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Suggestion for citations: Volume: Revermann, R., Krewenka, K.M., Schmiedel, U., Olwoch, J.M., Helmschrot, J. & Jürgens, N. (eds.) (2018) and adaptive management in southern – assessments, changes, challenges, and solutions. & Ecology, 6, Klaus Hess Publishers, Göttingen & Windhoek.

Articles (example): Archer, E., Engelbrecht, F., Hänsler, A., Landman, W., Tadross, M. & Helmschrot, J. (2018) Seasonal prediction and regional climate projections for southern Africa. In: Climate change and adaptive in southern Africa – assessments, changes, challenges, and solutions (ed. by Revermann, R., Krewenka, K.M., Schmiedel, U., Olwoch, J.M., Helmschrot, J. & Jürgens, N.), pp. 14–21, Biodiversity & Ecology, 6, Klaus Hess Publishers, Göttingen & Windhoek.

Corrections brought to our attention will be published at the following location: http://www.biodiversity-plants.de/biodivers_ecol/biodivers_ecol .php Biodiversity & Ecology

Journal of the Division Biodiversity, Evolution and Ecology of Plants, Institute for Plant Science and Microbiology, University of Hamburg

Volume 6:

Climate change and adaptive land management in southern Africa

Assessments, changes, challenges, and solutions

Edited by

Rasmus Revermann1, Kristin M. Krewenka1, Ute Schmiedel1, Jane M. Olwoch2, Jörg Helmschrot2,3, Norbert Jürgens1

1 Institute for Plant Science and Microbiology, University of Hamburg 2 Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management 3 Department of Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University

Hamburg 2018

RPlease cite the article as follows:

Ramoelo, A., Stolter, C., Joubert, D., Cho, M.A., Groengroeft, A., Madibela, O.R., Zimmermann, I. & Pringle, H. (2018) monitoring and assessment: a review. In: Climate change and adaptive land management in southern Africa – assessments, changes, challenges, and solutions (ed. by Revermann, R., Krewenka, K.M., Schmiedel, U., Olwoch, J.M., Helmschrot, J. & Jürgens, N.), pp. 170-176, Biodiversity & Ecology, 6, Klaus Hess Publishers, Göttingen & Windhoek. doi:10.7809/b-e.00320 * Correspondigauthor:[email protected] PrivateBag0027,Gaborone, 5 Departmentof Animal ScienceandProduction,BotswanaUniversityof andNaturalResources, Allende-Platz 2,20146Hamburg,Germany 4 InstituteofSoilScience,CentreforEarthSystemResearchandSustainability, UniversityofHamburg, 3 NamibianUniversityofScienceand Technology, PrivateBag13388,Windhoek,Namibia Martin-Luther-KingPlatz3,20146Hamburg,Germany 2 Departmentof Animal EcologyandNatureConservation,InstituteforZoology, University of Hamburg, IndustrialResearch,POBox395,Pretoria,0001,South Africa 1 EarthObservationResearchGroup,NaturalResourcesandtheEnvironmentUnit,CouncilforScienti Abel Ramoelo a review Rangeland monitoringandassessment: 170 Ibo Zimmermann abordadas em artigos subsequentes. Para atingir este objectivo, este atingir Para subsequentes. artigos em abordadas encroachment fav quais os temperatura, da aumento o e irregular precipitação mil mil 9 os atingir deverá qual a humana, população da cimento globais, incluindo o uso das terras e as alterações climáticas. munidades rurais e, por vezes, pobres. Apesar da importância da alime fornecem geralmente e diversos são pastagens das serviços Resumo: opportunity to assess the status or condition, quality, and ext livestock. and wildlife for landscapes these of functioning the eros soil of threats techniques. The sensing remote and situ in dos ambientes de pastagem. técnicas lenhosas, as quais são alguns dos problemas que afectam paisage situ monitorização, i.e., qualidade das gramíneas, árvores e legumes densifi a como tais ameaças, suas capít neste destacadas livro. questões-chave deste As capítulos of quality (i.e. monitoring for indicators ), soil (e.g. defi the are chapter this of the key areas covered by the subsequent articles, and drawin . recurrent and The encroachment bush to leading cover rainf erratic of form the in change climate Meanwhile, 2050. in change. Land-use change is exacerbated by the ever-increasing h t also are they rangelands, of importance the Despite munities. are diverse and generally provide food for millions of the worl Abstract: e de detecção remota. As ameaças em destaque identifi in situ As pastagens oferecem vastas paisagens para o pastoreio e procu Rangelands provide vast landscapes for grazing and foraging fo foraging and grazing for landscapes vast provide Rangelands 1

