Chapter One

Ancient in Chapter-I

Ancient religions in India

1.1. Historical Approach to

1.1.1.

The original of recognized as Brahmanism or Hinduism. The two terms are frequently used synonymously although they have different origins. "Brahmanism" is the religion which gets its name from itself. The term is derived from the Indian priest or Brahman and refers normally to those Indians who recognize the Brahmans and their teachings as their belief. The word "Hinduism" was originally a foreign term invented by the who were advancing into India. It was derived from the ; it was used to designate all Indians who were not Muslims. The term "Brahmanism" has been in use since around 1000 B.C. when the Brahman priest caste first attained their prime status, while Hinduism can be traced back further to the ancient Indian autochthonous religion.

Indian religion is commonly regarded as the offspring of an Aryan religion, brought into India by invaders from the north and modified by contact with Dravidian civilization. The materials at our disposal hardly permit us to take any other point of view, for the literature of the Vedic Aryans is relatively ancient and full and we have no information about the old Dravidians comparable with it. But were our knowledge less one-sided, we might see that it would be more correct to describe Indian religion as Dravidian religion stimulated and modified by the ideas of Aryan invaders. For the greatest deities of Hinduism, , Krishna, Rama, Durga and some of its most essential doctrines such as metamorphosis and divine incarnations, are either totally unknown to the Veda or obscurely adumbrated in it. The chief characteristics of mature Indian religion are characteristics of an area, not of a race, and they are not the characteristics of religion in Persia, Greece or other Aryan lands.

1.1.2. Hinduism

The early Hinduism was quite different from what we came across in the late period. The reason behind this is basically the settlement and spread of the Aryans. The best way to know the development of Hinduism is to go through ancient literature. We can get a good picture of the cultural and social background of the ancient times.

Hinduism is widely accepted as the oldest living religion in the world. It is not founded by any individual or by a specific text or book like most other major religions. It would be more appropriate to call it . Hinduism is not a just a religion, it is a way of life, a way of light, and a way of truth....' While it has positive ideas and accepts a wide variety of beliefs and practices, it does not believe in mechanical uniformity of belief or worship. Acceptance of as source of Ultimate Knowledge, intuition and inference combines the various philosophical schools of India.

1.1.3. Rgveda

We get the clearest idea of the antiquity of these hymns when we

-Sir Charles Eliot, "Hinduism and an Historical Sketch", Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Vol. I, p-xv ^ - Edited by Subhash CC Kashyaji Abhaya Kashyap, "Understanding India Relevance of Hinduism", P-158 look into the geographical and cultural conditions of the time of which they speak to us. Then we see above all that Aryan Indians had not yet spread over the whole of India. We find them settled still in the region of the River Indus (Sindhu) in today's . They would have lived in the region around modem day Ambala between the rivers Saraswati and Ghuggar, at that time when most of the hymns were composed. The river of Punjab is praised in the famous "Praise of the Rivers (nadistuti)" hymn of the Rgveda.'*

1.1.4. The Aryans

The Aryan clans penetrated into the land of the five rivers and in the songs of the Rgveda we still hear of the battles that the Aryans had to fight out with the Dasyu or the 'black skin', as the dark-complexioned, original inhabitants were called. Only slowly do they press forward from the west to the east up to the , all the while fighting against the detested 'Anaryas'' (Non-Aryans), against the Dasyus or Dasas who knew no gods, no laws and no sacrifices. And it is characteristic that this river the Ganges, without which we can hardly imagine ourselves the India of all later times and which till the present day plays such a prominent role in the poetry as well as in the popular belief of the Indians, is scarcely mentioned in the Rgveda.^

The Aryans reached the region of the Ganges but after a long time probably after the composition of the Rgveda. There is no mention of the Ganges in the Rgveda. Similarly, the lotus flower is also not mentioned in

"^ -Rgveda, X. 75 ^ -Maurice Wintemitz, "A History of ", Motilal Banarsidass, , 1981, P-57 the Rgveda. The lotus flower later became an integral part of and culture. The flora and fauna of Rgveda are totally different than those of later times. The Indian fig tree, Nyagrodha, which became as famous later on, is also not mentioned in the Rgveda. Even the tiger, which received an important status as the vehicle of the goddess of war, was also not known to the Aryans. This is because the Aryans had not reached where the tigers were found. The Aryans did not know rice which is till now the main food of India, when the hymns of the Rgveda were composed. At that time, only barley was grown. Agriculture was a minor occupation of the early Aryans; their main occupation was cattle breeding and the ox was the main breeding animal. The horse was a valuable animal for the Aryans, because they could go to the battle fields in horse chariots and they also held races. The horse races brought fame and prize to the winner. The Aryan fought with the Dasyus for cattle also as well as for land. They prayed for cattle and horses to the gods. Milk was the main article of food and milk and butter were essential constituents of the offerings to gods.

1.1.5. Vamas

"In fact, the Varna system is based not on birth but on quality and action. The Vamas were well established at the time of the Rgveda; therefore, the theory of Varna was based on guna and , (quality and action)."^ Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, called Vamas (Skt. "colour, form, appearance").

^ - Edited by Subhash C Kashyap Abhaya Kashyap, "Understanding India Relevance of Hinduism",P-472 The first reference to the four Vamas appears in a hymn from Rgveda which is of a late origin. At the time of its composition, it was believed that the four Vamas were produced from the body of Prajapati who sacrificed his body for the benefit of all creatures.

