., 1993; Liu et al., 1995; Song and injection temperature at 250°C. Mass spectra et al., 1995a). Several alternative animals were readings were taken in electron impact mode at successfully identified (Hai, 2000; Liu and Han, 70 eV with an interface temperature of 250°C; 2006), including the steppe zokor Myospalax Ion-source temperature at 190°C; scan interval baileyi, for Sailong wine rheumatism (Hai, 2002). of 0.5 seconds of 29-540 amu. An injection volume The medicinal functions of these bone materials of 1.5μL was employed (no split). Interpretation are similar to tiger bone (Li and Zhang, 1998). of mass spectrum was conducted using the However, on the question of what special database of the National Institute Standard and components in tiger bone wine gives its medicinal Technology (NIST). The name, molecular function remains unclear (Hu et al., 2009). Our structure, and probability of the components in the purpose of this paper is to analyze whether specific bone wines were ascertained. The relative ingredients in Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica contents were calculated using the area bone wine exist; we also made a comparison with normalization method of total ions chromatogram Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx bone wine to look for area of the related component peaks. clues on bone wine ingredients for wild cats in general. Amino acid components were analyzed using Hitachi L-8900 Amino Acid Analyzer following Material and methods the national test standard of GB/T1824-2000 by the Feeds Testing Center of China Agricultural We collected 50 ml of tiger bone wine made from University. Bottled commercial spirits (52% a poached Amur tiger in Jilin province in December alcohol) bought from supermarket was used as 2008 and 50 ml of Eurasian lynx bone wine made experimental control.

Vol. 41: No. 2 2014 | |

Results may rely mostly on these herbs instead of the cat conservation tiger wild for implications wine: bone tiger in ingredients special No bones themselves. For example, an experiment According to the analysis of GC/MS there were comparing a medication wine with and without 6 main chemical ingredients in the tiger bone wine leopard bone found that the function of the latter with phenethyl alcohol (C8H10O) (93.93%) the only decreased a little in inhibiting a rat’s idiopathic largest part followed by a low amount of fatty inflammation and secondary inflammation. This acids. Ten main chemical ingredients in lynx bone experiment showed that the leopard bone was not wine were identified with oleic acid (C18H34O2) the necessary ingredient for its medicinal effects (61.82%) and Hexadecenoic acid (C16H32O2) of the bone wine (An et al., 2009). Thus, beliefs (17.46%) being the larger parts. The ingredients of strengthening muscles and bones by drinking in commercial spirit were phenethyl alcohol cat bone wines is from a psychological placebo (35.16%) as flavor fixative and esters from effect; if it does show any effects, it may be a brewing crops. result of herbs instead of cat bones.

In tiger bone wine 16 amino acids were detected Compared with modern medicines wild cat bone with Alanine (1.3mg/100ml), Glutamic acid wines were much less effective in reducing pain (0.9mg/100ml), Lysine (0.7mg/100ml), and Valine and inhibit inflammation. Studies proved that bone (0.6mg/100ml) higher than others, whereas 15 wines of lynx and leopard had the anti- amino acids were detected in lynx bone wine with inflammatory effects in mouse ears treated by p- Lysine (0.9mg/100ml), Leucine (0.8 mg/100ml), xylene with a very high dose of 60 g/kg body weight Alanine (0.8mg/100ml), Valine (0.6mg/100ml), and compared to 0.01 g/kg of Indomethacin (Li et al., Phenylalanine (0.5mg/100ml) in higher content. 1989). Thus, we think the cat bone wines mixed The total amount of amino acid in tiger wine was with herbs were the only choice for medical 5.9 mg/100ml and 6.5 mg/100ml in lynx wine. purposes in ancient times. At present there are There was no amino acid detected in commercial many efficient medicines for curing arthritis, spirits. relieving rheumatic pains, and inhibiting inflammation at very low prices. | Discussion Based on our analysis of tiger and lynx bone wine Experiments showed that the extracts of amino contents, there were no special ingredients of acids and bone gelatin obtained by boiling in water medicinal value. Although the Chinese Year of were taken as the functional ingredients in tiger Tiger is past, we strongly propose that people living bones (Yang et al., 1993; Song et al., 1995a). in modern society abandon the ill-conceived and Bones from other species with similar organic and pseudo-scientific legends of magic functions of non-organic matters could therefore be used in tiger bone wine and refuse to drink any wild cat place of tiger bone in medicinal wine making (Song bone wines. Otherwise, poaching for tiger bones et al., 1995b; Suo et al., 2004), and several will push the wild tiger to extinction by the next alternatives were found successfully to replace Year of Tiger in 2022. Amino acids found in cat tiger bone in traditional Chinese medicine (Li and bone wines are easy to get cheaply from many Zhang, 1998; Fan and Li, 2001; Hai, 2002). In our health drinks and foods. Refusal of cat bone wines study we did not find any special ingredients except will greatly help to save the endangered rare wild amino acids and normal fatty acids similar to other cats. Our results also remind people around the studies (New Medical College of Jiangsu, 1975). world using wild animal products as folk medicine Based on these findings we think if the tiger bone to rethink the true value of the endangered species wine had some positive effects on the human body and help nature maintain a diversified wildlife it is the nutrient function played by amino acids, treasure. which is greatly different from a medicinal function. Acknowledgements Traditional wild cat bone wines also contain many other herbs. The medicinal function varied with We thank Professor H.J. Chen from Beijing these herbs and the function of wild cat bone wines Forestry University for conducting the GC/MS