*, CarolineStolter e a secas recorrentes. O objectivo deste artigo de revisão é f é revisão de artigo deste objectivo O recorrentes. secas a e e de detecção remota oferecem a oportunidade de avaliar o esta o avaliar de oportunidade a oferecem remota detecção de e 3 , HughPringle nition of rangeland landscapes, their role and threats such as such threats and role their landscapes, rangeland of nition 3 2 cação de plantas lenhosas e degradação da terra (e.x.: erosão (e.x.: terra da degradação e lenhosas plantas de cação , DavidJoubert C A 3 , Moses A. Cho cadas incluem a erosão do solo, o fogo e a densifi grass, trees, and legumes), and assessment of rangelands using rangelands of assessment and legumes), and trees, grass, A alteração do uso das terras é exacerbada pelo constante cres ent of rangeland environments. However, in situ and techniques provide the provide techniques sensing remote However,and situ in d’s population, especially the rural and sometimes poor com- ion, fi ion, ulo são a defi a são ulo g upon a wider body of literature. Key issues highlighted in hreatened by global change including and climate and use land including change global by hreatened foi realizada uma revisão bibliográfi revisão uma realizada foi s pastagens, estas estão também ameaçadas pelas alterações , e avaliação das pastagens recorrendo ao uso de técnicas all and increasing temperatures, favours increasing woody increasing favours temperatures, increasing and all uman population, which is projected to reach over 9 billion orecem o aumento da cobertura lenhosa, levando ao levando lenhosa, cobertura da aumento o orecem ns críticas para os animais selvagens e o gado. No entanto, hões em 2050. Entretanto, as alterações climáticas geram climáticas alterações as Entretanto, 2050. em hões objective of this overview article is to provide a synopsis a provide to is article overview this of objective nto a milhões de pessoas no mundo, em especial nas co- nas especial em mundo, no pessoas de milhões a nto re, and bush encroachment are discussed in relation to relation in discussed are encroachment bush and re, 1 , Alex Groengroeft , Alex ra de alimento ao gado e a animais selvagens. Os r livestock and wildlife. Services of rangelands of Services wildlife. and livestock r ornecer uma sinopse das áreas chave que serão que chave áreas das sinopse uma ornecer nição da paisagem de pastagem, o seu papel e papel seu o pastagem, de paisagem da nição do ou a condição, a qualidade e a extensão a e qualidade a condição, a ou do bush encroachment, land encroachment, bush 4 , OthusitseR.Madibela do solo), indicadores para indicadores solo), do ca, incluindo diversos incluindo ca, cação de plantas fi c and c 5 , bush in -

B E 6 mated to be in developing countries, with esti- is increase the of most and billion 9 than more be to projected is 2050 in tion utilisation and management. The popula- has signifi (Steinfeld gases greenhouse of production the to signifi contribute and environment is that they have a negative impact on the with having so many animals on the land problem One (www.fao.org). goats and sheep individual million 2,165 and falo buf- and cattle individual million 1,684 from game and camelids). This corresponds meat to and meat bush (excluding meat ruminant of tons million 82 to ed amount- consumption meat human nual (Hackmann & Spain, 2010). In 2014, an- lion domesticated ruminants in the world bil- 3.5 and ruminants wild million 75 estimated an are there abundance, their of terms In plants. food of diversity and availability high the to related are and 1994), Crowe, & (Turpie grassy open the in especially Africa, in visible still are indigenous of versity di- high this Vestigesof 2007). Foss, (Prothero & ruminants especially vores, diversifi to rapid the led resources food diverse new, of exploitation the with coupled habitats new of colonisation the ago), years lion sometimes poor communities. and rural from are many and sustenance of Millions daily their for rangelands on rely people sources. freshwater and services, pollination sequestration, bon car- products, wild of harvesting 2013), livestock or game farming (Naidoo subsistence and commercial for sources vices include the provision of grazing re- ser- Rangeland population. world’s the of millions for food provide and 1992) Frasler, & the (Child surface of land world’s 51% about cover Rangelands 2017). (Craggs, naturalised are that cies spe- plant introduced as well as shrubs, fl plants, grass-like grasses, native of consists ral natu- the where wildlife, and for livestock foraging and grazing provide that defi are Rangelands Introduction Rapid growth in the human population mil- 56 to (34 epoch Eocene the In cant implications for rangeland

et al., 2006). cto o lre herbi- large of cation oeig lns and plants, owering nd s landscapes as ned