"The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made. His thighs became the Vaisya; from his feet the Siidra was produced''";

a) The Brahmins: teachers and priests;

b) The Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and Kings;

c) The Vaisyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and

d) The Shudras: servants and laborers.

It was undoubtedly the sharp antithesis in colour, race and religion—especially colour —between Aryan and Dasyu that led to the extreme rigidity of caste system. In this way the Aryan sought to guard the purity of his blood. The movement in the direction of caste rigidity began during the Rgvedic period, for in one of the latest hymns (X. 90, 12) the four fundamental orders are mentioned. Caste forms the very warp and woof of Hindu society down to the present time, and more than anything else marks off Hindu social organization from that other nations.^ Varna defines the individual's obligations and responsibilities within the nation, society, community, class, occupational subgroup and family.

^ -Rg.X-90-12 Q -The name for caste is vama 'colour'. ^ - H.D. Griswold, "The Religion of the Rgveda", Printed in India, Pp-335-336 Within Varna, there are many religious and ethical principles which defined human virtue.

1.1.6. Brhamanism

The most fundamental of the philosophical concepts of India are Brahman, atman, maya, Karman andpunarjanma. Brahman occurs often in the in the sense of 'sacred formula', 'prayer', and 'spell'. It was the inherent potency of the sacred formula, due to a magical conception thereof, which led finally to supreme conception of Brahman as identical with atman, the 'soul' of the universe.'^ Maya often occurs in the sense of 'mysterious power', the source of the magic transformations that take place in nature. The transition to the later philosophical meaning of 'magic power', 'illusion', 'non-reality', was easy. Karman (karma), the later meaning is fruit of work, recompense, was not difficult. It is the result of our own past actions. The Vedas, Hinduism's revered scripture, tells us if we sow goodness, we will reap goodness; if we sow evil, we will reap evil. Punarjanman, 'transmigration' does not occur in the Rg., but the participles punah punarjayamana 'being bom again, again', as applied to Usas (I. 92,10), navonavo Jayamanah 'being bom anew, anew', as applied to the Moon (X. 85, 19) point in the direction of the later technical tenn. The most pregnant conceptions of Rg. are impersonal, rlta 'order', karman 'work', brahman 'word' and maya 'power'.

1.1.7. Scriptures of

Veda signifies that which means wisdom or knowledge; or it can be termed as a sacred knowledge, holy learning, and the scriptures of Hindus.

'" -Ibid,P-339 They are composed in complex meters and filled with various sophisticated plays on the sounds of words. They are composed in a language (), which is filled with synonyms indicating a long and rich development. "The Hindu scriptures are a rather diverse assemblage, but are considered to be the authoritative source of knowledge about the moral world order, the law of cause and effect of deeds, the rights and duties of all living beings, and natural, spiritual and social hierarchies. The most important texts are the four Vedas (Holy Hymns) with associated Brahmanas (Holy Treatises) and the Uphanishads (Secret Teachings). These scriptures are believed by orthodox Hindus to be of supernatural origin and constitute the "Basic Dogmas" of all Hindu systems. The texts are the source of a broad common." Vedic texts are often categorized into four classes Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

1.1.8. The Vedas

The Vedas which are called Samhitas are classified into the four Vedas, namely, Rgveda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda and Atharva-Veda. "The collection of is called Samhita. For ages the Vedic Mantras remained one and undivided till the needs of worship became more and more systematized scheme. ascribes this division to Krishna- Dvaipayana Veda-Vyasa, who made a fourfold division of the Vedic Mantras and created out of them four Vedic Samhitas known as Rig, Sama, Yajus, and Atharva, which he imparted in the first instance respectively to

1 7 his pupils named Paila, Vaisampayana, Jaimini, and Sumantu." Here Samhitas means which are the collections of hymns, mantras and chants. " - Editor: Peter Delius, "World Religions", Layout: Brigitte Selbig, Printed in Germany, P-9 - Radha Kumud Mookerji, "Ancient Indian Education", pp-3-4 has always been dynamic. "The Vedas are thought to be the epitome of holy revelation and comprise an immense collection of texts written between 1500 B.C. and 1500 A.D., in other words over a period of 3000 years. They consist of four collections of sayings and songs (samhitas)"'^

In Rgveda the rejigious thought of the Aryan invaders takes note of the views of the native people. Upanishads are the realizations of things already said in the Vedas. The classics are the meeting points of highly rational thinking with the early natural devotion. Since Indian philosophy has been a dynamic phenomenon, Vedas are the earliest known texts of consideration. The Vedic hymns have three aspects: (Indra, Varuna etc), (Brhaspati who represented the unification of the multitudes of gods) and , that there is only one supreme force of which all gods are manifestations. The notable mark of the Vedas is the conflict between primitive natural worship and an intellectual thought process trying to identify a supreme force to replace the excess of gods.