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| analysis and interpreting the chemical lynx bones. Journal of Chinese Medicinal ingredients. We are grateful for the amino Materials 12(8): 31-33. acids analysis by the Feed Testing Center of Liu, Q. F., Song, X. Q., Peng, C. E., Lu, H. Q. and China Agricultural University. We thank Dr U. W. Gao. 1995. Comparison of the infrared Breitenmoser from the Cat Specialist Group of spectroscopy of the tiger bone and its IUCN/SSC for commenting the early draft of analogues. Journal of Beijing University of this manuscript. We are in debt to Dr M. R. Traditional Chinese Medicine 18 (6): 67-68. Frisina from Montana State University for Liu, Z. and D. W. Han. 2006. Advances in clinical proofreading the manuscript. This study was research of tiger bone and artificial tiger funded by the Ministry of Science & bone. Chinese Journal of Traditional Medical Traumatology and Orthopedics 14(2): 73-75. Technology of China for the National Key New Medical College of Jiangsu. 1975. Dictionary Project of Scientific and Technical Supporting of Chinese Traditional Medicine. Shanghai Program (No. 2008BADB0B01), and the Science and Technology Press, Shanghai. National Science Foundation of China (No. State Forestry Administration. 2009. National 30570305). Survey of China’s Key Terrestrial Wildlife Species. China Forestry Publishing House, References Beijing. Song, X. Q., Peng, C. E., Lu, H. Q. and W. Gao. An, X. M., Hou, M., Li, N. and H. Shi. 2009. 1995a. Analysis of amino acids in tiger bone Study on the influence of removing the and its analogues. Journal of Beijing Panther’ bone on rats adjuvant arthritis of University of Traditional Chinese Medicine the Hongmao medication wine. Guiding 18(2): 43-44. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Song, X. Q., Peng, C. E., Lu, H. Q. and W. Gao. Pharmacy 15(10): 7-9. 1995b. Analysis of trace elements in tiger Fan, Y. M. and R.F. Li. 2001. Effect of artificial bone and its analogues. Journal of Beijing tiger bone powder on retinoic acid induced

No special ingredients in tiger bone wine: implications for wild tiger conservation University of Traditional Chinese Medicine

| osteoporosis in rat. Pharmacology and 18(4): 69. Clinics of Chinese Materia Medica 17(2): 13- Suo, Y. R., Zhang, B. C. and H.Q. Wang. 2004. 14. Comparison on mineral elements in bone Hai, P. 2000. Experimental study on anti- of Sailong and tiger. Chinese Traditional and inflammatory effect of Sailong bone. Herbal Drugs 35: 445-448. Liaoning Journal of Traditional Chinese Yang, S. P., Teng, Y. M. and K. S. Xu. 1993. Studies Medicine 27: 524-526. on the physical and chemical characteristics Hai, P. 2002. Study on Sailong bone in treating of tiger, sika deer, red deer, hog, goat and osteoporotic rat. Shandong Journal of dog bone I. Comparative studies on the Traditional Chinese Medicine 21: 231-233. amino acid components of the Gelatine in Hu, L. N., Li, N., Yu, M. and Z. Lin. 2009. Sorting the four limbs and the vertebra of tiger and research on series of zoo-pharmacy: tiger other animals. Chinese Journal of bone. Jilin Traditional Chinese Medicine 29: Pharmaceutical Analysis 13: 307-310. 157-159. Zhang, G. H. and G. Z. Zhang. 2009. Advances of Li, C. Y., Zhang, D. F. and L.Liu. 1994. The Chinese medical wine research. Journal of materia medica and modern research of Practical Traditional Chinese Medicine 25: 776- tiger bone. Journal of Changchun College 777. Traditional Chinese Medicine 10(5): 81-82. Li, L. and J. Y. Zhang. 1998. Experiment of dog bone glue promoting the recovery of Authors’ addresses: Weidong Bao and Nasendelger, fracture healing. Chinese Journal of College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Traditional Medical Science and Technology Beijing Forestry University, No. 35 Qinghua East 5: 389. Road, Haidian, Beijing 100083 China; Guofa Cui Li, L. Z., Huang, Y., Luo, L. Y., Zhang, B. J. and Y. and Jiliang Xu, College of Nature Conservation, L. Xue. 1989. Comparison of Beijing Forestry University, No. 35 Qinghua East pharmacological function of leopard and Road, Haidian, Beijing 100083 China.

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PNG TACKLES THE ‘3R CHALLENGE’ OF LOGGING CODE IMPLEMENTATION

Prepared by Graham Wilkinson, Chief Technical Adviser, GCP/PNG/003/AUL

Children with firewood in Papua New Guinea

Introduction remembers the introduction of the LCOP, but after 16 years he was concerned that PNG Papua New Guinea (PNG) introduced its was losing ground: trained, experienced staff Logging Code of Practice (LCOP) in 1996, and were retiring; new staff were not being trained in doing so established itself as a front-runner in the LCOP; and budget constraints meant within the Asia-Pacific Region. The that the PNGFA increasingly did not have the implementation of a LCOP is part of a long capacity to monitor and enforce the LCOP. journey towards sustainable forest management As a result, Kanawi decided that it was time (SFM) and to use a sporting analogy, front- for PNG to refresh its approach to the LCOP runners need to keep refreshing their tactics and and in 2012 he initiated a review of the LCOP energy if they want to stay in front or even stay in with the support of the Australian Government the race! Kanawi Pouru, the Managing Director and FAO, through the project GCP/PNG/003/ of the PNG Forest Authority (PNGFA), keenly AUL “Promoting sustainable forest 1 FOREST NEWS Vol. 28: No. 2 2014