2018 cantly

et al., land environments Threats facedbyrange- Hahn 2010). (FAO ecosystems these of productivity and ity qual- the threatens and degradation land to leads rangelands of 2010). FAO, 2010; (Thornton, use land and cover land in changes un- precedented to leading often result a as needs, its meet to shelter and food provide to rangelands on demands new placing is population human the in increase rapid The 2.6%. of rate annual an at growing is sub-Saharan Africa of population The 2015). (UNPD, in Africa half than more ing on wildlife numbers and the sustain- the and numbers wildlife on ing impact- negatively are changes climatic anthropogenic and use land in changes rapid However, systems. these in living people of millions of livelihoods the ing support- thus production, crop food and fi “big the (e.g. wildlife for habitats as utilised both are African temperature). and fall (rain- variables climatic of seasonality the on mainly dependent is productivity whose systems and by covered are Africa of areas Large ing anthropogenic CO hence on rangeland productivity. Increas- and continent African the on increas- threats ing are species alien by invasion 2013). , bush encroachment, and Bennett, & (Palmer of systems functioning rangeland the on impacting also are patterns, rainfall erratic and as drought such events extreme of occurrence ing rising temperatures and the increased practices. land-use inappropriate of consequence a of biological or economic productivity as loss or reduction the as degradation land nraig amn (rjce t be to 3–5 (projected warming increasing Furthermore, encroachment. woody or thereby fuelling the phenomenon of bush is having a fertilisation eff semi-arid rangelands in southern Africa. and arid for severer even be could pacts im- change Global 2003). Palmer, 2003; Bond 1997; Archer, & (Scholes grasses C3 of place in grasses C4 vour Other global change pressures, includ- o C by the end of the century) will fa- v” ad o livestock for and ve”)

et al. (2005) defi (2005) al. et 2 in the atmosphere ect on C3 trees,

t al., et ned blt o rnead (Lehmann rangelands of ability a apoce. sn fi Using approaches. cal diff with interactions these studied SASSCAL Thus, 2010). (Christian, soil the in and plants in water aff might this how and shrubs, dwarf and layer herbs, grasses, of lower the with trees and bushes of interaction the about missing is tion informa- robust encroachment, bush problem of widespread their with lands, range- African southern For 2014). al., Scanlon 1997; Archer, & Scholes (e.g. recharge water the water balance and especially ground- on encroachment bush of the consequences as well as settings, environmental diff under grasses and trees tween be- water for competition of degree the on centred have Discussions systems. eco- savanna in grasses and trees of tion diff the about tives (Zimmerman et al., 2018). perspec- socio-economic and ecological effi the on focused has this to related research Key (Pringle erosion of result a as lost been have wildlife and livestock for landscapes critical Namibia, 2018), in while al., et (Olivier Africa South of agricultural fi in or 171) task SASSCAL (see Angola in environments urban into cutting are systems gully that evidence is there ple, that might be found in an area. For exam- erosion soil of types the are degradation references therein). (Murphy rangelands can causes oflanddegradationinmany Afri- fi human-induced and erosion, soil , fragmentation, habitat encroachment, bush including diversity. In general, threats to rangeland, changes in food availability and also bio- to lead certainly will which vegetation, on change climatic or anthropogenic of the results imply strong potential impacts Africa), South of part eastern the and ia Namib- of region savanna northern and western the (e.g. areas some For Africa. diff for results diff found and disturbance to lation re- in cover vegetation of resilience the Harris 2009). There has also been a lengthy debate lengthy a been also has There land of extent the for indicators Key cacy of restoration from both from restoration of cacy elds in the Swartland region erences in water consump- water in erences

eet ims n southern in biomes erent

t l (04 investigated (2014) al. et et al., 2006; O’Connor 2006; al., et et h dnmc of dynamics the ect erent methodologi- erent rs ae h major the are res,