It was conserved in India over centuries by oral tradition alone and was perhaps put in writing after the early Middle Ages. While originally numerous diverse versions of Rig-Veda were said to exist, only one remains. Its form has been prepared in several different ways to assure its authenticity and appropriate preservation through time. Some scholars remarked "The Rig Veda is the oldest collection and consists of 1028 hymns, probably written between 1500 and 1200 B.C. which were used to

'^ - Editor: Peter Delius, "World Religions", Layout: Brigitte Selbig, Printed in Germany, P-9 evoke the gods during rites of sacrifice. It contains different creation myths in which sacrifice is in the foreground.""'*

1.1.9. Characteristics of Hinduism

Hinduism, like no other religion, gives its believers freedom in metaphysical and philosophical questions. It is up to the individual whether he sees himself as a theist, pantheist or atheist, whether he sees Vishnu or Shiva as the highest personal guiding force in the World, or prefers to think of this concept in a personal term. The theories about the formation of worlds and the interplay between their material and non-material components, as well as the relationship between body and soul, are similarly not universally binding. The Indian mind does not have a need to systematize this wide range of religious views and practices. Nowhere is this diversity better expressed than in the metaphysical and philosophical declarations. The philosophical views are fixed in the "" (scriptures) and certain systems of thought known in Sanskrit as "darshana" (literally: the way of seeing from "drishti"= to see, see the truth), and are often intended merely as guidelines.'^

Hinduism not only provided a basic background for the development of various religions so as to make of Hinduism an ever-developing banyan tree, but went farther in developing certain principles of dealing with human life and various stages through which human life normally develops, and it took care to provide in the scheme of life subtle flexibility. It is in this context that it is rightly pointed out that Hinduism is not really a

'"* - Radha Kumud Mookerji, "Ancient Indian Education", pp-3-4 "^ - Editor: Peter Delius, "World Religions", Layout: Brigitte Selbig, P-12 religion but a way of life.'^ The subtlety and complexity of the frame of Hinduism, or the frame of Hindu way of life, can be seen by the fact that it provided to each individual the needed guidance, the required inspiration, and the needed law of development (dharma) by means of triple quartet.'''

In the development of Hinduism, there came about a close connection with Buddhism and . The history of both these religions intermingled with the history of Hinduism, and in the spiritual realm. Buddhistic and Jain yoga formed an essential part of the total spiritual tradition that characterizes synthetic complexity of Indian culture. Even though the problems of communal harmony still continue, there is a deep and ardent seeking in Hinduism for arriving at a new turn that could ensure larger inter-faith understanding and consequent growth of spiritual sense and practice of brotherhood, in the alchemy of which all religions can meet in harmony.

1.2. Pre-Buddhism History and the Buddha

1.2.1. Pre-Buddhism Histor>'

Any account of the must begin with the story of its founder, Siddhartha Gotama, the historical Buddha. Civilization appears in India, according to the archaeological evidence, about 3000 B.C., in other words about 2500 years before the Buddha and about as remote in time from him as he is from the present day.

'^ - Edited by Subhash C Kashyap Abhaya Kashyap, "Understanding India Relevance ofHinduism",P-119 '^ -Ibid,p-121 The Buddha taught in the region of the Ganges basin in north-east India, where the dominant rehgion was Brahmanism, administered by priests known as Brahmins (Skt. Brahmana's). Around 200 B.C., this tradition began to develop into the rehgion now known as Hinduism. Brahmanism had entered the north-west of the Indian sub-continent by around 1500 B.C., brought by a nomadic people who seem to have come from an area now in eastern Turkey, southern Russia and northern . In this area, people spoke a postulated Aryan (Skt. Arya) language, the basis of a number of 'Indo-European' languages spread by migration from there

• 1S to India, Iran, Greece, Italy and other parts of Western Europe.

According to traditional opinion, it was about the thirteenth century B.C. that the Indo-Europeans, or more precisely the Aryans representing the eastern branch of the Indo-Iranians, invaded North-West India in successive waves. They spoke Vedic Sanskrit, a language which was closely connected to that of the Medes and who remained on the Iranian plateau.'

Until the rediscovery of the long-forgotten Indus Valley civilization, the Rgveda was the only source of knowledge about religion in India prior to approximately 1000 BCE. According to Hinduism, the Rgveda, gradually compiled between 2000 and 1000 BCE, is the fountainhead of all the sacred knowledge of India. Hindus regard all subsequent Indian religious thought, including Buddhism, as elaboration upon or deviation from the eternal truths enshrined in the obscure hymns of The Rgveda.

I O -Peter Harvey, "an introduction to Buddhism, Teaching, history and practices", Cambridge university press, P-9 '^ - Sara Webb-Boin, "History of Indian Buddhism from the origins to the saka era", P- 1 The story of Buddhism begins with the Ufe and time of its founder, the Buddha or "awakened one" (approximately 560-480 BCE). Given his enormous historical significance, remarkably few Westerners are even vaguely acquainted with the Buddha or the religion he founded.

In this period occurred what is arguably the most profound and wide spread intellectual and spiritual transformation the world has ever seen. In China, Confucius and Lao Tzu (^i^) were formulating the principles of Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism), systems of ethics and religion which would guide nearly one quarter of the human race into the present century. Zoroaster (the founder ) in Persia, and a few decades later Socrates in Greece were laying the ideological foundations of the empires that dominated the classical history of the Western world, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman. Following the Babylonian exile of the (596-538 BCE), Jeremiah and Second Isaiah, author of most of the books of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible, were formulating the principles of universal monotheism, the philosophical basis of , and . In India at the time of the Buddha, composition of the principle Upanishads (between 800-300 BCE), the first scriptures of classical Hinduism, was in mid-course.