management by developing effective systems of experience of the PNGFA, forest forest planning, monitoring and control in Papua industry, landowners, NGOs and other New Guinea”. stakeholders in implementing the LCOP in PNG. The developments and The ‘3R Challenge’ experience from other countries within the region were also reviewed, particularly After 16 years of code implementation, PNG was with respect to technical guidelines for ready to take on the ‘3R Challenge’ – to Review, standards such as slope limits, stream Revise and Revitalize the LCOP. buffers and the maintenance of 1. Review – Four technical workshops, biodiversity. The key findings of the several inspections of field operations and review process are documented in other consultations were undertaken to project reports and are summarised in capture the collective knowledge and Box 1.

Box 1: Key findings of the review of the technical content of the LCOP 1. The LCOP must be simple and practical; aimed primarily at field foresters 2. Provide a supplementary ‘field guide’ for forest operators and landowners 3. Clarify that the LCOP delivers Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) 4. Remove the ‘key standards’ from the LCOP, because experience indicates that they are used as a subset of the full code 5. Upgrade the Planning, Monitoring and Control Procedures that support the LCOP, to provide better planning guidelines for forest soils, water and biodiversity 6. Prepare supplementary ma nuals on specific topics to complement the LCOP and to allow for progressive updating of guidelines as information and resources are available.

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The ‘good and the bad’. Application of the LCOP has resulted in good regeneration on a skid track one year after logging.

Excessive road clearing and earthworks. Failure to apply the road construction provisions of the LCOP has resulted in adverse impacts on forest soils, streams and biodiversity

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Cloudy Bay 2012 logging damage from skidding

West New Britain Kimbe logging crew. The revised LCOP has an emphasis on avoiding damage to the residual stand and ensuring that forest operators are trained and equipped with safety gear.

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2. Revise - The review phase led to the current regulatory responsibilities. Many revision of the technical content of the forest management agencies throughout LCOP, resulting in a new, improved edition the region face a similar situation where of the LCOP. However, more funding is declining without any importantly, the review recognised that a commensurate decrease in work load. A LCOP is only as good as its new approach was therefore needed to implementation system and it was clear ensure the effective implementation of the that major changes were required to LCOP into the future. A revised code improve the application of the LCOP. It implementation system has now been was recognised that the PNGFA does not developed for consideration by the PNG have adequate resources to carry out its National Forest Board (see Box 2).

Box 2: Main features of the proposed revised code implementation system 1. Adopt a co‐regula tory approach to the implementation of the LCOP, to‐ ‐ make the forest industry more responsible and accountable by transferring the approval of operational plans and compliance checks to trained and accredited forest practices officers within the forest industry ‐ allow the PNGFA to focus its limited resources on training, accreditation and independent monitoring 2. Develop improved training courses and accredited on‐the‐job training by workplace trainers and mentors 3. Conduct education programs for landowners to foster better understanding of the role of the LCOP as part of SFM 4. Provide more effective and transparent methods of monitoring and reporting on the standards being achieved.

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3. Revitalize - The following key factors the ‘race for SFM’ but the signs are promising. emerged as the best way of revitalizing Within the industry the LCOP is no longer being the implementation and effectiveness of resisted as a threat to commercial timber the LCOP in PNG- harvesting; a practical and technically-sound code - Introduce the proposed co- is increasingly regarded as a normal and important regulatory approach (Box 2) to component of any legitimate forestry business and foster greater sharing of resources as a key tool for meeting international certification and cooperation amongst the and market requirements. However, challenges PNGFA, forest industry and key remain, particularly with respect to balancing the stakeholders rights of landowners (to use their land for - Strengthen the curriculum for subsistence and economic development) with training in the LCOP at the forestry broader ‘public good’ obligations (to conserve the degree and diploma levels and natural and cultural diversity of PNG’s forests). provide train-the-trainer programs These issues are determined by governmental to enhance the capacity for ongoing laws and policies but out in the forest we all have workplace training in the LCOP a collective challenge to strive for the best - Improve the framework for operational practices that can be practically monitoring and reporting on the achieved. PNG has risen to that challenge! How standards being achieved. is your code faring in the journey towards SFM?

PNG is now moving ahead again with a reviewed, Further information: Graham Wilkinson revised and revitalized LCOP. Time will tell how ([email protected]) or Patrick Durst effective the changes will be in keeping PNG in ([email protected])

Staghorn ferns. PNG’s forests provide essential products and environmental services.