ed monitoring eld et al., 2016 and 2016 al., et

et al., 2011). al., et

t al., et erent erent 171

et

Rangelands Rangelands 172 (Groengroeft et al., 2018). farms other two on 2014, since and, na savan- thorn-bush Namibian central the in farm commercial a on 2007 since eas ar- de-bushed as well as areas croached bush-en- of dynamics water soil the of taken were measurements techniques, man et al., 2018). (Zimmer- pods and fruits leaves, edible and canopies, protective tall mulching, chop-and-drop including products, and diff for ditches contour below planted were species tree Diverse pick and spadeatthetwosmallerurbansites. with dug manually contour were while ditches site, rural ha 30 the at sites. Earth-moving machinery was used those of one at banks ponding structing con- by and ditches, contour digging by sites three at attempted was This trees. planted and grasses natural of growth the support thereby and ground the into infi enhance to measures vesting har- water rain as such areas, small few a on applied be also can management Intensive rangeland. of areas extensive over cycles nutrient and water covering re- towards way long a go can vigour, their regain to grasses grazed for rest suffi provide to herbivores, of ment nutrient cycles. The appropriate manage- effi their disrupted mans hu- modern before productive highly ment of rangelands. manage- and planning the on makers decision- inform to order in necessary is water, and soil, vegetation, with ated the identifi through condition, rangeland of assessment An overexploitation. avoid to capacities landscape and human demands balance to necessary is ment manage- Careful 2017). al. et (Tambo income and production, employment, of loss the of because communities cal lo- of livelihoods the for implications ing droughtperiods. This has important dur- high relatively often is Livestock mortality them. on kept be can that animals of number the and rangelands of capacity carrying the limits drought of occurrence The Africa. in systems production livestock and rangelands change causes devastating problems for Drought as a consequence of climate of consequence a as Drought been have to thought are Rangelands cto o ky niaos associ- indicators key of cation

cient water and water cient eet functions erent ltration cient & Cumming, 2003), but also seed disper- pling (Van der Wal Bobrowski 2001; (Rooney, damage feeding example, for to, due ecosystems terrestrial of sition compo- vegetation the determines vores herbi- large of distribution The 2005). Wardle Olff 1992; Naiman, (McNaughton biota other on impacts subsequent with fi and , soil cles, cy- nutrient production, primary modify which animals, grazing and infl highly been have ecosystems terrestrial herbivores, large of evolution the Since vegetation In provided in the following sections. scription of these dynamic interactions is climate. and Ause land with de- change also notinasteady are rangeland given a of quality overall landscape. The parameters describing the given a of quality and productivity the of misunderstanding to lead might and assessments these in included not often food compounds or thorns and hairs), are and toxic (e.g. plants in defences mechanical chemical of presence the as such factors, other However,quality. plant of nitrogen, lignin, fi protein, (e.g. concentrations chemical bio- or digestibility while productivity, of indicator an as used is ple, diff landscape, given a of quality overall the describe to order In rainfall. and/or ture ability, is aff avail- plant food consequently and tion, prevailing climatic conditions. Vegetation composi- and features, geographical availability, water (geology), acteristics char- soil existing is the by driven mainly vegetation the of composition The herbivores. all for landscape a of pacity ca- carrying the determine species plant unpalatable of abundance the and plants food palatable of presence The quality. rangeland determines that factor key ing overarch- the is Vegetationcomposition for assessingrangelands? What arethekeyindicators fl une i sae n fnto by function and shape in uenced erent indicators are used. For exam- For used. are indicators erent uence oflargeherbivoreson C A