There is, however, no definite indication in pre-Buddhist literature of the well-known and important principle of anatmavada or the doctrine of no-soul. There are vague references in the Upanishads, particularly in the Brhadaranyaka, that the body consists of four or five elements, that at death it dissolves back into these elements, and that no element of

^° - By Noble Ross Reat, "Religions of the world, Buddhism a history", Jain Publishing company Fremont, California, p-2 consciousness (samjna) remains after death. This doctrine, however, cannot rightly be said to be the source of Buddhist doctrine of anatma (or ); the most that can be claimed is that it is at the root of the notions that all worldly objects are transitory and that there is no transmigration. The admission that various elements constitute a body which ultimately dissolves into those very elements may indicate that the so-called consciousness or samjna is unsubstantial as nothing of it is left after death.''

1.2.2. Upanishadic doctrines

In India at that time, the Upanishads and the teaching of the Buddha represented separate attempts to synthesize elements of the two ancient cultures which ultimately account for Indian civilization. One of these — known as the Indus Valley civilization because it was centered on the Indus River—was indigenous to the . The other was a warlike, nomadic people known as Indo-Europeans.

Vedas were the main source of the ancient Indian history, before the rediscovery of the Indus Valley civilization. On the basis of the Rgveda alone, it was difficult to explain how belief in a soul, and spiritual release fi" rebirth came to be so prominent in all of the several religions which developed in India. It was similarly difficult to discern any convincing similarities between the Vedic deities and the deities of classical Hinduism. Discovery of the Indus Valley civilization solved these problems by providing evidence that Indian culture and religion had not developed out of the Vedic religion alone, but rather from a combination of

^^ - PB 2500 YB,Pp-l 0-11 Indo-European and Indus Valley elements. For example, the popular Hindu deity Krishna, meaning literally "the dark one," might have found his way into the Hindu pantheon as a representative of the dark-skinned, indigenous inhabitants of India. There is evidence too of an Indus Valley deity associated with asceticism and wild animals, possibly a prototype of the Shiva of classical Hinduism, the favored deity of Hindu practitioners of

22 yoga.

1.2.3. Characteristics of Hindu religion

The Hindu Trinity consists of the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma is regarded as the creator, Vishnu as the preserver and Shiva as the destroyer.^^

Brahma's one day is known as a {p], very long time). It is believed that, at the end of Brahma's day, the universe is destroyed. Darkness prevails throughout Brahma's night, and when the new day dawns, the universe is creat<^d afresh. There have thus been several kalpas. There is a belief that each of the mahapuranas was composed in a distinct kalpa.

We can gain some idea of the current in India before the Buddha's time about the origin of civilization and the numerous dynasties of kings, together with some from the Brahamjala sutta, there is an account of philosophical doctrines. It is not yet clears how far, if at all, this history incorporates traditions of the Indus people. and the Aryan

22 By Noble Ross Reat, "Religions of the worid Buddhism a history", p-4 ^^ - Bibek Debroy & Dipavali Debroy, "The Holy '\ B.R. Publishing Corporation [A Division of BRPC (India) Ltd.] Delhi-110035, Vol. I, P-VI ^^ -Ibid,P-VII conquest are not recorded in any recognizable form and all the dynasties are supposed to have ruled within the territory of ancient India (which included modem Afghanistan). From the outset, the period of civilization recorded is sufficient, even after making the maximum allowance for inflation, to cover the Indus age as well as the Aryans in India.

1.2.4. Characteristics of Buddhism

The historical Buddha refused to speculate upon the origin of the universe, preferring to concentrate on gaining release from rebirth. In this sense, Buddhism belongs to the pre-Vedic, yogic tradition of India. The Buddha however denied the existence of the soul, a decidedly non-yogic position. Instead, he incorporated and refined the psychological insights of the Upanishadic sages and offered an analytical theory of the mind which remains remarkably valid even in the modem secular world. Again like the Upanishadic sages, the Buddha held that the attainment of release from rebirth entails realization of the ultimate nature of reality. This position too is more Upanishadic than yogic. The Buddha's notion of ultimate reality, however, was quite contrary to that of the Upanishadic sages, for the Buddha was skeptical regarding any ultimate source of the universe.^^

Buddhism is situated in the spirit of free inquiry and complete tolerance, and the Buddha taught all classes of men and women without making slightest distinction between them. He recognized no differences of caste or social groupings, and the Way he preached was open to all men and women. It was the Buddha who first strongly protested against animal sacrifice, ritualism and the caste system. Buddhism accepts that one does

^^ - By Noble Ross Reat, "Religions of the world Buddhism a history", p-6 not become an outcast or a noble Brahman by mere birth, but by one's actions. "One does not become a Brahmin by birth. One does not become an outcast by birth. One becomes a Brahmin by act. One becomes an outcast by act."^^

The Buddha revoked against his contemporary dogmatic cuhure and presented rational religion, practical ethics and simple principles of human life. "The Buddha disapproved of superstitious rites and ceremonies and degrading ascetic practices. He strove to remove caste distinctions. The Buddha condemned violence against others in any form whatsoever. Sacrifices in which animals-and sometimes human beings- were killed and battles in which men were put to the sword were condemned by him. Forbearance, according to him, was a greater virtue than the exercise of the martial spirit. He wanted every man to be virtuous and wise and not only a chosen few. He preached the dharma for the welfare and happiness of everyman {bahujana}."