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TRAINING SENIOR FOREST POLICYMAKERS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

In 2007, in response to the recommendation of Course programme contributes to FAO Strategic the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission to improve Objective 2. capacity in forest policy analysis, development and implementation, FAO initiated a programme of Upon the request of the Secretariat of the Pacific executive forest policy courses for senior Community (SPC) and leading forestry officials policymakers in Asia and the Pacific. To date, from Pacific countries, the 7th Executive Forest seven such courses have been organized – in Policy Course focused on the Pacific region. Bhutan, China, Fiji (2), Thailand (2) and Viet Nam Twenty-two participants who attended the course – involving more than 100 senior officials and that took place in Fiji represented 6 Pacific Island forest managers from 25 countries. countries and China. They spent 12 days immersed in the theory and practice of forest policy: Lasting 10–12 days, including a field visit, each considering new issues; policy successes and course involves a variety of learning tools and failures; emerging policy challenges and honing methods. Courses are tailored to address the policy new skills for addressing policy-related demands. issues and emerging global, national and local The course was delivered in interactive ways by challenges most relevant to the particular sub- high-quality resource persons. region. Key topics covered in the courses include: drivers of change affecting forests and forestry; The course was designed to: climate change; payments for environmental . Provide an understanding of the implications services; socio-cultural aspects of forestry; of larger societal changes, including governance; effective communication; and policy globalization and localization and the processes and evaluation. imperatives of current and emerging international agreements and conventions on The Executive Forest Policy Course programme land use in general and forestry in particular. takes an innovative approach to training. For . Enable sharing of experiences and best example, leading international experts and resource practices in integrated land use in the pursuit persons deliver modules interactively, thereby of sustainable forest management. allowing maximum learning opportunities for . Explore ideas and tools for policy analysis and participants. Participants are encouraged to development and their application to the develop their own plans to tackle specific policy Pacific countries. issues in their countries using the knowledge and understanding they gain in the course, including Key issues that were addressed in the course from their peers. Coaching is provided throughout included: the process. . Overarching changes that are likely to impact land use in general and forestry in particular; Evaluations of the courses are invariably very . Implications of climate change on the Pacific positive, with participants expressing great countries and what are the options available appreciation for the course content and outputs. to address the challenges; There is strong interest and support from member . Probable scenarios that are likely to unfold in governments and global and regional institutions the region during the next few decades and to enroll senior staff in future courses. how policies and institutions in the countries may need to respond; Designed to develop policy capacity in sustainable . Options available to strengthen governance in forest management, the Executive Forest Policy the forest sector, especially to ensure

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sustainable management of forest and tree Module 5: Building responsive/proactive resources, adopting a landscape approach. institutions

Course modules Module 6: Governance, accountability and transparency in the forest sector The 7th Forest Policy Course consisted of 10 modules, as follows: Module 7: Changing international scene: Module 1: The unfolding future: Societal Implications of international changes, land use and forestry in the agreements on national land use/ Pacific forest policies in the South Pacific

Module 2: The environmental dimension: Module 8: The policy process Climate change, natural disasters and forest policies Module 9: Effective communication

Module 3: Production and trade of wood in the Module 10: Analysis of national land use/forest Pacific: Legality, sustainability and policies uncertainties Feedback on the course by the participants was Module 4: Social and cultural dimensions of overall positive. To date, FAO has trained over forestry: Equity, poverty and social 100 current and future forestry leaders from 25 inclusion countries in the Asia-Pacific region through its Executive Forest Policy Course series, initiated in 2007.

WHEN FACING APOCALYPSE...PLANT A TREE

By Patrick B. Durst and Chris Brown

The ancient Roman emperor Nero gained eternal bold measures to protect themselves from the notoriety for infamously “fiddling while Rome extreme events that we are assured by a vast burned.” In our more modern times, faced with majority of climate scientists will strike with the great impending natural disaster that is climate increasing frequency and severity as global change, Nero would be just one part of the temperatures increase. The Fifth (and latest) orchestra. Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that the major Each year, while tens of thousands of individuals climatic disturbances, including the anticipated turn up at the Conferences of the Parties of the increase in severe weather events, will occur United Nations Framework Convention on sooner and likely be worse than previously Combating Climate Change to sing and listen to projected. Alarmingly, the report also notes a the songs of doom, it’s a great deal more difficult significant across-the-board lack of preparation to find anyone implementing tangible, on-the- to deal with climate variability. ground actions to address and prepare for climate change. So, why aren’t we doing more to get ready for the almost universally predicted negative impacts It is particularly difficult to find countries, local of climate change, or at least, to mitigate the worst governments or even individuals that are initiating blows? Why are we fiddling?

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For a start, it costs money – often big money – Trees have a tenacious ability to bind soil together, and that’s money that most countries either don’t which helps stabilize flood-prone river banks, have or feel they cannot afford. It’s money that’s protect against erosion, and reduce shallow currently spent on health, education, welfare, landslides on hillsides in times of heavy rainfall. national defense and the like. Planting deep-rooted, wind- firm tree species in shelterbelts can help to protect agricultural crops, Most countries also seem mired in a “wait and livestock and property from powerful cyclonic see” mode – perhaps thinking the worst might winds. not happen or that it might not happen to them, or simply following a path of political expediency. Even downed trees can provide a ready source As with various impending disasters, policy of wood for construction of emergency housing, makers in many countries seemingly find it more as evidenced in the wake of Typhoon Haiyan in convenient to deal with the consequences of the Philippines. And, as we all should know, while cleaning up from a natural disaster than spending we await possible disaster to strike, all living trees large sums of money on protective measures. are busily absorbing carbon from the atmosphere There may also be an element of safety in numbers to hopefully help avoid the worst climate change – no one else is doing much, so why should we? scenarios.