t l, 04 Archibald 2004; al., et ected by changes in tempera-

t l, 98 Pso & Pastor 1988; al., et bre) are used as indices

et al., 2015) and tram- and 2015) al., et

et al., 2001; Cumming state andwillalways & ici, 1998; Ritchie, & r regimes, re

t al., et org/ A ( CAL SASS- of observatories the from reported rainfall, of vascular plants phy (Mur- species of number high a comprise Harris 2007; al., et tropical (Kier vannas, are lower in plant diversity than the sa- including biomes, grassy tropical the Although forests. tropical canopy closed most people will immediately think of the Africa, in biodiversity plant of terms In decisions oflargeherbivores resource availability, andfeeding Biodiversity, chemicaldiversity, (Stolter damage feeding to phology, andfertilitychangeinresponse mor- composition, chemical plant ally, Benthien 2005; Hülber 2001; Beardall, & (Gill sal both forms of disturbance (Ratnam disturbance of forms both to adapted extent some to are ecosystems fi of occurrence frequent natural, with wild, free-ranging herbivores and the co-existence long their to Due rainfall). succulent karoo (in areas with high annual the for 61.1 and savanna, shrub dwarf for 26.4 savanna, thorn-bush for 57.9 vanna, as 45.1 species per ha for the sa- food selection patterns of animals. modifi ecosystem Stolter, 2008). The key factor behind this large number of diff of number large a by characterised also are They 2011). quality, is poorly known. More than 150 150 than More known. poorly is quality, bivores, as well as their general nutritional her-by 2018). utilisation al., Their et bela when food availability is restricted (Madi- for livestock, for example in the dry resource food alternative supplementary, herbivores. They can also be an additional, wild legumes, often serve as food for wild al. et as many as 11 diff have savanna thorn-bush and woodland as such herbs, and shrubs small However, high. extraordinarily also is grasses of ty diversi- the savanna thorn-bush the In na. and small bushes in the thorn-bush savan- diff of proportion high relatively a with interspersed community grassland a to shift a is community,there grassland-tree a by mainly characterised Monechma genistifolium

; Jürgens et al., 2018) may be as high high as be may 2018) al., et Jürgens ; et al., 2016). Depending on annual annual on Depending 2016). al., et , 2010). While woodland savanna is is savanna woodland While 2010). http://www.sasscalobservationnet.

erent life forms; Jürgens et al., 2016). Addition- 2016). al., et cto i sml the simply is cation

et al., 2014), they also also they 2014), al., et erent life forms (e.g. (e.g. forms life erent

et al., 2005; Barthlott erent dwarf shrubs shrubs dwarf erent

and diff and et al., 2005; al., et re, these these re,

erent erent et al., et et al., al., et

diff and Stolter,2008) leaves; and twigs (e.g. et al., 2018a). (Stolter chapter subsequent the in cussed dis- further be will herbivores large for availability food and quality food on tors part to ingest. The impact of diff plant or plant which bite each for choose to have animals the where 2002), al., et (Villalba herbivores for environment ing feed- multidimensional a to contributes diff of variety and fi diff example for compounds, other with co-varies PSMs) for here onstrated dem- (only variability high This 2013). B E 6 diff (Stolter sites diff on growing species same the of diff pounds specifi of concentrations relative the Furthermore, deterrent. a as action of son there can be thousands of compounds (Ia- cal class of PSM (e.g. tannins, terpenoids) al., 2005). Even within each single chemi- Stolter (e.g. species plant between ies evolved in plants and the composition var- 2014). Thousands of diff (Tegelberg (PSM) metabolites secondary plant as specifi in also but protein) (e.g. compounds nutritional ors, changes occur in the concentration of stress, etc. When subjected to such stress- drought radiation, UV enhanced to also but herbivory, by caused damage to act re- plants example, For factors. external species- is specifi plant a of composition cal chemi- The metabolites. secondary plant fi lipids, acids, amino proteins, as such compounds plant ferent dif- of number high a of consist Plants diversity”. chemical “plant include also extend theconceptof to like would we , a of spective plant species (Stolter 2018a). food neglected often but important these including values nutritional of database a produce to aim we SASSCAL, Within et al., 2009, and Stolter, unpublished data). Roux (Le plants food as serve to reported are alone Namibia in forbs and herbs 30 than more and shrubs and bushes, trees, bre fractions. Hence, the large number large the Hence, fractions. bre However, when viewed from the per- the from viewed when However, erences between (Stolter erences between diff between erences

et al., 2012) diff 2012) al., et c, but also changes in response to response in changes also but c,

e bten niiul plants individual between er et al.,2003;McKiernan

c defence compounds such compounds defence c et al., 2010). There are also are There 2010). al., et erent plant compounds plant erent ering in their mode their in ering “plant diversity”to be rcin, and fractions, bre erent PSMs have erent plant parts plant erent