1.2.5. Buddhism

"The term "Buddhism" comes from the Sanskrit word "buddh" (to be awake) and means the awakening out of the darkness of ignorance into the light of the teaching. Original Buddhism played down the figure of the Buddha Gautama, who did not move into center-stage until later, but emphasized instead the importance of gaining knowledge by virtue of one's own strength, independent of divine revelation. Buddhism seeks to eliminate the false belief in individuality expressed typically in phrases

26 - Sutta Pitaka, Suttanipata , 650 ^^ - PB 2500 YB, p-30 such as "I am," "I have," "'mine" (possession) or any talk of a "self."^^ Buddhism recognizes the different ways and methods of de- individuaUzation, based ultimately on the insight that life means suffering and is painfull, since it is subject to rebirth, sickness, ageing and death.

The Buddha and his Buddhism attributed all his realization, attainment and accomplishment to human endeavor and human intelligence. A man and only a man can become a Buddha. Every man has within himself the potential to become a Buddha, if he wills it strongly enough and endeavors it sufficiently. The Buddha discovered and showed the path of liberation which is called the eightfold noble path. It is also called the Middle Path. This path avoids the two extremes, viz., self-indulgence and self- mortification. "He neither follows the path of self-mortification nor that of self-indulgence. During the Buddha's time ascetics often observed fasts, led abhorrent lives, exposed themselves to fires burning around them or slept upon spikes thinking that the mind was exalted by torturing the body. Like the Epicureans of Europe, the self-indulgent seekers thought nothing of this world and the next, of rebirth, karma and its fruit, and led lives of luxury and sin. The Buddha's Path followed neither, but led to vision, knowledge, tranquility and ."

All these valuable teachings have been verified time and again by millions of Saints, i.e. noble persons who had walked over on the path, and can establish the liberated life at any time by any person who will earnestly and steadfastly follow the path. The Buddha stated that the path to liberation is to acquire direct knowledge of the .

^^ -Markus Hattstein, The Story of World Religions", printed in Germany, 2005, p-22 ^^ -PB 2500 YB, pp-26-27 1.2.6. The Lord Buddha

The Buddha, whose personal name was Siddhattha (Siddhartha in Sanskrit), and family name Gotama (Skt. Gautama), lived in North India in the 6'^ century B.C. His father, Suddhodana, was the ruler of the kingdom of the Sakyas (in modem ). His mother was queen Maya. In the year 623 B.C., the Queen Mahamaya, was travelling in the state from Kapilavastu to Devadaha, her parents' home, to have her first child. On her way, the queen gave birth to a divine son in the grove between two tall sal trees, then in their full spring blossom. While the were celebrating the birth of a prince, Queen Mahamaya passed away seven days after the birth of her child. Gautama was then mothered by his mother's sister, Mahaprajapati Gautarai, who was also his step-mother. According to the custom of the time, Gautama was married quite young, at the age of sixteen, to a beautifiil and devoted young princess, his cousin, Yasodhara. The young prince lived in his palace with every luxury at his command. But all of a sudden, confronted with the reality of life and the suffering of mankind, he decided to find the solution—the way out of this universal suffering. At the age of 29, soon after the birth of his only child, Rahula, he left his kingdom and became an ascetic in search of this solution.

For six years the ascetic Gotama wandered about the valley of the Ganges, meeting famous religious teacher named Adara Kalama and then to another named Udraka Ramaputra, studying and following their systems and methods, and submitting himself to rigorous ascetic practices. He resorted to various kinds of physical self tortures. He lived in this way for six years. But this did not satisfy him. So he abandoned all traditional religions and their methods and went his own way. At the end of six years he realized that physical torture was not the way to achieve enlightenment and decided to partake of food again. When on that day he was offered a bowl of milk by Sujata, a rich merchant's daughter, who was devoted to him, he accepted it. He spent the midday in a grove of sal trees on the bank of the Neranjara. When dusk fell he proceeded towards the Bodhi tree. On the way he met a grass cutter who gave him a bundle of soft grass. Spreading the grass at the foot of the Bodhi tree he sat in . During the night Gautama discovered the Law of Causation, a cycle of twelve causes and effects conditioning the universe.^*' It was thus, one evening, seated under a tree (since then known as the Bodhi-or Bo-tree, 'the Tree of Wisdom'), on the bank of the river Neranjara at Buddha-Gaya (near Gaya in modem ), at the age of 35, Gotama attained Enlightenment, after which he was known as the Buddha, 'The Enlightened One'.

1.2.7. Buddha's preaching

After his Enlightenment, Gotama the Buddha delivered his first sermon to a group of five ascetics, his old colleagues, thereby setting in motion the wheel of the Dharma (Dharmacakkappavattana) in the Deer Park at Isipatana (modem Samath) near Benares. Form the day of Enlightenment, for 45 years, he taught all classes of men and women— kings and peasants. Brahmins and outcasts, bankers and beggars, holy men and robbers—without making the slightest distinction between them. He recognized no differences of caste or social groupings, and the Way he

^° -Ibid,p-20 preached was open to all nien and women who were ready to understand and to follow it. At the age of 80, the Buddha passed away at Kusinara (in modem in India).^'

A year after the Awakening, Shuddhodana heard of his son's glory and invited him to visit Kapilavastu. The Buddha accordingly came to his parental home. Shuddhodana paid homage to his son as he was now a holy man.