Finally, there is undoubtedly a sense of Working together in a coordinated way, more can hopelessness and fatalism stemming from a lack be achieved but it will require a strong and enabling of clear knowledge on what measures might be policy framework. This week, senior forestry useful to protect against climate change. Many policy makers from across the Pacific are people are frustrated, believing that there is wrapping up deliberations on appropriate policy nothing that can be done – or is there? measures to address climate change and corresponding natural disasters, and other pressing For Pacific Island countries, the good news is that forestry challenges. a range of sensible, cost-effective, “no-regrets” measures is available to help reduce the severity of climate-related impacts and other natural Policy makers have been attending a two-week disasters, through judicious planting of trees. Executive Forest Policy Course “People, Land Use Action is possible from individual households and Forestry in the Pacific,” being conducted from planting a tree on their own property to provincial 12 to 23 May 2014, in Nadi, Fiji. The course is and national initiatives of large scale planting. In being coordinated by the United Nations Food and other words, everyone can contribute toward Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Asia-Pacific building resiliency against the negative impact of Forest Policy Think Tank and the Secretariat of climate change. the Pacific Community (SPC).

Of critical importance for most Pacific Island A key objective of the course is to help policy countries with extensive coastlines is the fact that makers make well-formulated and better decisions trees can provide protection against storm surges, on forestry and trees. That could lead to more salt spray and coastal erosion – all of which are tree-planting in vulnerable areas and a lot less expected to be a greater threat with impending tuning of fiddles. climate change.

As witnessed during the 2011 Great East Japan (Opinion piece issued to Pacific media at the earthquake and tsunami, trees can also play an time of the Seventh Executive Forest Policy important role in reducing the energy of tsunami Course.) waves, trapping flotsam and reducing devastation wrought on inland areas.

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON “INSECTS TO FEED THE WORLD”

Contributed by Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP

The international conference on “Insects to Feed . Production of insects as food and feed; the World” brought together the largest assemblage to date of experts and professionals . Food safety, legislation and policy; from around the world dealing with edible insects. . Insects as feed: specific production systems; The conference, organized by FAO and Wageningen University, attracted approximately . Nutrition, processing, consumer attitudes and 450 participants, from more than 45 countries, to gastronomy; consider all aspects of collection, production, processing, marketing and consumption related to . Environmental issues; and edible insects. The event was convened 14-17 May 2014, in Ede, Netherlands. . Outreach and communication. The conference pulled together a wide range of The overall objective of the conference was to specialists and practitioners from throughout the promote the use of insects as human food and as world, including biologists/ecologists, animal feed to enhance food security. Specific entomologists, researchers, private sector objectives of the conference were to: entrepreneurs, development workers, government . provide an overview of the current status of officials and representatives of international insects as food and feed; organizations. The meeting clearly reflected the . identify constraints in the development of the rapidly growing and dynamic nature of this sector, insect food/feed sector (e.g. legislation); and revealed far more potential and ongoing activities than previously recognized. The growing . promote interactions among stakeholders in number of private sector initiatives and the insect value chain; investments are particularly noteworthy.

. formulate recommendations to increase the FAO was readily recognized and appreciated for impact of using insects as a food and feed providing leadership and support in this emerging source; sector (including prominent recognition of RAP publications related to edible insects and support . contribute to standardizing methodologies for of field projects and studies). Although it was analyzing the nutritional composition of insects; recognized that skeptics and critics remain, the . promote the gathering of national and overwhelming sense of the assemblage was that international data on the production and trade insects would become increasingly important in of edible insects; contributing to overall food security in the coming years. The potential for insects to contribute . establish inter-disciplinary networks among significantly in the animal feed sector appears relevant partners; and particularly promising.

. create global awareness of this neglected food There remains a wide gap between activities being and feed source. conducted in developing countries (largely for food) and the high-tech initiatives (primarily in The conference included thematic sessions on: developed countries) focused on producing feed . Harvesting from nature; for livestock and aquaculture.

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Major areas requiring attention are legislation and Private sector: regulation to govern food safety, trade and . Create national and international associations marketing of insects for food and feed; protocols of food and feed enterprises. for farming more insect species; protection of wild insect populations; and improved communication . Improve communication and sharing of and messaging on the potential and acceptability knowledge among companies, academia and of insects to contribute to food security. policy makers.

Key recommendations from the conference . Develop product quality standards (e.g., pro- included the following: active self-regulation, certification schemes). Governments: For academia: . Create enabling environments for the edible . Address knowledge gaps related to insect sector, including legislation, policy and sustainability of harvesting insects from nature, clear regulations. indigenous knowledge, identification of species, standard methods for determining nutritional . Implement conservation strategies to protect values, developing mass rearing techniques, and insect populations from overharvesting. trade and value chains for existing markets. International organization and civil society: . Establish international research consortiums. . Provide technical support to stakeholders and countries in using insects as food and feed. . Conduct interdisciplinary and international research on using insects for food and feed. . Provide platforms for exchange of knowledge among stakeholders. . Reposition the field of entomology to focus more on edible insects. The conference saw the launching of the Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, with the first volume anticipated in early 2015.