erent fac- c com- c 2018

erent erent

et al., et al.,

et

Guyette 1998; Cali, & Bird 1996; Wilgen, van & (Bond ecosystems terrestrial of tion func- and biodiversity, composition, the in changes causes and vegetation vanna infl fi of use fi natural the to changes human-induced all Therefore, biodiversity. as well as community vore aff feeding decisions of the associated also herbi- this consequence, In plants. of make-up chemical the in also but composition vegetation in only not fi lands, range- of characteristics soil and etation, infl By 2012). al., one vegetation state to another (Joubert interrupting the transition processes from in crucial is it as function regulatory a fi Therefore, 2005). ley, vegetation (Backéus, 1992; Bond & Kee- to converted is grassland which down the successional processes through slowing by example for vegetation, the mentioned factors fi above, the to addition In Fire (Stolter et al., 2018b). encroachment bush defend or prevent to strategies management appropriate of development the in aid therefore and infl herbivores how understand to help might response plant diff of selection food utilisation, habitat on by, diff utilisation of, and feeding damage caused and fi experiments standardised conducted we food selectionoflivestock.Furthermore, plant and the associated consequences on tigated the eff factor.tant Withininves- we SASSCAL, impor- an be might cattle, to herbivores wild from shift the as well as grazing, over- respect, this In utilisation. habitat is ecosystem savanna the of formation diff by caused use land unsustainable of a sign as seen often is encroachment Bush Bush encroachment une te aua dnmc o sa- of dynamics natural the uences erent herbivores, and the consequent the and herbivores, erent trans- the of driver One factors. erent eld surveys investigating the habitat erent large herbivores. Knowledge rs a la t svr changes, severe to lead can res

r cn ae eee mat on impacts severe have can re et al., 2002). r fr aaeet purposes, management for re ect of herbivore damage on re regime, including the including regime, re uencing the light, veg- light, the uencing uence the vegetation, the uence re can also have also can re et the ects

et bivore distribution; Joubert et al., 2018). her- large and insects, and of abundances biodiversity, characteristics, quality,soil forage in changes and sition ferent parameters (e.g. vegetation compo- n svrt o fi of severity and frequency the on depending However, ence of a greater concentration of protein. has passed through, for example the pres- fi a after quality plant improved to lead aff species plant the on depending and 2008), (Stolter, herbivory Similar to the response that plants have to tissue. burnt lost, the for compensate to have plants Furthermore, 2002). al., et 1999; Giardina&Rhoades,2001;Rieske eff “fertilising” the of because used also is It grasses. quality poor- moribund, removing by grassland fi using for reason One rangelands. for tool agement grassland into bushy areas (Joubert fi of reduction this Consequently, grazing. over- by caused loads fuel of reduction serious a to due limited is appearance their or policy by suppressed often are the eff investigated we Therefore, 2007). fi the after fall fi the during by processes leaching lost be will latter The compounds. inorganic into conversion their to or tion volatilisa- to due either process burning the during lost be will nitrogen as such Vijver de (Van occurrence its ter af- immediately growth plant increased Úbeda Ojima 1984; Schimel, & be repeated on a regular basis. For remote can that measurements with landscapes of view bird’s-eye a provide techniques sensing remote hand, other the On ous. labori- and tedious often are techniques Conventional sensing. remote and tion fi conventional quality: and condition, extent, rangeland sessing as- for techniques main two are There and monitoring Rangeland assessment 2008). re is a major factor for the transition of transition the for factor major a is re ect of naturally occurring fi occurring naturally of ect Nevertheless, naturally occurring fi occurring naturally Nevertheless, Fire is often used extensively as a man-

t l, 05, hc cn ed to lead can which 2005), al., et r i t miti productive maintain to is re re has occurred (Knicker, occurred has re r, seta nutrients essential re, ects of fi of ects ected, this might this ected, ed aa collec- data eld