Three years afterwards a quarrel arose between the Shakyas and about the water of the river separating their territories. Had it not been for Lord Buddha's intervention, the quarrel \vould have grown into a fierce battle. This event was followed by the death of Shuddhodana; and Gautami, the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, asked her son for admission in . Ananda, the personal attendant of the Master, strongly supported her cause. This was the beginning of an Order of nuns in India. Until then women in the country had no right to spiritual salvation through the renunciation of the home.

When the Buddha approached his eightieth year, he felt that his end was at hand. Here he asked Ananda to spread a cloth on ground between two sal trees. He was bom between two sal trees and was to die in a similar place. The Buddha was bom under the sal trees in a natural way, was awakened in a natural way under Bodhi tree, illuminated in the natural way the whole of mankind, lived in a natural way, and passed away in a natural way between sal trees. Everything of the Buddha was natural that is the Law of the World, showed the world of sensual is suffering; the world of

^' -Walpola Rahula, "What the Buddha Taught", pp-Xvii-Xviii ^^ - PB 2500 YB, p-24 wisdom is nirvana. So it can be surely said the Buddha came and went back from the natural way to the natural way. He lay down like a lion and gave his last admonitions to thousands of monks and lay folks who had assembled to have a last glimpse of him. "Now monks, I declare to you: all conditioned things are of a nature to decay—strive on untiringly." These were the Tathagata's last words.

1.2.8. Start of Samgha

After two months of his Enlightenment, the Buddha constituted the celibate Order (Sangha) with democratic way at Isipattana, now known as Saranath in Baranasi. The five monks to whom the Buddha delivered his first sermon became his first disciples. There are popular significant places for Buddhism, i.e., Lumbini, Buddha-Gaya, Rajgiri, Nalanda, Saranath, Savatthi, Kusinara, etc. He lived 45 years as a Buddha and taught Dharma to all irrespective of religion and caste system.

1.2.9. The Buddhism after Mahanirvana

After the Buddha's passing away Sangha group maintained his Order till now very successfully. According to Buddhist tradition there are three councils which were held by learned monks, Arahants.

(1) First council after three months of his Parinibbana, the first great Sangha council was held at Rajagiri in Bihar, and 500 learned and Arahat monks participated in this council, all of the early included their Pitakas' discourses of doctrinal significance and their Pitakas' rules for monks and nuns. According to the Cullavagga

" -D II, Mahaparinibbana-sutta, sutta 16, p-270, 6.7., (PIS) and most of the other , at the First Council the entire Vinaya Pitaka was recited from memory by the monk Upali, and the entire Sutta Pitaka by Ananda, the Buddha's constant attendant.

(2) Second Council About a century after the death of the Buddha a Second Council, held in the city of Vesali, resulted in a schism between the Sthaviravada—in Pali the , the School of Elders"—and the , the "Great Vehicle." In this council, the Sangha was broken into two groups, such as Theravada and Mahasanghika sects. From that time, these two sects spread out widely till environment countries such as Central , China, Korea and Japan etc.

G) Third Council was held after Gautama's death, in the third century B.C., during the time of Emperor Asoka. The third council tried to set down the master's teachings. There were early splits between the followers of the Theravada tradition (Sanskrit: sthaviravadins), the followers of the "Doctrine of the Elders," who essentially formulated the stricter Buddhism, and the Mahasanghikas, the followers of the "Great Assembly," who had a far more liberal attitude and prepared the way of the later Mahayana Buddhism."^"*

1.2.10. Schools of Buddhism

The Buddha's sayings and their commentaries were handed down orally from teachers to disciples. However, not enough care was taken for the preservation of the actual words of the Teacher."^^ The monks who deviated from the orthodox rules were later called the Mahasanghikas,

^^ -Markus Hattstein, The Story of Worid Religions, pp-27-28 ^^ - PB 2500 YB, p-87 while the orthodox monks were distinguished as the Theravadins (sthaviravadins). It was rather 'a division between the conservative and the liberal, the hierarchic and the democratic.'^^

In the history of the succession of schools, it is found that the first schism in the Sangha was followed by a series of schisms leading to the formation of different sub-sects, and in the course of time eleven such sub- sects arose out of the Theravada while seven issued from the Mahasanghikas. Later, there appeared other sub-sects also.^^

Theravada and Mahayana followers splintered in the course of time into a number of sub-schools. The schools of Buddhism are considered to have fully formed from the 11'^ century A.D. onwards (after 1500 years of Buddhism).

"One of the Mahayana's central concepts, apart from the void or emptiness, is the ideal of the . If the Buddha is the enlightened one, then the Bodhisattva is a being of enlightenment, a developing Buddha. The Bodhisattva remains in the world solely for the benefit of other living creatures, in order to rescue others from the currents of suffering. Because he has long since overcome his own Self, the Bodhisattva has compassion and empathy for all other living beings and wants to do good for them."^^ This indicates that the ideal of Bodhisattva is to help other living beings and carry them on from bondage-life to liberated-life and also show them which way leads them into Nirvana and Enlightenment.