FORESTS ASIA SUMMIT

Prepared by Yurdi Yasmi, Forest Policy Officer, FAO RAP

The Forests Asia Summit: Sustainable landscapes related to green growth, poverty eradication, for green growth in Southeast Asia convened 5-6 sustainable land use, climate change mitigation and May in Jakarta, Indonesia. The Summit brought adaptation, food security and nutrition. Significant together representatives from government, participation from the private sector reflected the research, civil society and the private sector in a increasing urgency for its engagement in regional multi-stakeholder dialogue. The aim was environmentally sustainable practices. to lay the foundations for continued dialogue, transitions toward sustainable investments, and FAO’s discussion forum at the Summit further research to support evidence-based policymaking, all directed toward achieving Eighteen high level discussion forums were equitable green growth and more sustainable organized during the Summit. FAO’s discussion management of landscapes across Southeast Asia. forum sought to identify the ways in which Asia’s forests are progressing towards a green economy, The Summit positioned forests and landscapes at as well as the opportunities and challenges that the core of ongoing policy processes in the region they might face in coming decades as it strives

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for green growth. It specifically focused on theme of development can potentially play an important 5: Changing communities, sustainable role. landscapes and equitable development. The Discussion Forum was attended by some 200 Conclusion and way forward participants and brought together scientists, development organizations, donors, civil society The discussion forum concluded that forestry has and community organizations to discuss the new enormous potential to contribute to green growth role of forests and forestry in green growth and and green economy goals and targets in Asia. poverty reduction. Forestry alone won’t be able to tackle the economic, social and environmental challenges that Yurdi Yasmi, Forest Policy Officer, FAO RAP, need to be overcome to achieve these goals, but opened the discussion forum by setting the scene neither can such challenges be addressed without and summarizing the main achievements of the forestry as an integral part. Overcoming forest sector towards greener forestry and fundamental challenges such as land tenure sustainable landscapes. “Sustainable forest insecurity, conflicts, misaligned incentive structures, management practices have a lot to offer to green uneven playing fields for business enterprises, the economy and sustainable development goals,” he low capacity of stakeholders, and inadequate policy said. “Experiences from assisted natural frameworks will need to be prioritized to create regeneration and leasehold forestry projects, for an enabling environment for green growth. Forest example, demonstrate how these interventions management, in particular, needs to be contribute to effectively achieving social, economic contextualized and reoriented in a manner that and environmental objectives. Yurdi further more effectively and simultaneously supports green described three key opportunities that can support growth and poverty reduction. green economy objectives through forestry: promoting sustainable practices in forestry; The vast store of knowledge and experience that expanding natural assets; and creating forestry has accumulated as a result of decades of research jobs. and experimentation with integrated rural development and the sustainable management of The role of ASEAN watersheds and forests provides a solid starting point for action. However, the realization of the Dr. Doris Capistano, Senior Advisor of the vision of inclusive green growth can only be ASEAN-Swiss Partnership on Social Forestry and possible with strong and sustained action and Climate Change and Senior Fellow at the commitment from all stakeholders, and committed Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate leadership, especially from governments. Study and Research in Agriculture, remarked that “ASEAN countries individually and collectively Discussion forum participants called for future have a unique opportunity to move towards a green efforts to identify viable approaches and practices, economy based on sustainable, multiple-use including through research, in the following areas: landscapes. This requires transformative policies . Applying landscape approaches in diverse at all levels, cross-sectoral and multi-stakeholder stakeholder contexts; collaboration, the re-imagining of the face of the . Managing risks in investments with private sector to more centrally include small and smallholders and increasing the scale of medium-sized businesses, and achieving greater production and the quality of products; equity in the distribution of benefits across the value . Identifying adequate models of cooperation for chains.” Processes and mechanisms already exist smallholders, such as through cooperatives, within ASEAN that can facilitate this federations and other arrangements, and transformation. ASEAN’s Multisectoral supporting small and medium-sized enterprises Framework for Climate Change: Agriculture and and entrepreneurship; and Forestry Towards Food Security is a cross-sectoral . Creating enabling conditions that support green mechanism, which although still in the early stages investment and at the same time enhance opportunities for poverty reduction.

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FORESTRY STRATEGIC PLANNING IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION

Introduction to forestry strategic plans; . To raise the capacity for developing Forestry strategic plans are important in sustainable economies in development and implementation forest management (SFM). They reflect not only of forestry strategic plans; and the forestry development related to the socio- . To explore innovative approaches in forestry economic situation of an economy, but also lay strategic planning to provide multiple benefits out long-term directions in achieving the goal of with healthy forest ecosystems and improving green growth. In facing the global challenges, such livelihoods for local people. as climate change, ecological degradation, natural resources depletion, food security, etc., economies The platform is open to all APEC economies, in the Asia-Pacific region have begun reviewing relevant organizations, businesses and individuals and adjusting their Forestry Strategic Plans to adapt in the Asia-Pacific region who are interested in to and address those challenges. forestry strategic planning. APFNet will provide seed funds to support the specific activities of the APFNet, in collaboration with FAO, co-organized Platform in the region. the “Workshop on Forestry Strategic Planning in the Asia-Pacific Region” in New Zealand on 3 Findings and suggestions November 2013, as a pre-session event of the 25th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission All participants emphasized the importance of (APFC). building regional collaboration to support economies in improving the strategic planning A Regional Dialogue on Forestry Strategic process. Not only do the plans need to be reviewed Planning as a Platform was proposed by APFNet. periodically, but also global changes and The aims of the Platform are to promote emergency issues will impact on forestry experience exchange and information sharing, development in each economy. raise the capacity of forestry officials and experts in developing and implementing forestry strategic Most of the APEC economies are facing plans, and to contribute to the Asia-Pacific challenges in the development and implementation Economic Cooperation (APEC) inspirational goal of strategic plans. These include conflicts among of increasing forest cover in the Asia-Pacific region too many policies and regulations in the forestry by at least 20 million hectares of all types of forests sector and with other sectors; land use planning by 2020. still needs to identify the land to remain solely for forests or to use for agriculture; adjusted policies The Platform will collaborate with other partners and changing markets; insufficient propaganda to contribute the specific objectives as follows: about the importance of forests to other sectors . To mainstream the key policies and and the public; lack of political support; not enough programmes of forestry strategic plans into resources (financial and staff) to implement the the development plan of the economy; plans, etc. . To identify the existing issues, key challenges and priorities to be focused on during the Some countries such as the Philippines, PNG, and course of developing and implementing Lao PDR are reviewing their forestry strategic forestry strategic plans; plans. The Platform can provide opportunities to . To strengthen information sharing on forestry communicate experiences and share information policies, legislations and strategic plans as well with these countries and others in the future. as the theories and methodologies in relation