t l, 1994; al., et res on dif- on res re (Hobbs re rt rain- rst

t al., et et al., 173 res re

Rangelands Rangelands oe i-iu (fi in-situ fore, yet be captured by remote sensing. There- not unfortunately can family), Fabaceae such as is frequently found in plants of the correlate with high nutritional quality (e.g. poisonous plant compounds, which might seen inthefi be only can thorns) of length the (e.g. es chemically. However, mechanical defenc- or mechanically either defended, highly animals feed mainly on grass, which is not quality might be less problematic, as these habitat of estimate an provide to sensing ellites. Forgrazers,thesoleuseofremote into a spectral signal measurable from sat- characteristic plant every translate to able fi be the in measured only can quality plant about details encroachment management. Furthermore, bush on article the in detail more in this on thedistributionofanimals. We discuss hunting pressure have an enormous impact and risk predation Furthermore, animals. infl ture), but also climatic conditions (e.g. tempera- holes), water to proximity (e.g. features geographical and territories) and ranges home (e.g. behaviour social like Factors fi or protein, biomass, on depend exclusively not does bivores her- large by utilisation habitat example, For products. resulting the of truthing”) ment, calibration, and validation (“ground manage- concrete for needed are studies fi landscapes, across overviews scale rehydration, fi age quality, landscape function, rangeland scribed in several articles, de- focusing on for- is methods situ in of series a of use the chapter, rangeland the In water. and vegetation, , of condition or state the about information collect to used are ods situ measurements. The fi land has been done using fi range- of assessment the Conventionally, In situbasedassessments 174 of rangeland condition and health. assessment the for techniques collection data sensing remote and situ in various present shall volume this in rangelands on chapter The extensive. be to need ily necessar- not does this although models, quired to calibrate and validate prediction sensing techniques,fi hl rmt snig a gv large- give can sensing remote While une h hbtt tlsto of utilisation habitat the uence eld andthepresenceofsome re, and bush encroachment. edbsd suis r of are studies eld-based)

eld, because we are not are we because eld, eld dataisoftenre- be concentration. bre eld-based meth- eld-based or in eld Figure 1:Schematicrepresentationoftherangelandchapter. time periods (Harris periods time long relatively over and areas geographic wider for condition and state, cover, tion vegeta- mapping for approach ternative al- an provides sensing remote Satellite Remote sensingtechniques 2004; Skidmore 2004; Skidmore, & (Mutanga data airborne and hyperspectral data, both fi using applied successfully been has lands range- in indicators vegetation of timation infobox by Stolter (2018b). quality canbefoundinthecorresponding nutritional with concerned analyses the observations. sonal Aon description brief per- as well as content, faeces and rumen of herbivory,analyses by caused damage of estimation the as such utilisation, food study to available also are methods ferent fi on cle arti- (see counts dung faecal and animals GPS-collared to (observation) counts mal range from the use of photo traps and ani- fi the in animals diff of utilisation habitat determine diff used we above, mentioned reasons the to Due landscape. diff for quality tat habi- understand to order in utilisation habitat and utilisation, food composition, high importance to confi InformMaking Decision Monitoring • • • C A • Increasing human human Increasing Climate Change populations encroachment Bush Surface/ Ground re and bush encroachment). Dif- encroachment). bush and re Water Water

ed hs mtos can methods Those eld. et al., 2010; Knox 2010; al., et erent herbivores in the in herbivores erent

et al., 2014). The es- The 2014). al., et Assessment Assessment eet ehius to techniques erent rm plant chemical Definitions and KeyFocusDefinitions and Areas eld spectrometer Rangeland Monitoring • • • • • • Planners Farmers and Assessment:

Fire populations Increasing human drought) Climate(e.g. Change EncroachmentBush F Biodiversity and quality et al., al., et erent orage availability Vegetation Vegetation Overview ThreatsT hr In situ In situ ea

2012; Ramoelo Schucknecht ellite multispectral data (Harris as the red edge position (REP) (Curran (REP) position edge red the as such indices vegetation of generation ond elo 2004; Mutanga & Skidmore, 2007; Ramo- Skidmore, & (Mutanga indices band row al., 1991; Cho & Skidmore, 2006) and nar- Rouse (NDVI; dex as the normalised diff such indices vegetation the and area), unit per mass matter dry (biomass, availability and quality as such indicators, condition vegetation measured situ in between ship relation- the of determination the involves ten using vegetation indices. The approach of- this, achieve to used are methods tical N concentrations, while a MODIS-based MODIS-based a while concentrations, N leaf estimate to used were indices) based In thisstudy, the productivity. crop and vegetation of ment assess- the improve to useful be could – MODIS and Landsat like – that images freely-available provides (ESA) Agency oped and launched by the European Space For example, the Sentinel-2 satellite devel- indicator. an as (N) concentrations trogen which strategically,enables forage quality estimation using ni- band edge red the incorporate constellations satellite of tion Ramoelo t s