^^ -Ibid,p-88 ^' -Ibid,p-89 - Markus Hattstein, The Story of World Religions, p-32 1.2.11. Asoka period, Asoka's contribution to Buddhism

Ashoka's patronage must have contributed to the spread of Buddhism not only within the empire but also to distant lands even in his lifetime, after Buddhism had developed from a monastic religion into a popular one. It was at this time that Buddhism was adopted by the Greeks in the north. King Menander was a great champion of the faith. After he had established his capital at Sakala^^, he performed many acts of piety.

From Menander's time many Greeks in India adopted Buddhism as their religion, and thereafter played the part of donors to Buddhist establishments. The Pali texts represent the Greeks as taking part even in activities. We are told that after the conversion of the Yavana (Greek) country to Buddhism, Moggaliputta Tissa went to that country and selected a Greek Elder, Dharmaraksita, for missionary work. Daharmaraksita was then sent to the country of Aparantaka where he successftilly preached the Law of the Buddha and converted thousands of people including women and nobles. The Greeks in India were also responsible for evolving a new style of , usually known as Indo-Greek, which flourished mostly in the Punjab and north-western India.'«

Kanishka's reign is also a landmark in the history of Buddhism. Tradition not only represents him as a great patron of the religion but also associates him with a galaxy of Buddhist masters who shaped Buddhism in later times. It was in this period that the Indo-Greek school of Buddhist art achieved its greatest development. Buddhist monks from

- mentioned at the commencement of the Milinda-Panha. ^^ - PB 2500 YB, P-55 India carried Buddhism to Central Asia and China. A new form of Buddhism, the Mahayana, of far-reaching consequence, also came to be evolved at the same time. Kanishka must have contributed a good deal to the progress of Buddhism."*"

1.3. The Fundamental teaching of Buddhism in India

1.3.1. Dhammacakkappavattana

The Buddha set out for Benares and met the five ascetics, his old colleagues. They had left him after he took food and milk from Sujata, the merchant's daughter. The Buddha delivered his first Sermon to them and with that he set in motion the wheel of the Dharma {Dhammacakkappavattana). The discourses were expounded by the Buddha while he was residing at the Deer Park in Isipattana near Benares. The intellectual five monks who were closely associated with the Buddha for six years were the only human beings that were present to hear the sermon.

Dhammacakkappavattana is the name given to this first discourse of the Buddha. It is frequently represented as meaning "The Kingdom of Truth," "The Kingdom of Righteousness," "The Wheel of Truth." According to the commentators Dhamma here means wisdom or knowledge, and Cakka means founding or establishment. Dhamma may also be interpreted as Truth, and Cakka as wheel.

1.3.2. The Middle Path

In this most important discourse the Buddha expounds the Middle Path which he himself discovered and which forms the essence of his new teaching. He opened the discourse by exhorting the five

^^ -Ibid,p-56 monks, who believed in strict asceticism, to avoid the extremes of self- indulgence and self-mortification as neither leads to perfect peace and enlightenment. The former retards one's spiritual progress, the latter weakens one's intellect. He criticised both views since he realized by personal experience their flitility and enunciated the most practicable, rational and beneficial path, which alone leads to perfect purity and absolute deliverance."^^

", these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone forth into homelessness. What two? The pursuit of sensual happiness in sensual pleasures, which is low, vulgar, the way of worldlings, ignoble, unbeneficial; and the pursuit of self mortification, which is painful, ignoble, unbeneficial. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathagata has awakened to the , which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana.

1.3.3. The teachings of Lord Buddha

There are two kinds of preaching, viz., philosophical preaching and moral preaching. These two are interrelated and so one can not be understood without a proper knowledge of the other.

The fiindamental principle of Buddha's philosophy is the theory of Causation or Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada). Paticcasamuppada in Pali language means, a combination of three words, i.e. 'Patticca' means "because of and "dependent upon", Sam means 'weir, Uppada means 'arising of effect through cause', so 'dependent

^'^ -Mahathera Naarada, "The Buddha and His Teachings", Buddhist PubHcation Society Kandy - , p-44 43 -S. V, 56.XII, 421, Pp-1843 (PTS) on cause there arises effect'. Hence it is known in English as Law of Dependent Origination or Cycle of Rebirth. In the Law of Dependent Origination there are twelve links which show the process of arising of a sentient being from one phenomenon to another in an endless chain of Samsara. According to this theory, the continuous existence of a being is a wheel of causes and effects. Ignorance (avijja) gives rise to will or actions (sankhara), which in their turn produce consciousness (viiifiana), then follow in succession the following things, name and form (nama- rupa), six senses organs (salayatana), contact (phassa), feeling (vedana), craving (tanha), attachment (upadana), renewed existence (bhava), rebirth (jati), old age and death (jara marana) and the results of these are tribulation, grief, sorrow, distress and despair (soka-parideva-dukkha- domanassupayasa). If the last effect is to be destroyed, the primary cause, namely, ignorance should be destroyed.

Another important theory of the Buddha is about the Four Noble Truths (Ariyasaccani). The Four Noble Truths is a very important aspect of the teaching. The Buddha had said that it is because we fail to understand the Four Noble Truths that we continue to go round in the cycle of birth and death. In the very first sermon of the Buddha, the Dhammacakka pavattana sutta, which He gave to five monks at the Deer Park in was about the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path.