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VIETNAM IS NEWEST PARTNER COUNTRY OF FOREST AND FARM FACILITY (FFF) IN ASIA

Contributed by Jeffrey Y Campbell, Manager, Forest and Farm Facility (FFF)

The FFF is pleased to share the news that Vietnam . Strengthen smallholder, women, community has been selected as the next partner country from and Indigenous Peoples’ producer Asia, where the FFF will work to help strengthen organizations for business/livelihoods and forest and farm producers to improve livelihoods policy engagement. and sustainable management. Vietnam joins . Catalyse multi-sectoral stakeholder policy Bolivia, Kenya and Zambia as the most recent platforms with governments at local and countries to be chosen by a selection panel based country levels. on expressions of interest submitted by forest and . Link local voices and learning to global farm producer organizations and government processes through communication and agencies. This brings the total number of partner information dissemination. countries to ten with ongoing programmes in Guatemala, Nicaragua, the Gambia, Liberia, Nepal The FFF partnership will be working with the and Myanmar. Vietnam and Asia-Pacific Regional offices of FAO, government and forest and farm producer The FFF is a partnership between the FAO, IIED organizations, including the Farmers’ Union and IUCN. The facility is guided by a Network, to organize a multi-stakeholder launching multidisciplinary Steering Committee, which and planning meeting to develop a three-year plan consists of knowledgeable experts from a diverse of work in Vietnam. range of backgrounds. In addition to the four new countries joining the The vision of the FFF is “to improve smallholders, FFF, five partnership agreements were also given women, communities and indigenous peoples’ by the organization to support collaborative efforts livelihoods and power in decision-making made by forest and farm producer organizations processes in forest and farm landscapes.” Through at regional and international levels. Two planning sustainable forest and farm management, these partnership agreements were made with the groups will have improved income and food International Alliance of Indigenous and Tribal security. peoples of the Tropical Forest (IAITPTF) and the Global Alliance of Community Forestry (GACF); In order to achieve this goal, the FFF seeks to both of which work in the Asia-Pacific region. promote multi-sectoral coordination between The three other partnership agreements were given forest and farm producer organizations, local to the Alianza Mesoamericana de Pueblos y government and partner organizations, on local, Bosques (AMPB), the Asian Farmers Association regional, and national scales. The FFF facilitates for Sustainable Rural Development (AFA) and the these activities through various funding International Family Forestry Alliance (IFFA). The agreements, and aims to build on existing initiatives support from the FFF will enable forest and farm and catalysing promising processes at each level. producers to strengthen their organizations and to The activities that the FFF carries out are organized develop and implement strategic plans for into 3 pillars: engagement at regional and global decision making fora.

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STRENGTHENING THE ENVIRONMENT, FORESTRY AND CLIMATE CHANGE CAPACITIES

Prepared by Yurdi Yasmi, Forest Policy Officer, FAO RAP

Climate Change Sectors Country Investment Plan The project “Strengthening the environment, (CIP). forestry and climate change capacities of the Ministry of Environment and Forests and its A Project Steering Committee chaired by the Agencies” in Bangladesh was officially signed in Secretary of the MoEF and co-chaired by the FAO October 2013. The main goal of this 3-year project Representative in Bangladesh will be established is to strengthen human and organizational capacity to provide overall guidance, coordination and in the country to deliver more effective, facilitation to project implementation. coordinated, sustainable and country-driven investment programs in environmental protection, Key activities planned for 2014: sustainable forest management and climate change . Establish a fully functional project office; adaptation and mitigation. It envisions three . Appointment of National Project Director; outputs: . Recruitment of support staff, national and 1. Environment, Forestry and Climate Change international consultants Sectors Country Investment Plan (CIP) . Formation of Project Steering Committee developed, adopted, implemented and (PSC), Ministerial Working Group (MWG) and monitored. Technical Advisory Groups (TAG) and 2. Improved functional and organizational capacity designation of Departmental Focal Points; in the MoEF to efficiently address emerging . Preparation of communication materials such national and global environmental, forestry and as brochures, webpage, etc.; climate change issues. . Hold PSC meeting and meetings of MWG and 3. Enhanced technical capacities and know-how TAGs; in the MoEF and its agencies. . Organize project orientation workshop for management committee and working/task The Inception Workshop was held 8 June 2014 in groups members; Dhaka, Bangladesh. About 60 participants . Initiate baseline study attended the workshop representing key . Initiate Environment, Forestry and Climate government agencies and partner organizations. Change sectors policies review study . Complete gender strategy The implementation arrangement is as follows. . Carry out stakeholders’ analysis workshop FAO will execute the project in collaboration with . Prepare procedure for the support of training the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). and capacity enhancement activities (national The project will follow a multi-stakeholder as well as international); approach and collaborative management principles . Preparation of CIP guiding principles and where government, private sector, civil societies governance structure; and academia active in the environment sectors . Provide support to upgrade MoEF’s computer would work together to develop, implement and cell with necessary hardware and software; monitor a realistic Environment, Forestry and . Conduct training and research needs assessments; and . Start training and research activities.