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et et B E 6 Ar chibald, S.,Bond, W., Stock, W. &Fairbanks, References promotion number 01LG1201M. under (BMBF) Research and Education sored by the German Federal Ministry of the in spon- out was and SASSCAL of framework carried was research The Acknowledgements toring framework for southern Africa. integrated, and seamless rangeland moni- regional, a of development collaborative (Fig. 1). Future research should focus on a processes dehydration and management fi and – rangelands of use creative and encroachment, bush fi legumes, and trees grass, – this chapterfocusedonrangelandquality in addressed issues Key approaches. ing sens- remote spatially-explicit and situ in both using rangelands of quality and extent, condition, or status the assessing there signifi was Nevertheless, evident. are sion) ero- soil (e.g. degradation land and ment As a result, threats such as bush encroach- events and climate increasing human populations. ever-changing to due under pressure are rangelands that evident is It Conclusions al. 2018a). et (Stolter 229) (Task vegetation baceous her- for products time-series and regional leaf area index model was used to estimate Ben Stolter,C. & J. Castens, Bober,J., O., thien, W.,Koper, G., Kier, Bar A., Hostert, W., thlott, Bac kéus, I. (1992) Distribution and vegetation dy- Bir (1998) J. Cali, & AM. d, record million-year Applications interactions in an African savanna. fi landscape: the Shaping (2005) D. Basic and Applied Ecology habitat. grassland dry near-coastal a in goats and sheep of capacity dispersal Seed (2016) scales. global to continental at diversity plant cular vas- of patterns Geographic (2007) J.H. mer, Kreft, H., Mutke, J., Rafi Journal ofVegetation Science and Asia. in Africa savannas humid of namics f fi of 767-769. r i sbShrn Africa. sub-Saharan in re Erdkunde cant progress in SASSCAL in SASSCAL in progress cant , 15 , 96-109. , 61 , 305-315. nly o rangeland on nally, qpoor, M.D. & Som- , 17 , 3 , 508-515. , 345-356. Nature r impact, re

Ecological re–grazer 2018 , 394 , ue e RP, uia R-. Dy D.C. Dey, & R.-M. Muzika, R.P., Guyet te, N., Classen, M., Blécourt, de A., Groengroeft, Hackm Hahn, B., Richardson, F., Hoff il . Badl, . 20) h ipc of impact The (2001) V. Beardall, & Gill, R. Giard ina, C.P. & Rhoades, C.C. (2001) Clear cut- the of Organization and Agriculture FAO(Food Curra n, P.J., Dungan, J.L., Macler, B.A. & Plum- Un- (2003) G.S. Cumming, Cummi & D.H. ng, en- the to Critical Rangelands: 2017. G. Craggs, Christian, C. (2010) Desk top Study on the Eff new A (2006) A.K. Skidmore, & M.A. Cho, Child , R.D. & Frasler, G. (1992) ARS range re- Child range (1992) ARS G. Frasler, & R.D. , Bon d, W.J. & Keeley, J.E. (2005) Fire as a global Bon d, W.J. & van Wilgen, B.W. (1996) Why and Bon Woodward,F.(2003) & G. W.,Midgley,d, (2015) C. Stolter, Bob & B. Gillich, M., rowski, gime. fi anthropogenic an of Dynamics (2002) ecosystems. This volume. the potential in savanna and dynamics water soil modify trees Acacia Landschreiber , L., and Eschenbach, A. (2018) ie ueu t rmnn lvsok research and production. livestock ruminant to useful Perspec- tives evolution: and ecology Ruminant elling Namaqualand, South Africa. communal Karoo, Succulent on semi-arid the in rangelands interactions vegetation livestock and climate, long-term of model tion simula- A (2005) P. Carrick, & S. Todd, R., 1320-1334. composition. and seed dispersal on vegetation structure and eff the woodlands: on deer Ecology andManagement from a Wyoming lodgepole pine forest. phorus fractions and seedling growth in soils in growth seedling and fractions phorus aff burning and ting fao.org/nr/lada/ (accessed April 2017). http://www. (LADA): drylands in sessment as- degradation Land 2010. Nations). United Environment concentration. chlorophyll ment on the relationship between red edge and eff The (1991) S.E. mer, in African savannas. trampling ecological and area hoof size, body processes: and structure community gulate stant-threat/ (Accessed on the 30 July 2017). tion/rangelands-critical-environment-con- http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publica- . Dalkeith, International. Directions Future threat. constant under and vironment Colin Christian & Associates CC, Windhoek. sources in Namibia. Pages 109 and Appendix. Re- Groundwater on Encroachment Bush of 101 tion method. from hyperspectral data: The linear extrapola- position edge red the extracting for technique search. Evolution of evolution fl and ecology the ‘herbivore’: 16-33. 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