1.3.4. The Four Noble Truths

(1) The first Noble Truth of Dukkha

(2)The second Noble Truth of Samudaya, the arising or origin of dukkha,

(3) The third Noble Truth of Nirodha, the cessation of dukhha, (4) The fourth Noble Truth of Magga, the way leading to the cessation of dukkha.

The first Noble Truth is suffering because of birth, decay, disease, and death, the being of everything is changeable in the world that is suffering but if I or self is not there, there is no dukkha.

The second Noble Truth is the origin of suffering. It is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination. It is the sensual craving ikama-tanha), the craving for existence (bhava-tanha), the craving for non-existence (vibhavatahhii) but if I or Self and craving is not there, there is no dukkha.

The third Noble Truth is the cessation of suffering. It is the complete fading away and extinction of this craving, it's forsaking and giving up, liberation and detachment from craving if I or Self and craving for non-existence take the middle way it leading to Nibbana.

The fourth Noble Truth is the way leading to the cessation of suffering. It is the i.e. the middle way.

In the Buddha's first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, it is said that the first truth (suffering) is to be fully understood; the second truth (craving) to be abandoned; the third truth (Nirodha) to be realized; the fourth truth (the path) to be cultivated.

"And What, Bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision ... which leads to Nibbana? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right , and right concentration. This, bhikkus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana.^^

The cause of all human suffering is because of craving, hate (or anger), and ignorance. The Buddha asked to the people to remove their craving, hate, and ignorance for happiness. The total cessation of all suffering is called Nirvana, the summum bonum, which is beyond logical reasoning and beyond description. It is not a negative condition but a positive and unconditioned state realized by the mind.

This Nirvana can be attained by the Fourth Noble Truth and the Noble Eightfold Path. It is also called the Middle Path, because it avoids two extremes; the way neither follows the path of self mortification nor that of self indulgence. The Buddha discovered through personal experience the Middle Path 'which gives vision and knowledge, which leads to Calm, Insight, Enlightenment, Nirvana'. This Middle Path is generally referred to as the Noble Eightfold Path {Ariya-Atthaiigika- Magga), because it is composed of eight categories.

1.3.5. The Noble Eightfold Path

(1) Right Understanding or View {Sammaditthi),

(2) Right Thought {Samma saiikappa),

(3) Right Speech {Samma vaca),

(4) Right Action {Samma kammanta),

(5) Right Livelihood {Samma ajTva),

^ - S. V, 56.XII, 421, Pp-1844 (PTS) (6) Right Effort {Samma vayama),

(1) Right Mindfulness {Samma ),

(8) Right Concentration {Samma ).

Practically the whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself during 45 years, deals in some way or other with this Path. He explained it in different ways and in different words to different people, according to the stage of their development and their capacity to understand and follow him. But the essence of those many thousand discourses scattered in the Buddhist Scriptures is found in the Noble Eightfold Path."^^

These eight factors aim at promoting and perfecting the three essentials of Buddhist training and discipline: namely: (a) Morality {Sila), (b) Concentration {Samadhi) and (c) Wisdom {paiina).

(3) Right Speech {Samma vaca), (4) Right Action {Samma kammanta), and (5) Right Livelihood {Samma ajTva), these (a) Morality {Sila).

(6) Right Effort {Samma vayama), (7) Right Mindfulness {Samma sati), and (8) Right Concentration {Samma samadlii), these (b) Concentration {Samadhi).

(1) Right Understanding or View {Samma ditthi), and (2) Right Thought {Samma sarikappa); these (c) Wisdom (paiina).

45 - Walpola Rahula, "What the Buddha Taught", pp45-46 The first step of this path is the 'Right View or Understanding'. It is essential to understand suffering i.e. the origin of suffering, the existence of suffering, and the path leading to the extinction of suffering.

The second step is Right Thought; it is a mind free from sensual lust, ill-will and cruelty.

The third step is to be abstaining from lying, tale-bearing, harsh words, and foolish babble.

The fourth step is to be abstaining from injuring living beings, from stealing and from unlawful sexual intercourse.

The fifth step is to reject a wrong living, and to gain one's living by means of right life.

The sixth step is the energetic will to prevent evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising, and to get rid of such evil and unwholesome states that have already arisen within a man, and also to produce, to cause to arise, good and wholesome states of mind not yet arisen, and to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome states of mind already present in a man.

The seventh is to be diligently aware, mindful and attentive with regard to the activities of the body sensations or feelings, the activities of mind and ideas, thoughts, conceptions and things.

The eighth step is one of the well-known exercises, connected with the body, for mental development. There are several other ways of developing attentiveness in relation to the body—as modes of meditation. 1.4. Conclusion

In India in ancient time, Brahmins believed that the universe and man were created by Brahma and that the human beings created by him were divided into four . In the Rgvedic latest hymns (X. 90. 12) the four fundamental orders are mentioned.

The Buddha and his Buddhism attributed all his realization, attainment and accomplishment to human endeavor and human intelligence. Every man has within himself the potential to become a Buddha. The Buddha discovered and showed the path of liberation which is called the eightfold noble path. It is also called the Middle Path.

In Buddhism there are the Four Noble Truths, the Middle Way and the Eightfold Path. Through the Eightfold Path gets the Middle Way and through the Middle Way reach to enlightenment to Nibbana.