15 FOREST NEWS Vol. 28: No. 2 2014

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

CHINA’S NATIONAL FOREST The endorsement of the national Chinese forest CERTIFICATION SYSTEM ACHIEVES certification standard represents a significant PEFC ENDORSEMENT milestone for safeguarding global forests given the importance of the country in the forest products The China Forest Certification Scheme (CFCS) value chain and its substantial forest area. China achieved endorsement by the Programme for the is not only the world’s largest manufacturer of Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), the forest products, but also among the five countries world’s leading forest certification system. with the largest forest area in the world.

National forest certification systems that have China is the second Asian country after Malaysia developed standards in line with PEFC to successfully achieve PEFC endorsement for a requirements can apply for endorsement by national certification system, and the Indonesian PEFC. To achieve endorsement, they need to meet Forestry Certification Cooperation (IFCC) PEFC’s Sustainability Benchmarks, which are submitted its scheme for PEFC assessment in based on broad societal consensus expressed in November 2013. international, intergovernmental, multi-stakeholder processes and guidelines. Compliance is confirmed PEFC is an independent, not-for-profit organization through third-party assessment of national promoting sustainable forest management by requirements with the international benchmarks, certifying forests and the products that come from with a global public consultation seeking input from them. stakeholders worldwide. – PEFC International –

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

8-16 September 2014. Forest Tenure Training Workshop. Bangkok, Thailand. Contact: Yurdi Yasmi, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

20-22 October 2014. 5th UN-REDD Regional Lessons Learned Workshop: Forest monitoring systems and reference levels for REDD+. Venue to be confirmed. Contact: Ben Vickers, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

27-29 October 2014. Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Executive Committee Meeting. Thailand. Contact: Patrick Durst, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

November 2014. Regional Workshop on Drivers of Change Affecting forests in Mekong. Hanoi, Vietnam. Contact: Yurdi Yasmi, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

12-19 November 2014. IUCN World Parks Congress 2014. Sydney, Australia. Contact: Congress Secretariat, Australasia, GPO Box 3270, Sydney NSW 2001, Australia; E-mail: [email protected]

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. This issue of FOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

16 FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

. East Asian forests and forestry to 2020 (RAP . Developing an Asia-Pacific strategy for forest Publication 2010/15) invasive species: The coconut beetle problem – . Forests beneath the grass: Proceedings of the bridging agriculture and forestry (RAP Publication regional workshop on advancing the application of 2007/02 assisted natural regeneration for effective low-cost . The role of coastal forests in the mitigation of forest restoration (RAP Publication 2010/11) tsunami impacts (RAP Publication 2007/01) . Forest policies, legislation and institutions in Asia . Taking stock: Assessing progress in developing and and the Pacific: Trends and emerging needs for implementing codes of practice for forest 2020 (RAP Publication 2010/10) harvesting in ASEAN member countries (RAP . Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Publication 2006/10) Twenty-third session (RAP Publication 2010/09) . Asia-Pacific forests and forestry to 2020. Asia- . Helping forests take cover (RAP Publication 2005/ Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II (RAP 13) Publication 2010/06) . Elephant care manual for mahouts and camp . Forest law enforcement and governance: Progress managers (RAP Publication 2005/10) in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2010/ . Forest certification in China: latest developments 05) and future strategies (RAP Publication 2005/08) . Forest insects as food: humans bite back. . Forests and floods – drowning in fiction or thriving Proceedings of a workshop on Asia-Pacific on facts? (RAP Publication 2005/03) resosurces and their potential for development . In search of excellence: exemplary forest (RAP Publication 2010/02) management in Asia and the Pacific (RAP . Strategies and financial mechanisms for Publication 2005/02) sustainable use and conservation of forests: . What does it take? The role of incentives in forest experiences from Latin America and Asia (RAP plantation development in Asia and the Pacific Publication 2009/21) (RAP Publication 2004/27) . Asia-Pacific Forestry Week: Forestry in a . Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR) in changing world (RAP Publication 2009/04) Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19) - . The future of forests: Proceedings of an 2nd edition international conference on the outlook for Asia- . Practical guidelines for the assessment, Pacific forests to 2020 (RAP Publication 2009/ monitoring and reporting on national level criteria 03) and indicators for sustainable forest management . Re-inventing forestry agencies. Experiences of in dry forests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05) institutional restructuring in Asia and the Pacific . Applying reduced impact logging to advance (RAP Publication 2008/05) sustainable forest management (RAP Publication: . Forest faces. Hopes and regrets in Philippine 2002/14) forestry (RAP Publication 2008/04 . Trash or treasure? Logging and mill residues in . Reaching consensus. Multi-stakeholder Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16) processes in forestry: experiences from the Asia- . Regional training strategy: supporting the Pacific region (RAP Publication 2007/31) implementation of the Code of Practice for forest . Trees and shrubs of Maldives: An illustrated field harvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/ guide (RAP Publication 2007/12) 15) . A cut for the poor: Proceedings of the . Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness International Conference on Managing Forests for of logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific: Poverty Reduction Capturing Opportunities in executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10) Forest Harvesting and Wood Processing for the . Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: an Benefit of the Poor (RAP Publication 2007/09) illustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAP . Trees and shrubs of the Maldives (RAP Publication: 1999/13) Publication 2007/12) For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand. Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm